The pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain, is responsible for regulating many important bodily processes through the hormones it produces and secretes. Known as the "master gland", it takes signals from the brain and controls other endocrine glands. Composed of three lobes, the anterior pituitary secretes hormones that stimulate growth, thyroid function, adrenal function, lactation, and reproduction. The posterior pituitary stores and releases oxytocin and vasopressin. Together with the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates a negative feedback system to maintain hormone levels within normal ranges.
The hypothalamus is a small but important part of the brain that plays a key role in regulating many bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis. It is located below the thalamus and connected to the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland by producing hormones that stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones for functions like metabolism, growth, reproduction and stress response. Diseases of the hypothalamus can disrupt important processes and glands it regulates, leading to disorders of appetite, sleep, temperature regulation and more.
The endocrine system regulates mood, growth and development, tissue function, metabolism, and sexual/reproductive processes through glands and hormones. The pineal gland secretes melatonin which regulates sexual development, metabolism, and sleep. The hypothalamus, located at the base of the brain, controls the pituitary gland through hormones and nervous system reflexes. The pituitary gland has anterior, middle, and posterior lobes and secretes hormones that control homeostasis, metabolism and development. Disorders of the endocrine system include Cushing's disease, hyperthyroidism, and hypothyroidism.
The hypothalamus is a small region located inferior to the thalamus that regulates many essential body functions such as blood pressure, heart rate, temperature, hunger, and hormone secretion through the autonomic nervous system, endocrine system, and limbic system. It is divided into anterior, middle, and posterior regions that control different processes like circadian rhythms, reproduction, feeding, and emotional responses. The hypothalamus communicates with the pituitary gland to regulate hormone release and various homeostatic mechanisms in the body.
The document discusses the endocrine system, which controls the body through hormones rather than neurotransmitters like the nervous system. It describes the main endocrine glands that secrete hormones, including the pituitary gland and hypothalamus, which regulate other glands. The pituitary gland has an anterior and posterior lobe; the anterior lobe secretes trophic hormones that stimulate other glands, while the posterior lobe secretes oxytocin and ADH synthesized in the hypothalamus. Hormones allow for slower responses than the nervous system but can target distant organs.
The endocrine system is a messenger system comprising feedback loops of the hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems.
The hypothalamus is a small cone-shaped structure located below the thalamus that controls important autonomic and endocrine functions. It contains several nuclei that regulate processes like circadian rhythms, temperature control, hormone production, and behaviors. The hypothalamus connects the nervous system to the endocrine system by secreting hormones that stimulate or inhibit pituitary hormone release, regulating other endocrine glands. Key functions include cardiovascular, temperature and fluid regulation, the hunger/thirst response, and behaviors like rage and reward responses.
The pituitary gland, also known as the master gland, regulates the endocrine system. It is located at the base of the brain and consists of the anterior pituitary, posterior pituitary, and intermediate lobe. The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that control growth, metabolism, reproduction, and more. The posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus that influence milk release and water balance. The intermediate lobe's function in mammals is unclear but it may regulate skin color. Endocrine glands communicate via feedback loops to maintain homeostasis.
The endocrine system regulates many bodily functions through the secretion of hormones from various glands directly into the bloodstream. The major glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Hormones help maintain homeostasis by influencing growth, metabolism, sexual development, and other processes in target cells and tissues.
The hypothalamus is a small but important part of the brain that plays a key role in regulating many bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis. It is located below the thalamus and connected to the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland by producing hormones that stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones for functions like metabolism, growth, reproduction and stress response. Diseases of the hypothalamus can disrupt important processes and glands it regulates, leading to disorders of appetite, sleep, temperature regulation and more.
The endocrine system regulates mood, growth and development, tissue function, metabolism, and sexual/reproductive processes through glands and hormones. The pineal gland secretes melatonin which regulates sexual development, metabolism, and sleep. The hypothalamus, located at the base of the brain, controls the pituitary gland through hormones and nervous system reflexes. The pituitary gland has anterior, middle, and posterior lobes and secretes hormones that control homeostasis, metabolism and development. Disorders of the endocrine system include Cushing's disease, hyperthyroidism, and hypothyroidism.
The hypothalamus is a small region located inferior to the thalamus that regulates many essential body functions such as blood pressure, heart rate, temperature, hunger, and hormone secretion through the autonomic nervous system, endocrine system, and limbic system. It is divided into anterior, middle, and posterior regions that control different processes like circadian rhythms, reproduction, feeding, and emotional responses. The hypothalamus communicates with the pituitary gland to regulate hormone release and various homeostatic mechanisms in the body.
The document discusses the endocrine system, which controls the body through hormones rather than neurotransmitters like the nervous system. It describes the main endocrine glands that secrete hormones, including the pituitary gland and hypothalamus, which regulate other glands. The pituitary gland has an anterior and posterior lobe; the anterior lobe secretes trophic hormones that stimulate other glands, while the posterior lobe secretes oxytocin and ADH synthesized in the hypothalamus. Hormones allow for slower responses than the nervous system but can target distant organs.
The endocrine system is a messenger system comprising feedback loops of the hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems.
The hypothalamus is a small cone-shaped structure located below the thalamus that controls important autonomic and endocrine functions. It contains several nuclei that regulate processes like circadian rhythms, temperature control, hormone production, and behaviors. The hypothalamus connects the nervous system to the endocrine system by secreting hormones that stimulate or inhibit pituitary hormone release, regulating other endocrine glands. Key functions include cardiovascular, temperature and fluid regulation, the hunger/thirst response, and behaviors like rage and reward responses.
The pituitary gland, also known as the master gland, regulates the endocrine system. It is located at the base of the brain and consists of the anterior pituitary, posterior pituitary, and intermediate lobe. The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that control growth, metabolism, reproduction, and more. The posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus that influence milk release and water balance. The intermediate lobe's function in mammals is unclear but it may regulate skin color. Endocrine glands communicate via feedback loops to maintain homeostasis.
The endocrine system regulates many bodily functions through the secretion of hormones from various glands directly into the bloodstream. The major glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Hormones help maintain homeostasis by influencing growth, metabolism, sexual development, and other processes in target cells and tissues.
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system. It describes that the endocrine and nervous systems work together to coordinate body functions. The endocrine system releases hormones to control activities, unlike the nervous system which uses neurotransmitters. There are two types of glands - exocrine glands which secrete through ducts, and endocrine glands which secrete directly into blood. Key endocrine glands and tissues discussed include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes and others. The roles, secretions and regulations of various hormones are explained in detail.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant tissues and organs. The major glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pineal glands. The hypothalamus and tissues like the pancreas also secrete hormones. Hormones travel through the bloodstream and bind to target cells. The pituitary gland and hypothalamus regulate other endocrine glands through feedback mechanisms. The endocrine system maintains homeostasis through processes like glucose regulation and calcium balance.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted from glands into the bloodstream and affect cells in other parts of the body. There are three main types of chemical signals used for cell-to-cell communication: peptide hormones, steroid hormones, and amino acid-derived hormones. Peptide hormones bind to receptor proteins in the cell membrane and use secondary messengers to initiate a cellular response, while steroid hormones enter cells and directly stimulate gene transcription, leading to a slower response. The endocrine system utilizes hormones to help regulate and coordinate important bodily functions and processes such as growth, development, metabolism, and homeostasis.
