The document discusses the relationship between media and foreign policy. It outlines several key theories on this relationship, including Walter Lippmann's view that the public is dependent on media for information, Bernard Cohen's argument that media can become instruments of public officials, and the indexing hypothesis proposed by Bennett that media coverage reflects the range of views among elites. The indexing hypothesis suggests media give more attention to elite viewpoints and are more critical when elites disagree. Several studies provide empirical evidence supporting indexing theory, though some critics argue it overlooks the possibility journalists may take independent stances.

1. Fiza Zia Ul Hannan

2. “We live in webs of deceit, in an indoctrinated society, where
elementary truths can be buried with ease.”
- (Referral: Achbar & Chomsky, 1992)

3. When America goes to war, so does the press wrapped in the flag no
less proudly than the troops themselves (Marvin Kalb in Taken by
Storm: The Media, Public Opinion, and U.S. Foreign Policy in the Gulf
War)
 All too often, [electronic media] is what determines what is a crisis.
 Media implements public policy as per the decorum of *elites.
 The information is controlled/filtered as per the decorum of elites.
 When access to information is restricted, it is easier for the
governments to control more effectively their subjects.

4. AN ACADEMIC OVERVIEW
The relationship between media and foreign policy is in
scholarly discourse since decades. However, there are
contradicting views regarding it.

5.  According to W. Lance Bennett , in the early years, the studies of
media and foreign policy focused primarily on the effects media had
on public opinion.
 A study conducted by Walter Lippmann in 1922 states that public is
dependent upon mass media for determining factual scenery
(Surveillance).
 “We are told about the world before we see it. We imagine most things
before we experience them. And those preconceptions, unless
education has made us acutely aware, govern deeply the whole
process of perception.” - Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion.

6.  Bernard Cohen’s book “The Press and Foreign Policy” (1963)
primarily focuses on the behavior and norms of the American
foreign affairs reporters.
 While studying a close association between the executive branch
and the foreign affairs journalists, Cohen argues that the press,
particularly when aspiring to be neutral, easily become an
instrument to public officials.

7.  In terms of observing media’s role in Vietnam War, Daniel Hallin presented his
set of ideas by stating in his book (The uncensored war: the media and
Vietnam) that the critical coverage of the war did not appear before critical
voices within government and administration emerged.
 A philosophical myth called, “CNN Effect Theory” came into existence after
the Gulf War in 1991.
 In further elaboration, Livingston (1997) states that CNN Effect is an evidence
of media’s strong influence in affecting foreign policy.
 Media played a very effective role in shaping political policies by intervening in
humanitarian causes (Gilbao, 2005).

8. The indexing hypothesis was first formulated by W. Lance
Bennett (Professor, Department of Political Science; University of
Washington) in his research article, “Towards a theory of press-
state relations in the United States” - Journal of
Communication, Volume 40, Issue 2, 1 June 1990.
A study that was conducted on the New York Times’ coverage of
the United States’ involvement in policy making in Nicaraguan.

9.  Bennett’s preliminary indexing hypothesis: “mass-media news
professionals tend to index the range of voices and viewpoints in both
news and editorials according to the range of views expressed in the
mainstream government debate about foreign affairs topics”
 This hypothesis reflects the central empirical findings of Hallin that the
media cover the government voices, and that any critical coverage on a
topic will first appear when there is political disagreement on an issue.
(The media content comprises of indexes through which public policy is set among the
mindsets of audience)

10.  The indexes communicate with public through two styles of
frames:
I. Consensus
II. Dissensus

11.  Media coverage of foreign affairs will reflect the opinions and views of
the foreign policy elite.
 Whenever there is elite dissensus on a topic, this will be reflected in
the press as critical coverage.
 When there is elite consensus on a topic, critical voices will normally
be marginalized.
 Bennett’s hypothesis contradicts the popular image of the media as a
watchdog, as it constantly challenges and looks over the shoulders of
the ones in power.

12.  Indexing-theory have cast doubt on the media’s power and ability to
affect a foreign policy decisions directly.
 Bennett's Indexing theory contests the CNN-effect theory.

