1. Digestion is the process by which large food molecules are broken down into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body. It involves both physical and chemical breakdown of food.
2. Digestion begins in the mouth and involves chewing and mixing with saliva. It continues in the stomach where food is churned and exposed to acid and enzymes.
3. The small intestine completes digestion through the actions of pancreatic juices and bile which emulsify fats and contain enzymes that break down proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids into absorbable molecules.
The chemistry of digestion is simple because, in the case of all three major types of food (carbohydrates, proteins and fats), the same basic process of hydrolysis is involved. The only difference lies in the types of enzymes required to promote the hydrolysis reactions for each type of food.
The chemistry of digestion is simple because, in the case of all three major types of food (carbohydrates, proteins and fats), the same basic process of hydrolysis is involved. The only difference lies in the types of enzymes required to promote the hydrolysis reactions for each type of food.
The digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal tract—also called the GI tract or digestive tract—and the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. ... The hollow organs that make up the GI tract are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus.
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Thesis Statement for students diagnonsed withADHD.ppt
IGCSE Biology chapter digestion by T@NV!R
1. Biology The digestive system
T@NV!R
• Digestion ----Digestion is the process by which large, complex, insoluble food molecules
are converted to smaller, simpler and soluble ones using enzymes.
Or, Digestion is the process by which large food molecules are broken down into small, soluble and
diffusible molecules that can be absorbed into the body cells.
Jan. 30
Or, digestion is the chemical and mechanical breakdown of food. It converts large insoluble
Jan. 30
2012
2012
molecules into small molecules, which can be absorbed into the blood.
• Absorption ---Absorption is the process by which food is transferred from the walls of the ileum
into the bloodstream.
• Assimilation --- assimilation is the uptake of digested food into cells from the blood and then
making use of it. E.g. amino acids are taken up to make protein in ribosome / glucose is taken up to
make energy in mitochondria.
Or, assimilation is the process whereby some of the absorbed food molecules are converted into
new protoplasm or used to provide energy.
• Ingestion--- taking the food into the mouth is called ingestion.
Or, ingestion is the act if taking food into the alimentary canal through the mouth.
Or. Taking food into the body through the mouth is called ingestion.
• Mastication --- the act of chewing food
Or, the process of chewing food, which involves movements of the jaws and teeth. Mastication
breaks up the food into small particles, which provides a great surface area for digestion and enables
the formation of bolus, which is small enough to pass through the oesophagus.
• Defaecation --- removal of body wastes [faeces] through the anus.
Or, the expulsion of faeces from the rectum due to contractions of muscles in the rectal wall.
• Egestion --- egestion is the removal of undigested food from the alimentary canal through the
anus, i.e. food which is neither soluble of diffusible.
• Digestion involves 2 distinct processes: physical digestion and chemical digestion.
•
Physical digestion increases the surface area of the ingested food enabling digestive
enzymes to act on it more efficiently.
• Chemical digestion is the breaking down of the large molecules, such as proteins, starch
and fats, contained in food into small soluble molecules. This involves hydrolytic
reactions catalyzed by digestive enzymes.
Physical digestion --- in physical digestion, parts of the body such as the teeth, tongue, cheeks
and wall of the gut act upon food to make it easier to digest chemically. These actions include breaking
down the food into smaller pieces to increase the food surface area on which the chemicals can work,
emulsifying lipid substances to make them into small droplets on which chemicals can act, lubrication of
the food so that it moves along the gut easily.
Chemical digestion ---in chemical digestion, extracellular enzymes break down the food
molecules mainly by hydrolysis into molecules which can pass through the wall of the gut.
6
2. Biology The digestive system
T@NV!R
Parts of the digestive system---
Jan. 30
Jan. 30
2012
2012
Mouth [teeth, tongue and salivary gland (3 parts)]
Oesophagus [food pipe]
Stomach
Small intestine [deudenum + ileum]
Large intestine:
Appendix
Caecum
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Rectum
Anus Accessory organs are --- liver, gall bladder, pancreas
Food is digested in the human alimentary canal, principally in
the mouth, stomach, and small intestine.
Food is absorbed mainly in the small intestine
Types of teeth
Type Number in each jaw Total number Function
Incisor 4 ×2 8 Chop / cuts food
6
3. Biology The digestive system
T@NV!R
Canine 2× 2 4 Tear flesh /food
Pre molar 4 ×2 8 Crush and grind food
Molar 6 ×2 12
Functions of tongue ---
Jan. 30
Jan. 30
2012
2012
• Have taste buds which give the taste of food
• Rolls the food into a bolus
• Mixes the food with saliva to soften it
• Helps to swallow food
• Helps in speech
Mouth has salivary glands secretes saliva
Saliva contains salivary amylase which acts on starch converts it to maltose
Q: Describe how food is digested in the mouth?