The endocrine system uses glands and hormones to regulate processes in the body through chemical messages released into the bloodstream. Major glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads and reproductive organs. Endocrine disorders occur when glands under-produce or over-produce hormones, or grow abnormally, and can cause issues like hypothyroidism, polycystic ovary syndrome, or non-toxic goiter.
Structure and Function of
I. Pituitary Gland
II. Thyroid Gland
III. Parathyroid Gland
IV. Adrenal Glands
V. Pancreas
VI. Sex Glands
VII. Thymus
VIII. Pineal Gland
Dr. K. Rama Rao
Govt. Degree College
TEKKALI; Srikakulam Dt. A. P
Phone: 9010705687
The document discusses the endocrine system, which regulates hormones and affects mood, growth, development, and metabolism. It describes the main glands of the endocrine system, including the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pineal gland, and reproductive glands. The pituitary gland is called the "master gland" because it controls other glands by producing hormones. Problems can arise if glands produce too much or too little of certain hormones.
The document summarizes the key aspects of the endocrine system. It describes how the endocrine and nervous systems work together to coordinate responses through chemical signals like hormones and neurotransmitters. The major glands of the endocrine system are discussed, including the hormones they produce and their functions in maintaining homeostasis. Feedback loops and the interactions between different hormones are important regulatory mechanisms in the system.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions such as growth, metabolism, reproduction, and the stress response. The major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, and gonads. The endocrine system works through chemical messengers called hormones to help maintain homeostasis, support growth and development, and coordinate cellular and organ functions throughout the body.
The endocrine system is comprised of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions. Key glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries/testes, and pineal gland. Hormones act as chemical messengers to control important processes such as growth, metabolism, mood, reproduction, and homeostasis. Imbalances in hormone levels can cause disorders throughout the body.
Anatomy and physiology of endocrine system by Simhachalam K L VLVSimhachalam
The endocrine system is comprised of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate functions in target organs. The major endocrine glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Hormones control metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, and the body's response to stress. Imbalances in hormone levels can lead to disorders that may be treated by controlling hormone production or utilization.
The pituitary gland and hypothalamus act as a unit to regulate other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland sits in the sphenoid bone below the hypothalamus and is attached by a stalk. It consists of the anterior and posterior pituitary lobes. The hypothalamus influences hormone release from both lobes through releasing and inhibiting hormones. The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and reproductive functions through feedback loops with target glands. The posterior pituitary stores and releases oxytocin and vasopressin secreted by the hypothalamus.
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system and its major components. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
The endocrine system uses hormones to regulate metabolic processes. It includes glands like the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas and gonads that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. These target distant cells and trigger metabolic responses, with the hypothalamus and pituitary acting as the primary controllers of the other endocrine glands.
This document provides information about the endocrine system from Chapter 13 of an anatomy textbook. It begins with an overview of the endocrine system compared to the nervous system. It then discusses the major endocrine glands like the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenals. The pituitary is described as the master gland that regulates other endocrine glands through releasing and inhibiting hormones. The chapter outlines the seven hormones produced by the anterior pituitary and their actions, as well as the hormones of the posterior pituitary and thyroid. In summary, the document provides a high-level overview of the key concepts about the endocrine system and its major glands and hormones.
The pituitary gland, also known as the master gland, regulates other endocrine glands. It is located at the base of the skull and has three parts: the anterior pituitary, posterior pituitary, and intermediate lobe. The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that control growth, metabolism, and reproduction. The posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus that influence milk production and water balance. The intermediate lobe's function is unclear in most mammals.
The adrenal glands are composed of the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. The adrenal cortex secretes corticosteroids like mineralocorticoids (e.g. aldosterone), glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol), and androgens. Aldosterone regulates sodium and potassium levels in the body. Cortisol increases blood glucose levels and has anti-inflammatory effects. The secretion of cortisol and aldosterone is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis through ACTH and angiotensin II. Diseases of the adrenal cortex can result in either hypoadrenalism like Addison's disease or hyperadrenal
The endocrine system maintains homeostasis through the secretion of hormones directly into the bloodstream. It works more slowly than the nervous system to regulate processes like metabolism, tissue function, sleep, and development. Key endocrine glands include the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in the brain, thyroid and parathyroid glands in the neck, pancreas, adrenal glands above the kidneys, ovaries/testes, pineal gland and others. Each gland secretes specific hormones that target tissues to produce responses like growth, energy use, stress response, and reproduction. The hypothalamus controls many glands through the hypothalamic-pituitary axis.
The endocrine system influences metabolic activity through hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream. They travel through the blood and regulate metabolic functions in other cells. The major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pancreas, adrenal, testes/ovaries. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland which regulates other endocrine glands through releasing hormones.
Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a constant internal environment in the body, keeping factors such as temperature, water concentration, and glucose levels stable despite changes in the external environment. This allows cells to function efficiently and prevents damage. Endothermic animals like mammals and birds internally regulate their body temperature, while ectothermic animals like reptiles rely on external temperatures. The skin plays an important role in homeostasis through its structure - the epidermis contains cells that protect the body and produce melanin and keratin, while the dermis contains sweat glands, blood vessels, and nerves that help regulate temperature.
The endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions. The major glands include the pituitary gland which regulates many other glands; the thyroid gland which regulates growth and metabolism; the parathyroid glands which regulate calcium levels; the adrenal glands which produce hormones involved in stress response and blood pressure regulation; and the gonads (testes and ovaries) which produce gametes and sex hormones. These glands work in coordination with the nervous system to maintain homeostasis.
The document discusses various methods for hormone measurement and immunoassay techniques. It explains that hormone assays are important for clinical diagnosis and treatment monitoring. While early methods like bioassay and chemical analysis had low sensitivity, radioimmunoassay (RIA) introduced in 1959 improved detection. However, due to health risks, safer alternatives were sought. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed in the 1970s as a replacement for RIA. More recent techniques like chemiluminescence, fluorescence, and electrochemiluminescence (ECL) provide adequate sensitivity without radioactivity. ECL in particular offers ultra-high sensitivity and a linear relationship between light intensity and analyte concentration.