13.  Findings have confirmed the variations in indexing pattern all over global media. Weiss
and a coworker concludes that the indexing hypothesis applies to countries beyond the
United States (2005). Vowe and Dohle (2007) cite other studies supporting a similar
conclusion.
 British Press: Bennett and his co-worker (1995) stated that British press coverage of
several national policy issues showed that the mainstream press tended to follow the lines
of party differences to the range of content in the news.
 German Press: A study was conducted on a content of two leading newspapers named
as Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung and Süddeutsche Zeitung with reference to Germany’s
involvement in three wars; Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq. The results showed that despite
their political affiliation, both the newspaper showed consensus or dissensus with regard
to the political party in power.
“The general political orientation of German newspapers had no influence on their evaluations
of the three wars.” - (Maurer et al., 2008)

14.  Research arena yields empirical results of two scholars who
had consensus upon indexing hypothesis:
 Steven Livingston and Todd Eachus (1996)
 Jonathan Mermin (1999)

15.  Media usually ignore or marginalize critical perspectives on
government policy (Debating War and Peace: Media Coverage of
US intervention in the Post-Vietnam Era)
 The case studies of the interventions in Grenada and Panama
show evidence of powerful indexing effect, and Mermin concludes
that: “The evidence in support of the indexing hypothesis is
highly impressive.”

16.  John Zaller and Dennis Chiu (2000) studied press coverage of 35
foreign policy crises, and found that the press follows the lead of
Congress and the president.

17.  Critics of Indexing Theory states that Journalists always
search for a news that creates conflicts. They dramatize and
exaggerate political reporting in ways that go beyond actual
power differences or issue importance. As a result it depicts
a false reality than truth.
 Media must have indexing to generate profit and to conquer
audience attention. For business purpose, media
organizations give least coverage to more important issues.

18.  A study by Althaus and coworkers looked into the New York
Times’ coverage of the US/Libya crisis and contrasted the
findings with Indexing theory.
 The study of the crisis’ coverage found:
1) U.S. officials did not dominate every aspect of media
discussion.
2) Opposing views got significant representation.

19.  The main criticism on Indexing theory was put forward by Piers Robinson
in 2002. He said that the theoretical aspect of media’s role in political policy
formation is limitedly described by Bennett.
 He argues that the theory ignores the possibility that journalist might play
an independent role in foreign policy matters when there is elite dissensus
regarding a political policy
 Also, the empirical findings from a **research thesis indicates that the
media did have an influence on the policy decision to intervene in
particularly the United States, but also to a certain extent in Denmark,
Britain and Norway. This research utilized Piers Robinson’s ‘policy-media
interaction model’.

20.  He renamed the indexing theory as “elite manufacturing consent
theory,” and argued that it tends to ignore the possibility that journalist
might actually take sides (either consciously or unintentionally) during elite
debates over policy, or even take the side of non elites, and in doing so
become active and powerful participants in political debate.
 REFINEMENT: Robinson introduced two key concepts to the indexing
theory:

 (A) - Level of policy certainty
 (B) - Media framing

21. Althaus, S. (2003).When news norms collide, follow the lead: New evidence for press independence.
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Hallin, D. (1986). The uncensored war: The media and Vietnam. Berkeley,CA: University of California Press.
Maurer, T. (2005). Political biases in German TV coverage of three wars. Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the International Communication Association. New York, NY, May 27.
Die Rolle der Massenmedienwährend des Kosovo-,Afghanistan- und Irakkriegs. In B. Pfetsch & S. Adam
(Eds.), Massenmedien als politische Akteure (pp. 144–167).Wiesbaden, Germany: VS. Mazzoleni, G., &
Schulz,W. (1999). Mediatization of politics: A challenge for democracy? Political Communication, 16, 247–
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Vogelgesang, J., & Fretwurst, B. (2005). Political biases in German press coverage of three wars: Kosovo
1999, Afghanistan 2001, Iraq 2003. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International
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