The research on individual differences in second language learning is complex due to the lack of clear definitions and measurements of variables and the interaction of multiple characteristics. While some characteristics like intelligence and age of acquisition may influence language learning, it is difficult to predict how a particular individual will succeed due to variability. Teachers should consider learners' individual traits but also understand that success depends on many interrelated factors.

1. Individual Differences in
Second Language Learning
 Intelligence
 Aptitude
 Learning styles
 Personality
 Motivation and Attitudes
 Learner beliefs
 Age of acquisition

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The “Good Language Learner”
 Are there personal characteristics that make
one learner more successful than another?
In your experience, as an English learner, which
characteristics seem to you most likely to be
associated with success in L2 acquisition?

3. A good language learner:
a) is a willing and accurate guesser
b) tries to get a message across even if specific language knowledge
is lacking
c) is willing to make mistakes
d) constantly looks for patterns in the language
e) practices as often as possible
f) analyzes his or her own speech and the speech of others
g) attends to whether his or her performance meets the standards
he or she has learned
h) enjoys grammar exercises
i) begins learning in childhood
j) has an above-average IQ
k) has good academic skills
l) has a good self-image and lots of confidence
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Before looking at
learner characteristics…
 What problems can you see in the
following statements?
a) Extroverted learners learn a foreign language
more successfully than introverted learners.
b) Low motivation causes low achievement in
English language learning.

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Before looking at
learner characteristics…
 Difficulties in research on learner characteristics and
second language acquisition (SLA):
1) definition and measurement of variables
e.g., “willing to make mistakes”
2) definition and measurement of language proficiency
literacy/academic skills vs. conversational skills
3) correlation vs. causal relationship
4) socio-cultural factors
e.g., power relationship between L1 and L2,
social/cultural identity

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Intelligence (I)
 Intelligence has multiple types:
 Traditionally, intelligence refers to the mental abilities
that are measured by an IQ (intelligence quotient) test.
It usually measures only two types of intelligence:
verbal/linguistic and mathematical/logical intelligence.
 There are other types of intelligence such as spatial
intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, musical
intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and
intrapersonal intelligence.

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Multiple Intelligences
(Howard Gardner, 1993)
 Linguistic intelligence: speaking, using words, writing, giving
presentations, solving word problems.
 Logical-mathematical intelligence: using numbers, logic,
calculations; learning and understanding grammar rules.
 Spatial intelligence: drawing, painting, using color, art,
graphics, pictures, maps, and charts.
 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: muscular coordination,
athletic skill, body language, drama and theater.
 Musical intelligence: using music, tones, hearing; producing
the intonation and rhythm of a language.
 Interpersonal intelligence: talking with other people,
understanding them, using language to communicate.
 Intrapersonal intelligence: self-knowledge, self-confidence,
using language to analyze yourself.

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Intelligence (II)
 Research Findings:
1. Intelligence, especially measured by verbal IQ tests,
may be a strong factor when it comes to learning that
involves language analysis and rule learning.
2. On the other hand, intelligence may play a less
important role in language learning that focuses more
on communication and interaction.
3. It is important to keep in mind that “intelligence” is
complex and that a person has many kinds of abilities
and strengths.

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Aptitude (I)
 Aptitude refers to the ability to learn quickly (Carroll, 1991)
and is thought to predict success in learning.
 It is hypothesized that a learner with high aptitude may
learn with greater ease and speed. (But other learners
may also be successful if they persevere).
 Language aptitude tests usually measure the ability to:
1) identify and memorize new sounds
2) understand the function of particular words in sentences
3) figure out grammatical rules from language samples
4) memorize new words

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Aptitude (II)
 Research findings:
1) Early research revealed a substantial relationship between
performance on language aptitude tests and performance in
foreign language learning that was based on grammar
translation or audiolingual methods.
2) However, performance on language aptitude tests seems
irrelevant to L2 learning with the adoption of a more
communicative approach to teaching.
3) Successful language learners may not be strong in all of the
components of aptitude. Learners’ strengths and weaknesses
in the different components may account for their ability to
succeed in different types of instructional programs.

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Learning Styles
 Learning style refers to an individual’s natural, habitual,
and preferred way of absorbing, processing, and
retaining new information and skills (Reid 1995).
 Types of learning styles related to L2 learning:
1. Perceptual learning styles:
visual, aural/auditory, and haptic (kinesthetic & tactile)
2. Cognitive learning styles:
 field-independent vs. field-dependent
(tendency to see the trees or the forest)
 right-brain dominance vs. left-brain dominance

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Learning Styles
 field-independent vs. field-dependent
Here’s a puzzle for you. Look at the row of strange
shapes below. Can you find what the message is?