This document provides information about the hypothalamus including its:
- Anatomy, boundaries, subdivisions and nuclei
- Connections including tracts that regulate the pituitary gland
- Main functions like controlling the endocrine system, autonomic nervous system, and roles in regulating behaviors
such as food intake, circadian rhythms, temperature, and sexual dimorphism
- Some hypothalamic disorders including hypothalamic obesity and memory dysfunctions
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system. It describes that the endocrine and nervous systems work together to coordinate body functions. The endocrine system releases hormones to control activities, unlike the nervous system which uses neurotransmitters. There are two types of glands - exocrine glands which secrete through ducts, and endocrine glands which secrete directly into blood. Key endocrine glands and tissues discussed include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes and others. The roles, secretions and regulations of various hormones are explained in detail.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant tissues and organs. The major glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pineal glands. The hypothalamus and tissues like the pancreas also secrete hormones. Hormones travel through the bloodstream and bind to target cells. The pituitary gland and hypothalamus regulate other endocrine glands through feedback mechanisms. The endocrine system maintains homeostasis through processes like glucose regulation and calcium balance.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted from glands into the bloodstream and affect cells in other parts of the body. There are three main types of chemical signals used for cell-to-cell communication: peptide hormones, steroid hormones, and amino acid-derived hormones. Peptide hormones bind to receptor proteins in the cell membrane and use secondary messengers to initiate a cellular response, while steroid hormones enter cells and directly stimulate gene transcription, leading to a slower response. The endocrine system utilizes hormones to help regulate and coordinate important bodily functions and processes such as growth, development, metabolism, and homeostasis.
The endocrine system uses glands and hormones to regulate processes in the body through chemical messages released into the bloodstream. Major glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads and reproductive organs. Endocrine disorders occur when glands under-produce or over-produce hormones, or grow abnormally, and can cause issues like hypothyroidism, polycystic ovary syndrome, or non-toxic goiter.
Structure and Function of
I. Pituitary Gland
II. Thyroid Gland
III. Parathyroid Gland
IV. Adrenal Glands
V. Pancreas
VI. Sex Glands
VII. Thymus
VIII. Pineal Gland
Dr. K. Rama Rao
Govt. Degree College
TEKKALI; Srikakulam Dt. A. P
Phone: 9010705687
The document discusses the endocrine system, which regulates hormones and affects mood, growth, development, and metabolism. It describes the main glands of the endocrine system, including the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pineal gland, and reproductive glands. The pituitary gland is called the "master gland" because it controls other glands by producing hormones. Problems can arise if glands produce too much or too little of certain hormones.
The document summarizes the key aspects of the endocrine system. It describes how the endocrine and nervous systems work together to coordinate responses through chemical signals like hormones and neurotransmitters. The major glands of the endocrine system are discussed, including the hormones they produce and their functions in maintaining homeostasis. Feedback loops and the interactions between different hormones are important regulatory mechanisms in the system.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions such as growth, metabolism, reproduction, and the stress response. The major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, and gonads. The endocrine system works through chemical messengers called hormones to help maintain homeostasis, support growth and development, and coordinate cellular and organ functions throughout the body.
The endocrine system is comprised of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions. Key glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries/testes, and pineal gland. Hormones act as chemical messengers to control important processes such as growth, metabolism, mood, reproduction, and homeostasis. Imbalances in hormone levels can cause disorders throughout the body.
Anatomy and physiology of endocrine system by Simhachalam K L VLVSimhachalam
The endocrine system is comprised of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate functions in target organs. The major endocrine glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Hormones control metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, and the body's response to stress. Imbalances in hormone levels can lead to disorders that may be treated by controlling hormone production or utilization.
The pituitary gland and hypothalamus act as a unit to regulate other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland sits in the sphenoid bone below the hypothalamus and is attached by a stalk. It consists of the anterior and posterior pituitary lobes. The hypothalamus influences hormone release from both lobes through releasing and inhibiting hormones. The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and reproductive functions through feedback loops with target glands. The posterior pituitary stores and releases oxytocin and vasopressin secreted by the hypothalamus.
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system and its major components. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
The endocrine system uses hormones to regulate metabolic processes. It includes glands like the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas and gonads that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. These target distant cells and trigger metabolic responses, with the hypothalamus and pituitary acting as the primary controllers of the other endocrine glands.
This document provides information about the endocrine system from Chapter 13 of an anatomy textbook. It begins with an overview of the endocrine system compared to the nervous system. It then discusses the major endocrine glands like the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenals. The pituitary is described as the master gland that regulates other endocrine glands through releasing and inhibiting hormones. The chapter outlines the seven hormones produced by the anterior pituitary and their actions, as well as the hormones of the posterior pituitary and thyroid. In summary, the document provides a high-level overview of the key concepts about the endocrine system and its major glands and hormones.
The pituitary gland, also known as the master gland, regulates other endocrine glands. It is located at the base of the skull and has three parts: the anterior pituitary, posterior pituitary, and intermediate lobe. The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that control growth, metabolism, and reproduction. The posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus that influence milk production and water balance. The intermediate lobe's function is unclear in most mammals.
The adrenal glands are composed of the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. The adrenal cortex secretes corticosteroids like mineralocorticoids (e.g. aldosterone), glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol), and androgens. Aldosterone regulates sodium and potassium levels in the body. Cortisol increases blood glucose levels and has anti-inflammatory effects. The secretion of cortisol and aldosterone is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis through ACTH and angiotensin II. Diseases of the adrenal cortex can result in either hypoadrenalism like Addison's disease or hyperadrenal
The endocrine system maintains homeostasis through the secretion of hormones directly into the bloodstream. It works more slowly than the nervous system to regulate processes like metabolism, tissue function, sleep, and development. Key endocrine glands include the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in the brain, thyroid and parathyroid glands in the neck, pancreas, adrenal glands above the kidneys, ovaries/testes, pineal gland and others. Each gland secretes specific hormones that target tissues to produce responses like growth, energy use, stress response, and reproduction. The hypothalamus controls many glands through the hypothalamic-pituitary axis.
The endocrine system influences metabolic activity through hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream. They travel through the blood and regulate metabolic functions in other cells. The major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pancreas, adrenal, testes/ovaries. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland which regulates other endocrine glands through releasing hormones.
Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a constant internal environment in the body, keeping factors such as temperature, water concentration, and glucose levels stable despite changes in the external environment. This allows cells to function efficiently and prevents damage. Endothermic animals like mammals and birds internally regulate their body temperature, while ectothermic animals like reptiles rely on external temperatures. The skin plays an important role in homeostasis through its structure - the epidermis contains cells that protect the body and produce melanin and keratin, while the dermis contains sweat glands, blood vessels, and nerves that help regulate temperature.
The endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions. The major glands include the pituitary gland which regulates many other glands; the thyroid gland which regulates growth and metabolism; the parathyroid glands which regulate calcium levels; the adrenal glands which produce hormones involved in stress response and blood pressure regulation; and the gonads (testes and ovaries) which produce gametes and sex hormones. These glands work in coordination with the nervous system to maintain homeostasis.
The document discusses various methods for hormone measurement and immunoassay techniques. It explains that hormone assays are important for clinical diagnosis and treatment monitoring. While early methods like bioassay and chemical analysis had low sensitivity, radioimmunoassay (RIA) introduced in 1959 improved detection. However, due to health risks, safer alternatives were sought. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed in the 1970s as a replacement for RIA. More recent techniques like chemiluminescence, fluorescence, and electrochemiluminescence (ECL) provide adequate sensitivity without radioactivity. ECL in particular offers ultra-high sensitivity and a linear relationship between light intensity and analyte concentration.
