The document discusses the design of lattice towers, specifically high voltage transmission towers. It outlines the common structural design problems for towers, including establishing load requirements and ensuring consistency between loads, overall design, and structural detailing. The document then focuses on the specific design of high voltage transmission towers, describing their functional requirements, typical loads, overall truss configurations, structural analysis approaches, and considerations for joint detailing.
1 of 5 training modules created for simple understanding of types of tower structures for vertical applications used in the Wireless network development industry
I was Visited a Site of Bajaj Engineers Project. We have seen their many problems arise in pile foundation and we think how this Problem Should Be Solved?
We Have Visited This Site And Decided To Do Project To Solve This Problem. Our Problem is pile foundation. According To Our Survey This Problem should be reduced by taking such steps towards this problem. We Make Survey On Whole Site And Find Out Problems And We Should Work On To Find Out Solution To Solve Problems
UNIT - 06 TRANSMISSION LINES AND SUBSTATIONSPremanandDesai
Code of practice for Transmission lines and substations, transmission line materials and their specifications, types of Towers, ACSR conductors and Number of Disc insulators in suspension string, strain string, span and height of towers for 66 KV, 110 KV, 220 KV transmission lines, concept of single circuit and double circuit transmission lines, method of calculating the Quantity of transmission line materials, Prepare the schedule of materials
(only) for 66 KV,110 KV and 220 KV single circuit transmission lines. 66KV/11KV, 5 MVA Substations- Single Line diagram, list of Electrical equipment's/ materials (only) and their
specifications.
In the present era the technology in communications has developed to a very large extent. The communication industries have seen a tremendous increase in last few years which have resulted in installation of large number of towers to increase the coverage area and network consistency. In wireless communication network these towers play a significant role hence failure of such structure in a disaster is a major concern. Therefore utmost importance should be given in considering all possible extreme conditions for designing these towers. In most of the studies, the researches have considered the effect of wind only on the four legged self-supporting towers. In this dissertation, a four legged lattice tower is analyzed and designed along with foundation details.
Complete details of EHV Transmission Line. Consolidated this presentation from those experts who had contributed separately on slider share and other web pages.Thanks for their valuable inputs.
Traditionally overhead transmission lines are built on lattice type structures. Significant ROW and aesthetics issues have stalled construction of new transmission line corridors.Replacement of traditional lattice structures with MONOPOLE structures is a significant step in this direction. The advantages of monopoles are significant wind loading capacity, smallest footprint, higher reliability under extreme condition.
Since the loads having the trends towards growing density. This requires the better appearance, rugged construction, greater service reliability and increased safety. An underground cable essentially consists of one or more conductors covered with suitable insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover. The interference from external disturbances like storms, lightening, ice, trees etc. should be reduced to achieve trouble free service. The cables may be buried directly in the ground, or may be installed in ducts buried in the ground.
1 of 5 training modules created for simple understanding of types of tower structures for vertical applications used in the Wireless network development industry
I was Visited a Site of Bajaj Engineers Project. We have seen their many problems arise in pile foundation and we think how this Problem Should Be Solved?
We Have Visited This Site And Decided To Do Project To Solve This Problem. Our Problem is pile foundation. According To Our Survey This Problem should be reduced by taking such steps towards this problem. We Make Survey On Whole Site And Find Out Problems And We Should Work On To Find Out Solution To Solve Problems
UNIT - 06 TRANSMISSION LINES AND SUBSTATIONSPremanandDesai
Code of practice for Transmission lines and substations, transmission line materials and their specifications, types of Towers, ACSR conductors and Number of Disc insulators in suspension string, strain string, span and height of towers for 66 KV, 110 KV, 220 KV transmission lines, concept of single circuit and double circuit transmission lines, method of calculating the Quantity of transmission line materials, Prepare the schedule of materials
(only) for 66 KV,110 KV and 220 KV single circuit transmission lines. 66KV/11KV, 5 MVA Substations- Single Line diagram, list of Electrical equipment's/ materials (only) and their
specifications.
