This document discusses several factors that can influence second language acquisition: 1. Age - Younger learners acquire language faster but older learners learn at a faster rate. Adults have a disadvantage with pronunciation but an advantage in learning rate. 2. Aptitude - An individual's natural ability to learn language, consisting of abilities like identifying sound patterns and inferring rules. Aptitude contributes to but does not determine proficiency. 3. Motivation - A key factor in SLA, it can be integrative, instrumental, intrinsic, or extrinsic. Instrumental motivation tends to lead to better performance according to some research. Attitudes and motivation are interrelated and can change over time with external

1.  1.Age:1.Age: the older the faster, the younger the betterthe older the faster, the younger the better
(Singleton, 1989).(Singleton, 1989).
 Age: an important factor for educational policy-Age: an important factor for educational policy-
making and lge pedagogy.making and lge pedagogy.
 Researchers: process in SLA is the same whetherResearchers: process in SLA is the same whether
a learner is an adult or a child.a learner is an adult or a child.
 Adults: disadvantage at the level of phonology:Adults: disadvantage at the level of phonology:
accent but advantage at rate learning.accent but advantage at rate learning.
 A) What effect does age have on the rate of L2A) What effect does age have on the rate of L2
learning?learning?
 B) What effect does age have on learners’ ability toB) What effect does age have on learners’ ability to
achieve native speaker level of proficiency.achieve native speaker level of proficiency.
 c) What effect does age have on learners levels ofc) What effect does age have on learners levels of
L2 achievement?L2 achievement?
 d) What effect does age have on the processes ofd) What effect does age have on the processes of
L2 Learning?L2 Learning?

2.  What is the appropriate age to introduce a FlWhat is the appropriate age to introduce a Fl
or SL in a country?or SL in a country?
 Should FL be introduced in the elementaryShould FL be introduced in the elementary
school or wait till the secondary school?school or wait till the secondary school?
 Is it reasonable to try to achieve native likeIs it reasonable to try to achieve native like
pronunciation in our learners?pronunciation in our learners?
 Lennenberg (1967)Lennenberg (1967) Crtical periodCrtical period
hypothesishypothesis: complete mastery of language: complete mastery of language
is impossible?is impossible? (after age 6, difficult to achieve(after age 6, difficult to achieve
native-like accent)native-like accent)

3.  Explanations for AgeExplanations for Age
related differencesrelated differences
 Social psychological explanationSocial psychological explanation
 Cognitive explanation: LAD for theCognitive explanation: LAD for the
child and general problem solvingchild and general problem solving
abilities for the adult.abilities for the adult.

4.  2: Aptitude2: Aptitude
 language aptitude is the natural ability to learn alanguage aptitude is the natural ability to learn a
language, not including intelligence, motivation, orlanguage, not including intelligence, motivation, or
interest.interest.
 It is a capability of learning a task; an innate factorIt is a capability of learning a task; an innate factor
or stable factor; not rerequisite for SLA i.e., allor stable factor; not rerequisite for SLA i.e., all
learners irrespective of their language aptitude maylearners irrespective of their language aptitude may
achieve a reasonable level of proficiency.achieve a reasonable level of proficiency.
 It is a combination of various abilities such as abilityIt is a combination of various abilities such as ability
to :to :
 identify sound patterns in a languageidentify sound patterns in a language
 recognize different grammatical functions of wordsrecognize different grammatical functions of words
 infer language rulesinfer language rules

5.  Motivation can also be:Motivation can also be:
 *causative ( have an effect on learning)*causative ( have an effect on learning)
 *resultative ( be influenced by learning)*resultative ( be influenced by learning)
 * extrinsic ( derive from external sources such as* extrinsic ( derive from external sources such as
material rewards)material rewards)
 * intrinsic (derive from personal interests and* intrinsic (derive from personal interests and
inner needs)inner needs)
 Who will achieve and out-perform the other, theWho will achieve and out-perform the other, the
learner with integrative or instrumentallearner with integrative or instrumental
motivation, intrinsic or extrinsic?motivation, intrinsic or extrinsic?
 Lukmani’s work (1972 ) Ss with instrumentalLukmani’s work (1972 ) Ss with instrumental
motivation outperformed SS with integrativemotivation outperformed SS with integrative
motivation.motivation.
 Orientation: underlying reasons for studying anOrientation: underlying reasons for studying an
L2.L2.