This document provides information about the hypothalamus including its:
- Anatomy, boundaries, subdivisions and nuclei
- Connections including tracts that regulate the pituitary gland
- Main functions like controlling the endocrine system, autonomic nervous system, and roles in regulating behaviors
such as food intake, circadian rhythms, temperature, and sexual dimorphism
- Some hypothalamic disorders including hypothalamic obesity and memory dysfunctions
The hypothalamus is a small structure located at the base of the brain that connects the nervous system to the endocrine system. It produces neurohormones that stimulate or inhibit the secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland. Some key neurohormones produced by the hypothalamus include thyrotrophin-releasing hormone, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, growth hormone-releasing hormone, and antidiuretic hormone. These neurohormones help regulate important bodily functions.
The document describes the pituitary gland and its hormones. It consists of the anterior and posterior lobes. The anterior lobe secretes hormones like growth hormone, prolactin, thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone which are regulated by hypothalamic releasing hormones. The posterior lobe stores and releases antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin which are produced in the hypothalamus. Disorders related to excess and deficiency of growth hormone and prolactin are also discussed.
Biological psychiatry studies disorders of the human mind from a neurochemical, neuroendocrine, and genetic perspective. It postulates that changes in brain signal transmission at the level of the chemical synapse are essential in the development of mental disorders. Key aspects of cellular neurochemistry studied in biological psychiatry include neurons, action potentials, and synapses. Psychotropic drugs are also studied in terms of their mechanisms of action at the level of the chemical synapse and intracellular signal transduction processes.
This document discusses thyroid hormones, including their synthesis, storage, secretion, transport, degradation, and metabolic effects. Thyroid hormones include thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which are synthesized from tyrosine in the thyroid gland through a process involving iodine uptake, oxidation, iodination, and coupling reactions. They are stored bound to thyroglobulin and secreted into the bloodstream upon stimulation by TSH. In the blood, they are transported bound to carrier proteins and act upon target tissues after becoming unbound. Their degradation involves deiodination and conjugation in the liver prior to excretion. Their metabolic effects include increasing oxygen consumption and protein synthesis while promoting glucose
The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and above the brain stem. It controls autonomic functions and homeostasis, regulates emotions and motor functions, and stimulates hormone secretion. The hypothalamus also regulates body temperature, blood pressure, sweating, food/water intake, and the sleep-wake cycle. Hypothalamic dysfunction can result from causes such as bleeding, tumors, infections, or malnutrition.
This document discusses causes and risk factors for childhood obesity. It identifies several socioeconomic factors that increase obesity risk, such as lower income levels, lack of access to healthy foods, and greater exposure to junk food marketing. Family environment factors are also examined, including single-parent households, lack of parental involvement in meal preparation and eating, and psychosocial issues like neglect. Lifestyle behaviors like insufficient physical activity and high consumption of fast food are identified as additional risk factors. Potential health outcomes of childhood obesity and approaches for prevention through education are also summarized.
Strikingly, Inc. is an online web platform company whose mission is to enable anyone to turn creative ideas into reality and build brands. The internship would involve research, data analysis, planning, programming, and collaborating with other interns to help with IT and marketing analytics. The intern would gain hands-on experience in a tech startup developing skills in entrepreneurship, research, and data analysis to help address issues like increasing company funding and profit.
This document describes 5 different animals: dolphins live in water and eat fish, often jumping out of the water during shows; sheep are livestock that eat grass and have thick fur, horns, and four legs; snakes are legless and have dangerous poison, eating other animals; horses are livestock that eat grass, have four legs and a long tail, and are often used for transportation; butterflies can fly and have beautiful wings, feeding on honey and helping with flower pollination.
The document describes a term project for an e-commerce class. The team created a mobile app called Street Score to allow users to rate streets on their safety and quality. The app is available for Android users and can be accessed from their website or social media pages. A SWOT analysis identifies strengths as having no competition and an easy to use app, weaknesses as being under development with no budget, and opportunities to globalize the app while threats include an existing British website for rating streets.
Este documento define la literatura como obras artísticas que comunican ideas, sentimientos y conocimientos a través de las palabras, y presentan mundos ficticios inspirados en la realidad. También define la globalización como el proceso de creciente interdependencia económica, social y cultural entre países a través de la comunicación y el comercio mundial. Algunas características clave de la globalización incluyen el rápido crecimiento del comercio internacional, la industrialización de nuevos países, la internacionalización de los mercados financ
Will Rothwell has over 15 years of experience as an IT Project and Services Manager, with expertise in project management, IT services management, and infrastructure technologies. He holds certifications in Prince2 and ITIL. Rothwell has managed projects across multiple sectors, including financial services, government, and education. His experience includes roles at Accenture, The Insolvency Service of Ireland, Central Bank of Ireland, Sureskills Ireland, HP Enterprise Services, and Bank of New York Mellon.
The document provides instructions for creating a basic website, including:
- Writing five coding instructions and creating a basic homepage with one picture and one hyperlink.
- Signing into a hosting site and domain, and downloading coding programs for PC or Mac.
- Explaining that web pages are written in HTML, which uses markup language to describe document structure and content with elements like head, body, and footer.
The document discusses the endocrine system and hormones. It describes the key glands that make up the endocrine system, including the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, and ovaries/testes. It explains the hormones produced by each gland and their functions in regulating processes like growth, metabolism, sexual development, and stress response. The endocrine system acts as a chemical communication system alongside the nervous system to orchestrate many essential body functions.
Classification of hormones, mechanism of hormone action, structure
and functions of pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, pineal gland, thymus and their disorders.
The endocrine system regulates body activities through hormone secretion. The major glands of the endocrine system include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pancreas. The pituitary gland, located in the brain, is called the "master gland" as it controls other glands by producing hormones. Its hormones include growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, and gonadotropins. The thyroid gland produces thyroxine and triiodothyronine which regulate metabolism. The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone which regulates calcium levels. The adrenal glands sit above the kidneys and produce corticosteroids and catecholamines.
This document provides an overview of endocrinology and the endocrine system. It discusses that endocrinology is the study of hormones, their receptors, and signaling pathways. It describes the major endocrine glands and their hormone functions. It also summarizes the different types of hormone actions, classifications, synthesis, secretion, transport, and feedback control of hormone levels.
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system and its major components. It discusses how the endocrine system regulates bodily functions through hormones and works with the nervous system. It describes the major endocrine glands - the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands and pancreas. It explains the hormones produced by each gland and their roles in processes like growth, metabolism, stress response, and reproduction.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions. Key glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas and gonads. Hormones control processes like metabolism, growth, development, reproduction and mood. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together to control hormone release from other glands and maintain homeostasis.