13. Can you find the
hidden pictures?

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Learning Styles
 field-independent: see things more analytically
field-dependent: see things more holistically
 Research findings:
 FI is related to classroom language learning that involves
analysis, attention to details, and mastering of exercise, drills,
and other focused activities.
 FD is related to the communicative aspects of language
learning that require social outreach, empathy, perception of
other people, and communicative skills.
 FI/FD may also prove to be a valuable tool for
differentiating child and adult language acquisition due to
the fact that FI increases as a child matures to adulthood.

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Learning Styles
 right-brain vs. left-brain dominance
 The right brain perceives and remembers visual, tactile,
and auditory images. It is more efficient in processing
holistic, integrative, and emotional information.
 The left brain is associated with logical, analytical thought,
with mathematical and linear processing of information.
 Though we all tend to have one hemisphere that is more
dominant, it is important to remember that the left and right
hemispheres need to operate together as a “team”.

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Learning Styles
 Research findings and implications:
1) Every person, student or teacher, has a learning style;
therefore, there is no particular teaching or learning method
that can suit the needs of all learners.
2) Learning styles exist on wide continuums, although they are
often described as opposites.
3) Learning styles are value-neutral; that is, no one style is
better than others.
4) Very little research has examined the interaction between
different learning styles and success in L2 learning; however,
students should be encouraged to “stretch” their learning
styles so that they will be more empowered in a variety of
leaning situations.

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Personality
 There are a number of personality characteristics
that may affect L2 learning, such as
 Extroversion vs. introversion
 Inhibition vs. risk-taking
 Anxiety
 Self-esteem
 Empathy

18. Extroversion vs. Introversion
 Are you more extroverted or introverted?
 It is often argued that an extroverted person is well
suited to language learning. However, research does
not always support this conclusion.
 Some studies have found that learners’ success in
language learning is associated with extroversion
such as assertiveness and adventurousness, while
others have found that many successful language
learners do not get high scores on measures of
extroversion.
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Inhibition vs. risk-taking
 It has been suggested that inhibition discourages risk-
taking, which is necessary for progress in language
learning.
 Inhibition is often considered to be a particular problem
for adolescents, who are more self-conscious than
younger learners.
 Inhibition is a negative force, at least for second
language pronunciation performance.
 Be aware that inhibition may have more influence in
language performance than in language learning.

20. Anxiety (I)
 Trait Anxiety vs. State Anxiety:
a) Trait anxiety: a more permanent predisposition to be
anxious
b) State anxiety: a type of anxiety experienced in relation
to some particular event or act; temporary and
context-specific
 More recent research acknowledges that anxiety is more
likely to be dynamic and dependent on particular
situations and circumstances.
 Anxiety can play an important role in L2 learning if it
interferes with the learning process.
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21. Anxiety (II)
 Debilitative (harmful) Anxiety vs. Facilitative (helpful)
Anxiety: Not all anxiety is bad and a certain amount of
tension can have a positive effect and facilitate learning.
 A learner’s willingness to communicate has also been
related to anxiety. It is often affected by the number of
people present, the topic of conversation, and the
formality of the circumstances.
 Willingness to communicate or state anxiety can also be
affected by learners’ prior language learning & use
experience, self-confidence, and communicative
competence.
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Conclusions for Personality
 In general, the research does not show a single clearly-defined
relationship between personality traits and SLA.
1. The major difficulty is that of identification and
measurement of personality characteristics.
2. Personality variables may be a major factor only in the
acquisition of conversational skills, not in the acquisition of
literacy or academic skills.
3. Most research on personality traits has been carried out
within a quantitative research paradigm (i.e., an approach
that relies on measuring learners’ scores on personality
surveys and relating these to language test performance).
More qualitative research is needed to adequately capture
the depth and complexity of the relationship.

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Motivation & Attitudes
 Questions:
1. Do positive attitudes and motivation produce
successful learning or does successful learning
engender positive attitudes and motivation?
2. Are there other factors that affect both attitudes/
motivation and the success of learning?

24. Motivation & Attitudes
 Types of motivation (in terms of communicative needs):
Purpose
Source Intrinsic (Internal) Extrinsic (External)
Integrative
The learner wishes to
learn L2 for personal
growth and cultural
enrichment.
Someone else (e.g., the
learner’s parents) wishes
the learner to know L2 for
an integrative reason.
Instrumental
The learner wishes to
achieve more
immediate or practical
goals using L2 (e.g., for
a career).
External power wants the
learner to learn L2 for a
practical purpose (e.g., a
corporation asks its staff to
get language training).

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Motivation & Attitudes
 Research findings:
1) Both integrative and instrumental types of
motivation are related to success in L2 learning.
Most L2 learning situations involve a mixture of
each type of motivation.
2) Research strongly favors intrinsic motivation,
especially for long-term retention. Intrinsically
motivated learners are striving for excellence,
autonomy, and self-actualization.