•Incisors cut / chop the food
•Canine tears food
•Premolars and molars crushes and grinds the food
•The tongue rolls the food in to a bolus
•Salivary glands secrete saliva which contains salivary amylase
•Salivary amylase acts on starch and converts it to maltose
Oesophagus --- tube through which food passes from the mouth to the stomach
The gut wall from the oesophagus to the rectum composed of 2 main layers:
A mucous coat or membrane lined with epithelium, continuously moistened with mucus
and with numerous folds.
A muscle coat of inner circular and outer longitudinal involuntary smooth muscle
Q: What are the functions of the stomach?
• Churns the bolus into a chyme
• Secretes concentrated Hydrochloric acid
• Which –
• Kills germs in the food
• Lowers the pH
• Activates the inactive pepsinogen to pepsin
• Gastric glands secrete gastric juice which contains pepsin [pepsin requires an acidic
pH]
• Pepsin acts on protein and converts it to peptides
6
4. Biology The digestive system
T@NV!R
Jan. 30
Jan. 30
2012
2012
Figure: first part of the small intestine
Deudenum has no glands of its own
Functions of pancreatic juice -----
• Has NaHCo3 [sodium hydrogen carbonate] which makes the food alkaline
• Has enzymes :
Trypsin acts on remaining protein and converts it to peptide
Amylase acts on remaining starch and converts it to maltose
Lipase acts on lipid and converts it to fatty acids and glycerol
Enzymes according to pH sensitivity are classified into 3 groups:
Acidic [pepsin], neutral [salivary amylase] and alkaline [Trypsin, amylase and lipase]
Most enzymes require a neutral pH
What are the functions of small intestine [ileum]?
• Ileum has ileal glands
• Secretes ileal juice [succus entericus]
• Which contains:
acts on and breaks them down to
Lipase Remaining Fatty acids and glycerol
lipids
Act on and forms Amino acids
Peptides
Peptidase
Sucrase Acts on Sucrose and forms Glucose + fructose
Acts on Maltose and breaks it to 2 molecules of
Maltase glucose
Acts on Lactose and breaks it to Glucose + galactose
Lactase
Trace the digestion of lipid
• Digestion of lipids begin in the deudenum
6
5. Biology The digestive system
T@NV!R
• In the deudenum, the enzyme lipase acts on lipids and converts it to fatty acids and
glycerol
• Final digestion takes place in the ileum where the enzyme lipase present in the ileal juice
converts the remaining lipids to fatty acids and glycerol.
Trace the digestion of protein
Jan. 30
Jan. 30
2012
2012
• Digestion of protein begins in the stomach
• Stomach has gastric glands which secretes gastric juice
• Gastric juice contains an enzyme called pepsin
• Pepsin requires an acidic pH
• So the walls secretes concentrated HCl
• Pepsin acts on protein and converts it to peptides
• In the deudenum, the enzyme Trypsin acts on remaining protein and converts them to
peptide
• The final digestion of protein takes place in the ileum, where the enzyme peptidase present
in the ileal juice converts the peptides to amino acids
Trace the digestion of starch
• Digestion of starch begins in the mouth
• In the mouth, the enzyme salivary amylase present in the saliva converts the starch into
maltose
• Since the food does not remain in the mouth for long, so a little starch is converted by
salivary amylase to maltose
• No digestion of starch takes place in the stomach
• In the deudenum, the enzyme amylase acts on remaining starch and converts it to
maltose
• Final digestion takes place in the ileum, where the enzyme maltose present in the ileal
juice converts the maltose to glucose
Ileum --- the region of the alimentary canal between the deudenum and colon,
where digestion is completed and absorption takes place.
ADAPTATIONS OF ILEUM TO ITS FUNFTIONS---
• It is fairly long and presents a large absorbing surface to the digested food.
• Its internal surface is greatly increased by circular folds bearing thousands of tiny
projections called villi. These villi are about 0.5 mm long and may be finger like or
flattened in shape.
• The lining of the epithelium is very thin and the fluids can pass rapidly through it. The
outer membrane of each epithelial cell has microvilli which increase by 20 times of the
exposed surface of the cell.
• There is a dense network of blood capillaries [tiny blood vessels] in each villus.
Swallowing ---
6
6. Biology The digestive system
T@NV!R
• The tongue presses upwards and back against the roof of the mouth, forcing a pellet of
food ,called a bolus, to the back of the mouth.
• The soft palate closes the nasal cavity at the back.