The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce hormones and release them into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions. The major glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Hormones control functions such as metabolism, growth, sexual development, reproduction, and the stress response. Imbalances in hormone levels can cause disorders that must be treated by controlling hormone production.
The endocrine system regulates body functions through hormones released into the bloodstream. It includes glands like the pituitary, thyroid, pancreas and adrenals. The pituitary is called the "master gland" as it controls many other glands and processes via hormones. Hormones regulate crucial body processes including growth, metabolism, sexual development, and stress response. Imbalances can result in diseases such as diabetes or thyroid disorders.
The hypothalamus is a small region of the brain located near the pituitary gland that plays a vital role in regulating hormones. It contains three main regions - anterior, middle, and posterior - that secrete important hormones. The hypothalamus maintains homeostasis by regulating body temperature, appetite, fluid balance, sleep cycles, emotions, and other essential functions. It connects the endocrine and nervous systems. Improper functioning of the hypothalamus can lead to disorders affecting temperature regulation, blood pressure, fertility, and other processes.
The endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant target organs and tissues. The major endocrine glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Hormones act through feedback loops to maintain homeostasis and are amplified through cascading enzyme responses in target cells that express receptors for specific hormones. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland control the endocrine system through releasing and inhibiting hormones that signal other glands.
ENDOCRINOLOGY NOTES BY KELVIN KEAN.........kkean6089
The endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions. It works closely with the nervous system to maintain homeostasis. Key glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries and testes. Hormones travel through the blood and act on target organs. The pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus and regulates other glands via feedback mechanisms. Major hormones include growth hormone, thyroid hormones, insulin, estrogen and testosterone.
This document provides an overview of the endocrine system and its glands. It discusses the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, pineal gland and thymus gland. For each gland it describes the hormones produced and their functions in regulating processes like growth, metabolism, and sexual development. The mechanisms of hormonal secretion and action are also summarized.
This document provides an overview and introduction to anatomy and physiology II. It discusses key topics that will be covered such as homeostasis, feedback loops, the endocrine system, hormones, and specific endocrine glands and hormones including the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, and others. The relationship between the nervous and endocrine systems is also examined.
The document provides information about the endocrine system. It discusses the hypothalamus and pituitary gland as the main control centers. The hypothalamus secretes hormones that stimulate or inhibit the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland has an anterior and posterior lobe. The anterior lobe secretes hormones like growth hormone, TSH, and LH that regulate other glands. The posterior lobe secretes ADH and oxytocin which are synthesized in the hypothalamus. Other glands discussed include the thyroid gland which produces T3 and T4 to regulate metabolism.
Presentation in Health by Robee Calero And Mina CarreonEebor Saveuc
The hypothalamus is a small area of the brain that controls hormone production and regulates many bodily functions through homeostasis. It produces hormones that govern processes like body temperature, hunger, sleep, and mood. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland and other glands. The pituitary gland, located below the hypothalamus, is often called the "master gland" as it controls other hormone-producing glands and produces important hormones itself. Other glands discussed include the thyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas, and gonads (testes and ovaries). Each gland has a specific function, such as regulating metabolism for the thyroid or blood sugar levels for the pancreas.
The hypothalamus is a structure located deep within the brain that regulates many essential body functions such as hormone release, appetite, body temperature, blood pressure, mood, sleep, and sex drive. It contains 3 regions - the anterior, middle, and posterior regions - that each contain clusters of neurons that perform vital functions. The hypothalamus communicates with the pituitary gland, located below it, to stimulate or inhibit the release of various hormones. Some of the key hormones regulated by the hypothalamus-pituitary axis include growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and hormones that control the reproductive system.
The endocrine system includes endocrine glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to target and regulate specific tissues. The major endocrine glands are the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, and sex organs. Hormones regulate growth, metabolism, fluid balance, mood, and reproduction through negative feedback loops that maintain homeostasis.
Similar to hypothalamus , pituitary and adrenal glands (20)
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Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
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- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
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Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
6. • Difintion :
• The pituitary is an endocrine
(hormone-producing) gland that sits
just beneath the base of the brain,
behind the bridge of the nose.
• It is very small – only about the size
of a pea , and weighing 0.5 grams .
7. • It is very important as it takes messages
from the brain (via a gland called the
hypothalamus) and uses these messages
to produce hormones that affect many
parts of the body, including stimulating
all the other hormone-producing glands
to produce their own hormones. For this
reason it is often referred to as the
‘master gland’.
8. • It is composed of three lobes:
• anterior, intermediate, and posterior.
9.
10. Hormones secreted
• The anterior pituitary
• synthesizes and secretes the following important
endocrine hormones. All releasing hormones (-
RH) referred to, can also be referred to
as releasing factors (-RF ) .
• 1-Somatotrophins:
• Human growth hormone (HGH), also referred to as
'growth hormone' (GH) , and also as somatotropin,
is released under the influence of
hypothalamic growth hormone-releasing
hormone(GHRH), and is inhibited by
hypothalamic somatostatin
11. • 2- Thyrotrophins:
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), is
released under the influence
of hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing
hormone (TRH) and is inhibited by
somatostatin.
• 3 - Corticotropins:
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
and Beta-endorphin are released under the
influence of hypothalamic corticotropin-
releasing hormone (CRH).
12. • 4 - Lactotrophins:
• Prolactin (PRL), whose release is
inconsistently stimulated by hypothalamic
TRH, oxytocin, vasopressin, and inhibited
by hypothalamic dopamine.
• 5 - Gonadotropins:
• Luteinizing hormone (also referred to as
'Lutropin' or 'LH').
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), both
released under influence of Gonadotropin-
Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
13. • These hormones are released from
the anterior pituitary under the
influence of the hypothalamus.
Hypothalamic hormones are secreted
to the anterior lobe by way of a
special capillary system .
14. • The Posterior pituitary
• The posterior pituitary stores and secretes
(not synthesize) the following important
endocrine hormones:
1 - Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also known
as vasopressin and arginine vasopressin
AVP).
2 – Oxytocin .
15. Functions
• Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland
help control the following body processes:
• Growth
• Blood pressure
• Some aspects of pregnancy and childbirth
including stimulation of uterine contractions
during childbirth
• Breast milk production
16. • Sex organ functions in both males and females
• Thyroid gland function .
• The conversion of food into energy
(metabolism) .
• Water and osmolarity regulation in the body .
• Water balance via the control of reabsorption
of water by the kidneys .
• Temperature regulation .
• Pain relief .
17. Hypothalamus
• is a portion of the brain that contains
a number of small nuclei with a
variety of functions. One of the most
important functions of the
hypothalamus is to link the nervous
system to the endocrine system via
the pituitary gland (hypophysis).
18.
19. The hypothalamus controls
• Body temperature.
• Hunger.
• Important aspects of parenting and
attachment behaviors.
• Thirst.
• Fatigue.
• Sleep.
• And circadian rhythms.
20. Hormones
• Hormones are chemical
messengers that are secreted
directly into the blood, which
carries them to organs and
tissues of the body to exert their
functions. Hormones are
secreted from the endocrine
glands in the body.