In the present era the technology in communications has developed to a very large extent. The communication industries have seen a tremendous increase in last few years which have resulted in installation of large number of towers to increase the coverage area and network consistency. In wireless communication network these towers play a significant role hence failure of such structure in a disaster is a major concern. Therefore utmost importance should be given in considering all possible extreme conditions for designing these towers. In most of the studies, the researches have considered the effect of wind only on the four legged self-supporting towers. In this dissertation, a four legged lattice tower is analyzed and designed along with foundation details.
Complete details of EHV Transmission Line. Consolidated this presentation from those experts who had contributed separately on slider share and other web pages.Thanks for their valuable inputs.
Traditionally overhead transmission lines are built on lattice type structures. Significant ROW and aesthetics issues have stalled construction of new transmission line corridors.Replacement of traditional lattice structures with MONOPOLE structures is a significant step in this direction. The advantages of monopoles are significant wind loading capacity, smallest footprint, higher reliability under extreme condition.
Since the loads having the trends towards growing density. This requires the better appearance, rugged construction, greater service reliability and increased safety. An underground cable essentially consists of one or more conductors covered with suitable insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover. The interference from external disturbances like storms, lightening, ice, trees etc. should be reduced to achieve trouble free service. The cables may be buried directly in the ground, or may be installed in ducts buried in the ground.
Transmission and distribution line design finalBhanu Poudyal
Transmission Line designed on basis of data available for a given Hydropower system.
Looking this document you can yourself design the Transmission Line system.
This is the simple ppt explaining about the main components of the power systems. especially we are determining the insulators and its types with real time pictures which are attractive,
Criticality of Gust Pressures on the Members of Self Standing TowersIDES Editor
Tall latticed steel towers are being pursued for the
purpose of microwave transmission, T.V. transmission etc.
Antennas are fixed at the top of the tower for transmission.
The height of the towers may range from 50m to 250m. The
structural form consists of latticed steel work, suitable bracing
and suitable foundation for the tower legs. Usually bolted
connections are provided for the joints. Mainly dead and wind
loads are considered for the design of such towers. The I.S.
Code [8] has given recommendations for force coefficients to
be adopted while estimating the wind force. The force
coefficient depends on the solidity ratio. The design wind
pressure is multiplied by the effective frontal area and the
force coefficient to arrive at the wind force. The code is silent
on the method to be followed to determine the design wind
pressure. The latticed steel towers which have lesser self
weight relative to the height are highly flexible in nature and
under the action of the fluctuating wind the towers vibrate
and undergo large deflections or deformations. Hence the
study of wind-structure dynamic interaction becomes
necessary for accurate assessment of wind effects on towers.
The gust effectiveness factor takes into account the dynamic
properties of the structure, the wind-structure interaction and
then determines the wind loads as equivalent static loads. In
this paper, steel towers of heights ranging from 50m to 250m
are considered for wind load analysis. Wind loads are
determined based on static method as well as gust effectiveness
factor method. The critical gust loads for design are
determined. The variation of wind force with height, geometry
and the dynamic properties of the structure are studied. Based
on the above, important conclusions are drawn. The
conclusions will be useful for safe and rational design of
latticed steel towers.
Load centers get generated electricity from power
stations that are usually far; uninterrupted consumption or usage
of power has increased in last few years. Transmission system is
the system by means of which electricity is transferred from place
of generation to the consumers. Overhead wires or conductors
are the medium used for transmission of power. These wires are
visible to wind, heat and ice. The efficiency of the power system
increases if the losses of these overhead wires are minimal. These
losses are based on the resistive, magnetic and capacitive nature
of the conductor. It is necessary to create or make proper design
of these conductors accompanied by proper installation. To
balance the working and strength of overhead transmission line
and to minimize its capacitive effect the conductors must be
installed in catenary shape. The sag is required in transmission
line for conductor suspension. The conductors are appended
between two overhead towers with ideal estimation of sag. It is
because of keeping conductor safety from inordinate tension. To
permit safe tension in the conductor, conductors are not
completely extended; rather they are allowed to have sag. For
same level supports this paper provides sag and tension
estimation with different wind speeds under low operating
temperature 2 °C. To calculate sag-tension estimation of ACSR
(Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced) overhead lines three
different cases are provided with normal and high wind speed
effects. Four different span lengths are taken for equal level
supports. ETAP (Electrical Transient and Analysis Program) is
used for simulation setup. The results shows that wind speed has
great impact upon line tension and with addition of wind speed
the sag of line remains unaltered while tension changes.