6.  InstrumentalInstrumental
 integrative motivationintegrative motivation

7.  5: Cognitive Styles and Learning5: Cognitive Styles and Learning
Styles.Styles.
characteristics in which individualcharacteristics in which individual
learners orientate to problemlearners orientate to problem
solving i.e., how learners perceive,solving i.e., how learners perceive,
organize and process information ororganize and process information or
approach a task.approach a task.
 What is a style? Strategy? Process?What is a style? Strategy? Process?

8.  learning styles/ cognitivelearning styles/ cognitive
controls/cognitivecontrols/cognitive
styles/personality/ learning stylesstyles/personality/ learning styles
 Do learning styles exist?Do learning styles exist?
 Can they be measured?Can they be measured?
 What should the instructor do aboutWhat should the instructor do about
them?them?

9.  2: Aptitude2: Aptitude
 language aptitude is the natural ability to learnlanguage aptitude is the natural ability to learn
a language, not including intelligence,a language, not including intelligence,
motivation, or interest.motivation, or interest.
 It is a capability of learning a task; an innateIt is a capability of learning a task; an innate
factor or stable factor; not rerequisite for SLAfactor or stable factor; not rerequisite for SLA
i.e., all learners irrespective of their languagei.e., all learners irrespective of their language
aptitude may achieve a reasonable level ofaptitude may achieve a reasonable level of
proficiency.proficiency.
 It is a combination of various abilities such asIt is a combination of various abilities such as
ability to :ability to :
1.1. identify sound patterns in a languageidentify sound patterns in a language
2.2. recognize different grammatical functions ofrecognize different grammatical functions of
wordswords
3.3. infer language rulesinfer language rules

10.  3: Motivation3: Motivation : a key factor in SLA: a key factor in SLA
 Gardner (1985) defines motivation as : effort+ Desire to achieve a goal+Gardner (1985) defines motivation as : effort+ Desire to achieve a goal+
AttitudesAttitudes
 It can change over timeIt can change over time
 Influenced by external factorsInfluenced by external factors
 Integrative motivation : the learner wishes to identify with anotherIntegrative motivation : the learner wishes to identify with another
linguistic group e.g., to communicate with.linguistic group e.g., to communicate with.
 Instrumental motivation: the learner learns for utilitarian purposes eg.,Instrumental motivation: the learner learns for utilitarian purposes eg.,
furthering a career, Improving social status, passing an examinationfurthering a career, Improving social status, passing an examination
 Motivation can alos be:Motivation can alos be:
 *causative ( have an effect on learning)*causative ( have an effect on learning)
 *resultative ( be influenced by learning)*resultative ( be influenced by learning)
 * extrinsic ( derive from external sources such as material rewards)* extrinsic ( derive from external sources such as material rewards)
 * intrinsic (derive from personal interests and inner needs)* intrinsic (derive from personal interests and inner needs)
 Who do you think will achieve and out perform the other, the learnerWho do you think will achieve and out perform the other, the learner
with integrative or instrumental motivation, intrinsic or extrinsic?with integrative or instrumental motivation, intrinsic or extrinsic?
 Lukmani’s work (1972 ) Ss with instrumental motivation outperformedLukmani’s work (1972 ) Ss with instrumental motivation outperformed
SS with integrative motivation.SS with integrative motivation.
 Orientation: underlying reasons for studying an L2.Orientation: underlying reasons for studying an L2.