21. • The glands are ductless, so
hormones are secreted directly into
the blood stream rather than by way
of ducts.
22.
23.
24.
25. Hormonal Regulation
• Regulating hormones means controlling
how much hormones are made and
released from cells.
• Hormones secretion is regulated through
the hypothalamus and pituitary which
regulate their own secretion through
negative feedback inhibition.
26. • Negative feedback occurs when the rate
of the process decreases as the
concentration of the product increases.
• Negative feedback leads to hormone
production switching on and off, creating
pulses of hormone secretion. This means
that blood hormone levels rise and fall
cyclically, within a relatively narrow
normal range.
27.
28. • What this means is that a hormone from
a peripheral gland, binds to its receptor
on cells in the hypothalamus and
pituitary, and has the effect of inhibiting
secretion of tropic hormones.
• The usefulness of negative feedback
inhibition is that it results in "hormonal
homeostasis", that is the maintenance of
hormone levels within a particular
appropriate physiological range.
29. • An example of negative feedback in the
endocrine system can be seen in the
regulation of thyroid hormones.
• It starts with the brain's hypothalamus,
which produces thyroid releasing
hormone (TRH).
• This hormone moves to the nearby
pituitary gland, causing production of
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which
is then released into the blood stream.
30. • On reaching the thyroid, TSH stimulates
the cells there to now secrete thyroid
hormones.
• When the level of thyroid hormones in
the blood reaches an upper threshold,
the cells in the hypothalamus that make
and secrete TRH are affected.
31. • The result is that TRH, then TSH, and
finally thyroid hormone levels fall.
• Once the level of thyroid hormones in
the blood falls below a lower threshold
point, negative feedback ends.
33. • ( In negative feedback, the hormone's
effect makes a gland stop making
hormones ) .
34.
35. Positive feedback
• occurs when the rate of a process
increases as the concentration of the
product decreases.
• In positive feedback the opposite
happens. The effect of the hormone tells
the gland to make even more hormones.
36. • One example of a biological positive
feedback loop is the onset of contractions
in childbirth.
• When a contraction occurs, the hormone
oxytocin is released into the body, which
stimulates further contractions.
• This results in contractions increasing in
amplitude and frequency.
• Childbirth contractions stop when the
baby is out of the mother's body.
37.
38.
39.
40. Adrenal gland
• Difintion :
are endocrine glands that sit at the top
of the kidneys; the right adrenal gland
is triangular shaped, while the left
adrenal gland is semilunar shaped.
They secretes hormones directly into
the bloodstream.
41. • Anatomy and physiology
• An adrenal gland is made of two
parts:
1- Adrenal cortex ,The outer region
which is regulated by neuroendocrine
hormones secreted from the pituitary
gland which are under the control of
the hypothalamus.
42. • 2 - Adrenal medulla , the inner region
which is part from sympathetic nervous
system .
43. • adrenal cortex
• The adrenal cortex is responsible for
creating three different types of
hormones:
• A- mineralocorticoids which save sodium
in the body.
• B- glucocorticoids which increase blood
glucose levels.
44. • C- and gonadocorticoids which
regulate sex hormones such as
estrogen.
• Death would result if the adrenal
cortex were to stop functioning as it
controls metabolic processes that are
essential to life.
45. • The adrenal cortex include three zones,
or layers ,each zone produce and secrete
distinct hormones:
1- Zona glomerulosa (outer) is the main
site for production and secretion of
mineralocorticoid mainly aldosterone .
2- Zona fasciculate ( middle )
,responsible for producing glucocorticoids
mainly cortisol .
46. • 3- Zona reticularis ( inner ) zona
reticularis produces androgens, mainly
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) .
47. Glucocorticoids
•Cortisol
• Is the main glucocorticoid under normal
conditions it is also Called “the stress
hormone,” .
• When you faced a threat — your
hypothalamus, sets off an alarm system
in your body.
48. • Through a combination of nerve and
hormonal signals, this system induce
your adrenal glands, to release a surge of
hormones, including adrenaline and
cortisol.
• Adrenaline increases your heart rate,
elevates your blood pressure and
increase energy supplies.
49. • Cortisol, the primary stress hormone,
increases sugars (glucose) in the
bloodstream.
• Enhances your brain's use of glucose .
• And increases the availability of
substances that repair tissues .
50. • The body's stress-response system is
usually self-limiting. Once the threat has
passed, hormone levels return to normal.
• As adrenaline and cortisol levels drop,
your heart rate and blood pressure return
to baseline levels, and other systems
resume their regular activities.
51. Function of Cortisol
• cortisol influences, regulates or
modulates many of the changes that
occur in the body in response to stress
including :
1 - Blood sugar (glucose) levels.
plays an important role in (glycogenolysis ),
the breaking down of glycogen to glucose-
1-phosphate and glucose, in liver and
muscle tissue.
52. 2 - Fat, and protein metabolism to maintain
blood glucose (gluconeogenesis) .
3 - It reduces protein uptake
(those proteins are used in
gluconeogenesis) by the muscles.
So, if cortisol is around for long periods of
time, it can lead to a reduction in lean
muscle mass.
53. 4 - Immune responses .
5 - Anti-inflammatory actions (Has anti-
inflammatory properties, reducing
histamine secretion ) .
6 - Blood pressure (Increases blood
pressure by increasing the sensitivity of the
vasculature to epinephrine and
norepinephrine; in the absence of cortisol,
widespread vasodilation occurs ) .
54. 7 - Heart and blood vessel tone and
contraction .
8 - Central nervous system activation .
9 - Cortisol also reduces calcium absorption
in the intestine so it reduces bone
formation .
10 - It acts as antidiuretic hormone,
controlling one-half of intestinal diuresis .
11 -There are potential links between
cortisol, appetite, and obesity.
55. 12 - Additionally, cortisol enhances the
activity of other hormones including
glucagon and catecholamines.
56. Patterns
• Cortisol levels normally fluctuate
throughout the day and night in a
circadian rhythm that peaks at about 8
AM and reaches it lowest around lowest
levels are at about midnight.
• They drop very low in the evening and
during the early phase of sleep. But if you
sleep during the day and are up at night,
this pattern may be reversed.
57. • If you do not have this daily change
(diurnal rhythm) in cortisol levels, you
may have overactive adrenal glands. This
condition is called Cushing's syndrome.
58. • While it is vital to health for the adrenals
to secret more cortisol in response to
stress, it is also very important that bodily
functions and cortisol levels return to
normal following a stressful event.
• Unfortunately, in our current high-stress
culture, the stress response is activated
so often that the body does not always
have a chance to return to normal.*
59. • This can lead to health problems resulting
from too much circulating cortisol and/or
from too little cortisol if the adrenal
glands become chronically fatigued
(adrenal fatigue).