• The larynx cartilage round the top of the windpipe is pulled upwards so that the opening
Jan. 30
of the windpipe [the glottis] lies under the back of the tongue.
Jan. 30
2012
2012
• The glottis is also partly closed by the contraction of a ring of muscle.
• The epiglottis, a flap of cartilage [gristle] helps to prevent the food from going down the
windpipe instead of gullet
A summary of digestion and absorption ---
Tongue --- mixes the food with saliva and takes part in swallowing.
Teeth --- masticate [break food into small fragments] and mix food with saliva.
Salivary glands --- produce saliva, which moistens food and contains an enzyme called salivary
amylase which digests starch.
Oesophagus --- tube through food passes from the mouth to the stomach.
Liver ---produces bile, stores vitamins and minerals, regulates blood sugar and has many other
functions.
Gall bladder--- stores bile. Bile emulsifies fats and oils and neutralizes stomach acid.
Bile duct --- carries bile to the deudenum.
Deudenum --- food is mixed with bile which emulsifies fats and oils.
Ileum --- glands in the ileum wall produce enzymes which continue the digestion of starch, proteins
sugars, fats and oils. Completely digested food is absorbed into the blood-stream through villi which line
the ileum.
Colon ---absorbs water and salt from faeces.
Rectum --- holds indigestible [faecal] matter prior to defecation.
Anus --- indigestible matter [faeces] passed out of the body [defecation]
Q: How the structure of ileum adapted to its function?
• The walls of the ileum has infolding to produce long finger like projections called the villi
and bearing microvilli [hair like projections] which 2 together provides a large surface
area for easy absorption of digested food.
• A network of capillary ensures easy absorption of glucose & amino acids.
• A centrally placed lacteal ensures easy absorption of fatty acid & glycerol.
• A thin epithelium [one cell thick] offers a short distance for easier absorption.
6
7. Biology The digestive system
T@NV!R
Jan. 30
Jan. 30
2012
2012
Structure of a villus
Bile --- it is a greenish yellow fluid
Composition --- bile is composed of:
• Bile pigments like bilirubin
• Bile salts like sodium hydrogen carbonate
• Worn out RBC
• cholesterol
• Formation – liver
• Stored – gall bladder
Functions ---
Contains sodium hydrogen carbonate used to neutralize the acidity.
Emulsify fat i.e. large droplets of fats are broken down to smaller droplets of fats, So that the enzyme
lipase can work.
Activate the enzyme lipase
• Functions of large intestine ---
Absorbs water and salt and make faeces
Stores faeces temporarily [rectum]
Expels faeces [anus]
• Peristalsis ---
The walls of the oesophagus [gullet]
The walls of the walls of the oesophagus/ gut has a pair of smooth muscle –
• Longitudinal muscle
• Circular muscle
• The alternative contraction of these 2 muscles creates a wave emotion which helps to
squeeze through the gut / oesophagus. It is the wave emotion created by the alternative
6
8. Biology The digestive system
T@NV!R
contraction of smooth muscle to move food through the gut
Jan. 30
Jan. 30
2012
2012
• The muscular contractions which move food down the gullet and along the alimentary canal
are called peristalsis.
• the rhythmic wave like contractions of the walls of the gut is called peristalsis
Digestive juice Source Contents
Saliva Salivary glands Salivary amylase and mucin
Gastric juice Gastric glands in stomach Rennin, pepsin and hydrochloric acid
Pancreatic Intestinal glands in small Pancreatic amylase, Trypsin and lipase
juice intestine
Intestinal Intestinal glands in small Enterokinase, maltase, lactase,
juice intestine Sucrase, erepein/ peptidase and lipase
• Utilization of digested food---
The products of digestion are carried round the body in the blood plasma. From the blood most living
cells are able to absorb and metabolize glucose, fats and amino acids.
Glucose : during respiration, in the protoplasm [mitochondria], glucose is oxidised to carbon
dioxide to carbon dioxide and water. This reaction releases energy to driver many chemical processes in
the cell, and in electrical changes [nerve cells]
Fats : fats are incorporated into cell membranes and other structures. The fats not used for
growth and maintenance in this way are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water releasing energy for the3
vital processes of the cells. Twice as much energy can be obtained from fats as from glucose.
6
9. Biology The digestive system
T@NV!R
Amino acids : amino acids are absorbed by cells and reassembled to make proteins. These
proteins may form visible structures such as cell membrane and other components of the protoplasm of
the protoplasm or the proteins may be enzymes which control and co- ordinate the chemical activity
within the cell.
Jan. 30
Jan. 30
Amino acids which are not required for building proteins are deaminated in the liver.
2012
2012
6