11.  4:Attitudes:4:Attitudes:
 may be affected by: parents, peers,may be affected by: parents, peers,
learning situation, teachers, ethnicity.learning situation, teachers, ethnicity.
 Gardner and Lambert (1959) did notGardner and Lambert (1959) did not
distinguish between motivation anddistinguish between motivation and
attitudes but in (1979) they redefined themattitudes but in (1979) they redefined them
attitude may affect motivation and thereforeattitude may affect motivation and therefore
SLASLA
 Shift in performance due to attitude can beShift in performance due to attitude can be
synchronic or diachronicsynchronic or diachronic

12.  6: Personality6: Personality: aspects of individual’s: aspects of individual’s
behavior, attitudes and beliefs typical andbehavior, attitudes and beliefs typical and
distinctive to a persondistinctive to a person
 It is made up of little pieces or traitsIt is made up of little pieces or traits
 a) self-esteem:a) self-esteem: feeling of self-worth that anfeeling of self-worth that an
individual possesses (See Brown, 1987: 101).individual possesses (See Brown, 1987: 101).
 Highest level: global self-esteem: overall self-Highest level: global self-esteem: overall self-
esteemesteem
 Middle level: specific self-esteem (how theyMiddle level: specific self-esteem (how they
perceive themselves at work)perceive themselves at work)
 Lowest level: specific taskLowest level: specific task
 Can we teach self-esteem to our learners?Can we teach self-esteem to our learners?
How?How?

13.  b) Extroversion:b) Extroversion: extrovert is a person whoseextrovert is a person whose
conscious interests and energies are oftenconscious interests and energies are often
directed outwards towards other people thandirected outwards towards other people than
towards their own experiencetowards their own experience
 Extroverts are said to learn faster than introvertsExtroverts are said to learn faster than introverts
 Those who fall in the middle are calledThose who fall in the middle are called
"ambiverts""ambiverts"
 c) Anxietyc) Anxiety: may enhance or hinder SLA: may enhance or hinder SLA
 d) Risk-takingd) Risk-taking: Willingness to take risks: degree: Willingness to take risks: degree
to which a person is willing to take risksto which a person is willing to take risks
 e): Sensitivity to rejection:e): Sensitivity to rejection: Antithesis to risk-Antithesis to risk-
taking behavior. They avoid active participation intaking behavior. They avoid active participation in
class fearing ridicule by their classmatesclass fearing ridicule by their classmates

14.  h) Tolerance of ambiguity:h) Tolerance of ambiguity:
 Reflectivity/Impulsivity:Reflectivity/Impulsivity: individual who have a reflectiveindividual who have a reflective
cognitive style tend to mull things over when making acognitive style tend to mull things over when making a
decisiondecision
 Aural/Visual:Aural/Visual: refers to a person’s preferred mode ofrefers to a person’s preferred mode of
presentation ( Levin et at (1974): learners could be bimodalpresentation ( Levin et at (1974): learners could be bimodal
.i.e., learning via one mode or the other does not contribute to.i.e., learning via one mode or the other does not contribute to
a difference in outcome.a difference in outcome.
 Analytic/Gestalt:Analytic/Gestalt: Hatch (1974) made a distinction b/wHatch (1974) made a distinction b/w
learners who are data-gathered and those who are rule-learners who are data-gathered and those who are rule-
formersformers
 Analytic:Analytic: fluent but inaccurate producers of the TLfluent but inaccurate producers of the TL
 Approach lge in more holistic or gestalt-like manner.Approach lge in more holistic or gestalt-like manner.
 Gestalt:Gestalt: more halting in their use of the TL & more accurate.more halting in their use of the TL & more accurate.
 Beaders:Beaders: analytic learners who learn the meaning of eachanalytic learners who learn the meaning of each
word and then string them together to make meaningword and then string them together to make meaning
 Braiders:Braiders: more holistic in their approach in that theymore holistic in their approach in that they
assimilate lge in chunks and are more daring about usingassimilate lge in chunks and are more daring about using
them in social contexts than their more cautious counterparts,them in social contexts than their more cautious counterparts,
the beaders.the beaders.