60. Binding
• Most serum cortisol (all but about 4%) is
bound to proteins, including
corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG) and
serum albumin. Free cortisol passes
easily through cellular membranes,
where they bind intracellular cortisol
receptors . The "free" is biologically
active.
61. • Free cortisol is excreted into the urine
and is present in the saliva.
• The test measures the amount of cortisol
in the blood, urine, or saliva.
62. • Small increases of cortisol have some
positive effects:
1 - A quick burst of energy for survival
reasons .
2 – increases memory functions .
3 - A burst of increased immunity .
4 - Lower sensitivity to pain .
5 -Helps maintain homeostasis in the body
63. • Higher and more prolonged levels of
cortisol in the bloodstream (like those
associated with chronic stress) have been
shown to have negative effects, such as:
1 - Impaired cognitive performance .
2 - Suppressed thyroid function .
3 - Blood sugar imbalances such as
hyperglycemia .
4 - Decreased bone density .
64. 5 - Decrease in muscle tissue .
6 - Higher blood pressure .
7 - Lowered immunity and inflammatory
responses in the body, slowed wound
healing, and other health consequences .
65. 8 - Increased abdominal fat, which is
associated with a greater amount of health
problems than fat deposited in other areas
of the body.
Some of the health problems associated
with increased stomach fat are heart
attacks, strokes, the development of
metabolic syndrome, higher levels of “bad”
cholesterol (LDL) and lower levels of
“good” cholesterol (HDL), which can lead to
other health problems!
66. • Cortisol is synthesized from cholesterol ,
Synthesis takes place in zona fasciculata
of the adrenal cortex .
• The synthesis of cortisol in the adrenal
gland is stimulated by the anterior lobe of
the pituitary gland with
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) .
67. • ACTH production is in turn stimulated by
corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH),
which is released by the hypothalamus.
68. • Disorders of cortisol production , whether
( increased or decreased ) will cause :
• Anxiety .
• Depression .
• Digestive problems .
• Heart disease .
• Sleep problems .
• Weight gain .
• Memory and concentration impairment .
69. : Excessive levels of cortisol in
the blood.
• Cushing's syndrome
• Is a group of signs and symptoms caused
by abnormally high levels of cortisol
(hypercortisolism).
70. • Signs and symptoms associated with
Cushing syndrome vary but frequently
include:
• Obesity in the trunk (central obesity) with
thinner arms and legs .
• A large rounded face (moon face) .
• Increased fat in the neck and shoulder
area .
71. • Thirst and excessive urination .
• Visual problems .
• Increased susceptibility to infections .
• Thin, fragile skin that bruises easily and
heals slowly .
• Pinkish streaks that look like stretch
marks on the abdomen, thighs, and
buttocks .
• Muscle weakness .
72. • Decreased endurance .
• Osteoporosis .
• High blood pressure .
• Increased blood sugar .
• Headaches, backaches .
• Children with Cushing syndrome tend to
be obese, develop slowly, and may
remain short.
• Women may have excess hair on their
face and chest and menstrual
irregularities.
73. Common causes of Cushing syndrome
1 - Prolonged glucocorticoid therapy
(iatrogenic Cushing syndrome) -- a result of
taking glucocorticoids-steroid hormones
that are chemically similar to natural
cortisol, such as anti-inflammatory
medications like prednisone prescribed for
asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and
other inflammatory diseases, or after an
organ transplant to suppress the immune
system and prevent organ rejection.
74. 2 - Cushing disease -- caused by a pituitary
gland that produces too much of the
hormone ACTH, which then signals the
adrenal glands to produce cortisol.
• It is caused by a pituitary tumor
(adenoma) that secretes ACTH.
3 - An adrenal gland tumor or adrenal
hyperplasia can cause the adrenal gland to
overproduce cortisol.
75. 4 - A tumor in another part of the body
such as the pancreas, lung, or thyroid can
produce ACTH (called "ectopic" ACTH
production because it is produced
somewhere other than the pituitary gland).
76. • Cushing syndrome can affect anyone, but
it is most frequently seen in adults
between the ages of 20 to 50 years .
• It is 3 times more common in women
than men.
• It is estimated that there are two new
cases per million people each year.
77. • No single laboratory test is ideal to
diagnose Cushing syndrome and more
than one is often used. Since cortisol
levels change over the course of a day, a
single cortisol result from a blood sample
drawn at most times of the day is of little
value.
78. • Testing for Cushing syndrome is typically
done in two stages. Initial tests are used
to verify that there is excess cortisol
present. The second set of tests is used to
determine the cause of the increased
cortisol: pituitary, adrenal, or other.
79. • Initial tests to diagnosis Cushing
syndrome
• The three most common tests are :
1 - Measurement of midnight plasma
cortisol or late-night salivary cortisol .
2 - 24-hour urinary free cortisol test .
3 - The dexamethasone suppression
screening test .
80.
81.
82.
83.
84. • Adrenal Insufficiency and Addison Disease
( )
• They are hormonal or endocrine
disorders caused by the body not
producing enough of the adrenal
hormones cortisol and aldosterone.
85. • There are two different types of adrenal
insufficiency and they depend on
whether pituitary gland or adrenal
dysfunction underlies hormone
deficiencies,they are :
1 - Underactive or damaged adrenal glands
cause Addison disease, also known as
primary adrenal insufficiency.
• They affect cortisol and aldosterone
amounts.
86. 2 - Decrease in the production of the
pituitary hormone ACTH is at the root of
secondary adrenal insufficiency.
• If there is insufficient ACTH, due to
pituitary damage, a pituitary tumor, or
some other cause, then cortisol
production is not stimulated.
87. • Secondary adrenal insufficiency can also
arise when corticosteroid therapy (such
as prednisone, which may be given to
relieve inflammation ) ,These treatments
suppress natural cortisol production and
it can take several weeks or months for
normal production to resume.
88. • Fcats about Cortisol under production
• Addison disease is found in people of all
ages and affects both males and females
equally.
• Symptoms of insufficiency may not arise
until about 80% to 90% of the adrenal
cortex has been destroyed.
89. May include:
• Low blood pressure .
• Hyponatremia, with Addison disease .
• Hypoglycemia .
• Hyperkalemia .
• Abdominal pain .
• Decreased body hair .
90. • Dehydration, with Addison disease .
• Diarrhea or constipation .
• Dizziness and fainting .
• Fatigue or extreme weakness .
• Hyperpigmentation, with Addison disease
- dark spot of skin, especially in the folds
of the skin; sometime black freckles on
the forehead and face .
• Salt craving, with Addison disease .
91. • Changes in blood pressure or heart rate .
• Muscle weakness .
• Vomiting .
• Weight loss .
95. • They are a class of steroid hormones
characterized by their influence on salt
and water balances.
• These hormones were involved in the
retention of sodium .
• „Acutely critical for maintenance of life .
• „The primary mineralocorticoid is
aldosterone.
96. • Loss of mineralocorticoid activity
• „Elevated concentration of potassium in
extracellular fluid .
• „High urinary excretion of sodium .
• „Decreased concentration of sodium in
extracellular fluid .