Moreover tension gets increase while increase in wind speed.
instructionss.docxjust to make sure againi need u to ext.docxdirkrplav
instructionss.docx
just to make sure again
i need u to extend the :
introduction.
literature review.
adding conclusion.
adding recomendation
adding appendix
adding references (for what i have now and what you will write more)
the report now is 40 pages aprox
i want it to be 65 pages (including everything.. apendix, referances, etc...)
transmission-tower.docx
Content
Chapter one: Introduction.................................................................................................
Chapter two: Literature review......................................................................................
Chapter three: Design and analysis.................................................................................
Chapter four: results and discussion..............................................................................
Chapter five: conclusion and recommendation..................................................................
Chapter one
Introduction
Electrical Power transmission towers are used to support a transmission line's phase conductors and shield wires for the transmission of voltages in excess of 345kV or less than that depending on the kind of structure and material used and the transmission requirement. The transmission tower structures can broadly be categorized into lattice types or the pole types. Whereas pole types can be made of wood, concrete or steel and used for lower voltage transmission, the lattice types are usually made of sections of steel angles and are used for higher voltages transmission. Also each transmission structure can be self supporting or it can be guyed. Another factor that affects design choice is the nature of prevalent climatic loads around the area of installation of transmission towers. Depending on the design loads, the configuration can vary largely between horizontal configuration, vertical or delta configuration and again accessibility and right of way issues will also have to be considered. Some relevant standards and codes will have to be followed in the design of transmission towers such as National Electrical Safety Code (NESC), ASCE loading code, OSHA operational safety codes, etc.
From the brief background given the main point is that in recent times some new tower designs that are both aesthetically pleasing and structurally sound have been required for the overhead transmission of power and this is what this project attempts to design.
Aim
The aim of the project is to investigate existing tower design literature and finally apply analyze and design a novel both aesthetically pleasing and structurally sound tower.
Loads on transmission towers
Before designing transmission tower structures state laws, rules and regulation will require that design follows standard codes in order to meet minimum for loading for acceptable level of safety. Relevant loading guidelines for electrical transmission line structural loading will have to be strictly followed to ens.
Design and analysis of stress ribbon bridgeseSAT Journals
Abstract
A stressed ribbon bridge (also known as stress-ribbon bridge or catenary bridge) is primarily a structure under tension. The tension cables form the part of the deck which follows an inverted catenary between supports. The ribbon is stressed such that it is in compression, thereby increasing the rigidity of the structure where as a suspension spans tend to sway and bounce. Such bridges are typically made RCC structures with tension cables to support them. Such bridges are generally not designed for vehicular traffic but where it is essential, additional rigidity is essential to avoid the failure of the structure in bending. A stress ribbon bridge of 45 meter span is modelled and analyzed using ANSYS version 12. For simplicity in importing civil materials and civil cross sections, CivilFEM version 12 add-on of ANSYS was used. A 3D model of the whole structure was developed and analyzed and according to the analysis results, the design was performed manually.
Keywords: Stress Ribbon, Precast Segments, Prestressing, Dynamic Analysis, Pedestrian Excitation.