15.  What are the basic approaches toWhat are the basic approaches to
learning styles and instruction?learning styles and instruction?

16.  What if there is a mismatchWhat if there is a mismatch
between instructor style andbetween instructor style and
learners' styles? e.g.,learners' styles? e.g.,
suppose that learners prefersuppose that learners prefer
independent work andindependent work and
reading, but the instructorreading, but the instructor
prefers group projectsprefers group projects

17.  Contrasting L1 and L2 or TLContrasting L1 and L2 or TL
 Attitudes towards FL and national languagesAttitudes towards FL and national languages
 Languages in contact in moroccoLanguages in contact in morocco
 Motivations for learning X languageMotivations for learning X language
 Language planning: perceiving effects ofLanguage planning: perceiving effects of
Arabisation of science disciplinesArabisation of science disciplines
 Perceived functions and status of X languagePerceived functions and status of X language
 Teacher talk analyzedTeacher talk analyzed
 Second language learning and communicationSecond language learning and communication
strategiesstrategies
 Learner varietiesLearner varieties
 Variety according to sex, age, addresseeVariety according to sex, age, addressee
 Teacher /student classroom interactionTeacher /student classroom interaction
 Learning strategies approaches among MoroccanLearning strategies approaches among Moroccan
university SSuniversity SS

18. Individual DifferencesIndividual Differences
 Introductory pointsIntroductory points --
 1)What characteristics do good learners appear to have1)What characteristics do good learners appear to have
which poor ones don’t?which poor ones don’t? Why do some learners do
better than others?
2) How can one2) How can one IdentifyIdentify those characteristics andthose characteristics and discriminatediscriminate
between them and between them and other traits, whichbetween them and between them and other traits, which
don’t relate to Foreign Language achievement?don’t relate to Foreign Language achievement?
3) How can teachers be expected to be sensitive to individual3) How can teachers be expected to be sensitive to individual
differences among their learners apart from generaldifferences among their learners apart from general
experience?experience?
How can we identify learner’s strategies?How can we identify learner’s strategies?
Are strategies teachable?Are strategies teachable?
What is the distinction between descriptive and interventionistWhat is the distinction between descriptive and interventionist
studies?studies?

19. Attitude Motivation Index
 1 Attitudes to English Speaking people1 Attitudes to English Speaking people
 2 Attitudes to American and British People2 Attitudes to American and British People
 3 Interest in Foreign Languages3 Interest in Foreign Languages
 4 Integrative Orientation4 Integrative Orientation
 5 Motivational intensity (degree: high or5 Motivational intensity (degree: high or
low)low)
 6 Desire to Learn English6 Desire to Learn English
 7 Attitudes Towards Learning English7 Attitudes Towards Learning English
 8 English Teaching8 English Teaching -- EvaluativeEvaluative
 9 English Course9 English Course -- EvaluativeEvaluative
 10 Instrumental Orientation10 Instrumental Orientation


20. 
I need English to advance my careerI need English to advance my career
 It will enable me to gain good friends more easilyIt will enable me to gain good friends more easily
among English speaking peopleamong English speaking people
 One needs a good knowledge of at least oneOne needs a good knowledge of at least one
foreign language to merit social recognitionforeign language to merit social recognition
 It will help me to understand better the EnglishIt will help me to understand better the English
speaking people and their way of lifespeaking people and their way of life
 I think it will some day be useful in getting a goodI think it will some day be useful in getting a good
jobjob
 It will allow me to meet and converse with more andIt will allow me to meet and converse with more and
varied peoplevaried people
 I feel that no one is really educated unless he isI feel that no one is really educated unless he is
fluent in Englishfluent in English
 It should enable me to think and behave as doIt should enable me to think and behave as do
English speaking peopleEnglish speaking people