• „Decreased volume of extracellular fluid
and blood .
• „Decline of cardiac output and shock .
97. • Good news
• „All those symptoms can largely be prevented
by .
• replacement of salts and mineralocorticoids .
98. • Is a steroid hormone produced from
cholesterol by the outer section (zona
glomerulosa) of the adrenal cortex in the
adrenal gland .
• It plays a central role in the regulation of
blood pressure mainly by acting on the
distal tubules and collecting ducts of the
nephron.
99. • „20% bound to cortisol-binding protein .
• „40% albumin-bound .
• „40% free .
• „Half-life 20 min .
• „Liver .
• „Free hormone filtered by kidneys .
100.
101. •
• Aldosterone stimulates transcription of
the gene encoding the sodium-potassium
ATPase, leading to increased numbers of
"sodium pumps" in the membranes of
tubular cells.
• Aldosterone also stimulates a sodium
channel which facilitates uptake of
sodium from the tubular lumen.
102. • Aldosterone has also effects on sweat
glands, salivary glands and the colon
which are essentially identical to those
seen in the distal tubule of the kidney.
• The major net effect is again to conserve
body sodium by stimulating its resorption
or, in the case of the colon, absorption
from the intestinal lumen.
103. 1 -The role of the renin-angiotensin system
2 - The plasma concentration of potassium
„3 - ACTH .
„4 - Atrial Natriuretic Peptide( suppress
aldosterone ).
104.
105.
106. • By overactivity of both glands called
bilateral adrenal hyperplasia.
• Or for unknown reasons (idiopathic).
• Rarely, it is caused by a cancerous
(malignant) adrenal tumor .
107. The high aldosterone level will CAUSE:
increases reabsorption of sodium (salt) .
loss of potassium by the kidneys.
an electrolyte imbalance .
108. • include
• High blood pressure.
• Headache.
• And muscle weakness, espeically if
potassium levels are very low.
Lower than normal blood potassium
(hypokalemia) in someone with
hypertension suggests the need to look
for aldosteronism.
109. • In Conn syndrome, aldosterone is
produced despite low renin levels.
• Sometimes, to determine whether only
one or both adrenal glands are affected,
blood may be taken from both of the
adrenal veins and testing is done to
determine whether there is a difference
in the amount of aldosterone (and
sometimes cortisol) produced by each of
the adrenal glands.
110. 2 -
which is more common than primary
aldosteronism, is caused by anything that
leads to excess aldosterone, other than a
disorder of the adrenal glands.
• It could be caused by any condition that
• decreases blood flow to the kidneys.
• decreases blood pressure.
• or lowers sodium levels.
111. • Congestive heart failure .
• liver Cirrhosis .
• Kidney disease .
• And toxemia of pregnancy
(preeclampsia) .
In these conditions, the cause of
aldosteronism is usually obvious .
112. • The most important cause of seconary
aldosteronism is narrowing of the blood
vessels that supply the kidney, termed
(renal artery stenosis ).
• This causes high blood pressure due to
high renin and aldosterone .
113. DISEASE ALDOSTERONE RENIN
Primary aldosteronism
(Conn syndrome)
High Low
Secondary aldosteronism High High
Secondary aldosteronism must be distinguished from primary
aldosteronism. Secondary aldosteronism is not the same as
Conn syndrome because renin levels are high in secondary
aldosteronism.
115. Hypoaldosteronism (Low aldosterone)
Usually occurs as part of adrenal
insufficiency; it causes
Dehydration.
low blood pressure.
low blood sodium level.
And a high potassium level.
116. • Is there anything else I should know?
• The amount of salt in your diet and
medications, such as over-the-counter
pain relievers of the non-steroid class,
diuretics, beta blockers, steroids,
angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
inhibitors, and oral contraceptives can
affect the test results. Some of these
drugs are used to treat high blood
pressure.
117. • Stress, exercise, and pregnancy can also
affect the test results.
• Coffee, tea or cola can affect the 24-hour
urine sample test .
• The body's position .
• Both aldosterone and renin levels are
highest in the morning and vary
throughout the day.
• Aldosterone levels become very low with
severe illness, so testing should not be
done at times when someone is very ill.
120. • It is part of the adrenal gland.
• It is located at the center of the gland,
being surrounded by the adrenal cortex.
• It is consisting of cells that secrete
epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine
(noradrenaline), and a small amount of
dopamine in response to stimulation by
the central nervous system .
121. Adrenal medulla Is the principal site of
the conversion of the amino acid tyrosine
into the catecholamines .
The hormone release In response to
stressors such as exercise or danger.
medullary cells release catecholamines
into the blood in a 15:3 ratio of
adrenaline to noradrenaline.
122. Release of catecholamines is stimulated
by nerve impulses, and receptors for
catecholamines are widely distributed
throughout the body.
Effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline
include
# Increased heart rate and blood pressure.
#Blood vessel constriction in the skin and
gastrointestinal tract.
123. # Smooth muscle (bronchiole and
capillary) dilation.
# And increased metabolism, all of which
are characteristic of the fight-or-flight
response.
124.
125. • The human adrenal medulla produces
and releases about 80% epinephrine and
20% norepinephrine, with a small
amount of dopamine.
• While the adrenergic neurons are
responsible for the majority of
norepinephrine production, the adrenal
is the source of essentially all of the
epinephrine produced in the body .
126.
127. • 3 - In skeletal muscle, epinephrine also
stimulates glycogen breakdown .
• The effect of epinephrine in muscle is a
preparation for the requirement of
exercise – without exercise, the increase
in glycolysis in muscle is fairly limited.
• 4 - In adipose tissue, epinephrine
stimulates lipolysis by increasing the
activity of hormone-sensitive lipase.
128. Epinephrine and norepinephrine decrease
pancreatic production of insulin .
This reduction of insulin secretion may
also protect
the pancreas from exhaustion in conditions
of chronic stress, by reducing the necessity
for insulin production to compete with
production of adrenal hormones.
129. • This is potentially important, because,
unlike the adrenal, which responds to
increased requirement for its hormones
by increasing its ability to produce those
hormones, the pancreas has only a
limited capacity for increasing insulin
secretion rates.
130. • There are no direct clinical consequences
of adrenal medullary insufficiency.
• An adrenal disorder patient’s requires
supplementation with glucocorticoids
and mineralocorticoids, but suffers no
apparent ill effects from lack of
epinephrine.
• The reason for this is unknown.
131. • It is possible that norepinephrine release
from the sympathetic nervous system
yields sufficient circulating catecholamine
to maintain normal functioning.
• Alternatively, other systems have
somewhat similar effects, especially on
glucose homeostasis, and these other
systems may compensate for lack of
epinephrine.
132.
133. • Uncontrolled excessively high levels of
catecholamines are usually the result of a
relatively rare tumor of the chromaffin
cells called a pheochromocytoma.
• These tumors may occur in the adrenal.
• A pheochromocytoma may release
catecholamines continually .