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Motivation & Attitudes
 Dörnyei (2001) – a process-oriented model of
motivation that consists of 3 phases:
1) choice motivation: getting started and setting goals
2) executive motivation: carrying out the necessary
tasks to maintain motivation
3) motivation retrospection: appraisal of and reaction
to learners’ performance

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Motivation in the Classroom
 Motivating students into the lesson. The content needs
to be relevant to their age and level of ability, and the
learning goals need to be challenging yet manageable
and clear.
 Varying the activities, tasks, and materials to increase
students’ interest levels.
 Using cooperative rather than competitive goals to
increase students’ self-confidence.
 Cultural and age differences will determine the most
appropriate way for teachers to motivate students.

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Learner Beliefs
 What is your learner belief? How should language be
learned?
 Virtually all learners, particularly older learners, have
strong beliefs about how their language instruction
should be delivered.
 Learner beliefs are usually based on previous
learning experiences and the assumption that a
particular type of instruction is better than others.
 Learner beliefs can be strong mediating factors in
learners’ experience in the classroom.

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Learner Beliefs
 Conclusions:
1) Learners’ preference for learning, whether due to
their learning styles or to their beliefs about how
language are learned, will influence the kinds of
strategies they choose to learn new material.
2) Teachers can use this information to help learners
expand their repertoire of learning strategies and
thus develop greater flexibility in their second
language learning.

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Age of Acquisition
 The relationship between a learner’s age and his/her
potential for success in second language learning is
complex or controversial.
 The relationship needs to take into account
1) the learner’s cognitive development
2) the learner’s motivation
3) the learner’s goal for learning L2 (i.e., in what aspects
of the L2 the learner has achieved)
4) the contexts in which the learner learns L2 (including
quantity & quality of language input, learning
environment, learning time, and socio-cultural contexts)

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Age of Acquisition
 Research findings:
1) L2 development in informal language learning
environments where the L2 is used primarily:
 Children can eventually speak the L2 with native-like fluency,
but their parents and older learners (i.e., post-puberty
learners) are hard to achieve such high levels of mastery of
the spoken language, especially in pronunciation/accent.
 Adults and adolescents can make more rapid progress
toward mastery of an L2 in contexts where they can make
use of the language on a daily basis in social, personal,
professional, or academic interaction.

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Age of Acquisition
 Research findings:
2) L2 development in formal language learning conditions
(i.e., classrooms) where the L1 is used primarily :
 In the early stages of the L2 development, older learners
(adolescents and adults) are more efficient than younger
learners (children).
 Learners who began learning an L2 at the elementary school
level did not necessarily do better in the long run than those
who began in early adolescent.
 It is more difficult for post-puberty learners to attain native-
like mastery of the spoken language, including pronunciation,
word choice, and some grammatical features.

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Age of Acquisition
 Conclusions (I):
- At what age should L2 instruction begin?
 Those who support critical period hypothesis (CPH):
Younger is better (particularly in the phonological
achievement)
 Those who consider that the age factor cannot be separated
from factors such as motivation, social identity, and the
conditions for learning:
Older learners may well speak with an accent because they
want to keep their L1 identity, and the language input for
adults is different from that for children because they rarely
get access to the same quantity and quality of language
input that children receive in play setting.

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Age of Acquisition
 Conclusions (II):
 When the goal is basic communicative ability of the TL,
rather than native-like mastery, and when children’s native
language remains the primary language, it may be more
efficient to begin L2 or FL learning later (e.g., in early
adolescence – at age 10, 11, or 12).
 When learners receive only a few hours of instruction per
week, those who start later often catch up with those who
began earlier.
 One or two hours a week will not produce very advanced L2
speakers, no matter how young they were when they began
learning. Older learners may be able to make better use of
the limited leaning time.

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Age of Acquisition
 Conclusions (III):
 Age is only one of the characteristics which affects L2
learning.
 The opportunities for learning (both inside and outside the
classroom), the motivation to learn, and individual
differences in intelligence, aptitude, personality, and
learning styles have also been found to be important
determining factors that affect both rate of learning and
eventual success in learning the L2.

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Summary
1. The research on individual differences is complex and the
results of the research are not easy to interpret.
This is because of
a) the lack of clear definitions and methods for measuring
individual characteristics
b) The fact that the characteristics are not independent of one
another: learner variables interact in complex ways.
2. It remains difficult to predict how a particular individual’s
characteristics will influence his or her success as a language
learner.
3. Teachers should take learners’ individual differences into
account and to create a learning environment in which more
learners can be successful in learning an L2.