Design and analysis of stress ribbon bridgeseSAT Journals
Abstract
A stressed ribbon bridge (also known as stress-ribbon bridge or catenary bridge) is primarily a structure under tension. The tension cables form the part of the deck which follows an inverted catenary between supports. The ribbon is stressed such that it is in compression, thereby increasing the rigidity of the structure where as a suspension spans tend to sway and bounce. Such bridges are typically made RCC structures with tension cables to support them. Such bridges are generally not designed for vehicular traffic but where it is essential, additional rigidity is essential to avoid the failure of the structure in bending. A stress ribbon bridge of 45 meter span is modelled and analyzed using ANSYS version 12. For simplicity in importing civil materials and civil cross sections, CivilFEM version 12 add-on of ANSYS was used. A 3D model of the whole structure was developed and analyzed and according to the analysis results, the design was performed manually.
Keywords: Stress Ribbon, Precast Segments, Prestressing, Dynamic Analysis, Pedestrian Excitation.
The influence of cable sag on the dynamic behaviour of cable stayed suspensio...eSAT Journals
Abstract The demand of long span bridge is increasing with infrastructure magnification. To achieve maximum central span in bridges is a motivating rational challenge. The bridge with more central span can be achieved using high strength materials and innovative forms of the bridges. The cable-stayed bridge has better structural stiffness and suspension bridge has ability to offer longer span thus combination of above two structural systems could achieve very long span cable-stayed suspension hybrid bridge. To distinguish behaviour and check the feasibility of this innovative form of hybrid bridge, 1400m central span and 312m side span cable-stayed suspension hybrid bridge is considered for analysis. The suspension portion length in central span is also playing important role in behaviour of the entire bridge. Bridge behaviour is presented for variable length of suspension portion in form of suspension portion to main span ratio. The main cable sag in central span is playing important role on behavior of the entire bridge. It directly influences the inclination angles of the main cables, the height of pylon and thus forces in pylon. The axial force in main cable is directly depending on the sag of main cable. The effects of main cable sag is studied by considering dimensionless parameter as sag to main span ratio as 1/9, 1/10 and 1/11. Paper also discusses results of nonlinear static analysis and modal analysis carried out using SAP2000 v14.0.0. The time period of bridge is used to present the behavior of bridge. Key Words: Cable supported long span bridge; cable stayed suspension hybrid bridge; cable sag to main span ratio; dynamic analysis
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
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Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
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Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
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Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
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Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
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• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
1. Previous | Next | Contents
ESDEP WG 15C
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: MISCELLANEOUS
Lecture 15C.3: Lattice Towers and Masts
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe typical lattice tower design problems; to introduce the background for the
load requirements; to emphasize the connection between basic functional
requirements and overall structural design; to explain the principles of the structural
analysis and the choice of structural details.
The lecture is confined to the detailed description of the design of one particular type
of tower, i.e. the high voltage transmission tower.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 4A: Protection: Corrosion
Lectures 6: Applied Stability
Lectures 7: Elements
Lectures 11: Connection Design: Static Loading
Lectures 13: Tubular Structures
SUMMARY
The common structural problems in the design of steel lattice towers for different
purposes are outlined.
The details of design are discussed in relation to a specific category of tower, the high
voltage transmission tower. The influence on the tower design of the user's functional
demands is explained and the background for the load assumptions is pointed out.
2. Different aspects affecting the overall design and the detailing are discussed and
problems connected with the structural analysis are explained. The effect of joint
eccentricities is discussed on the basis of a very common design example using angle
sections. The use of different detailing is mentioned.
The need for erection joints is stated and the types of joints are discussed. Corrosion
protection is briefly dealt with and its influence on the tower design is pointed out.
Tower foundations are not treated in this lecture.
1. INTRODUCTION
Towers or masts are built in order to fulfil the need for placing objects or persons at a
certain level above the ground. Typical examples are:
single towers for antennae, floodlight projectors or platforms for inspection,
supervision or tourist purposes.
systems of towers and wires serving transport purposes, such as ski lifts,
ropeways, or power transmission lines.
For all kinds of towers the designer should thoroughly study the user's functional
requirements in order to reach the best possible design for the particular structure. For
example, it is extremely important to keep the flexural and torsional rotations of an
antenna tower within narrow limits in order to ensure the proper functioning of the
equipment.
The characteristic dimension of a tower is its height. It is usually several times larger
than the horizontal dimensions. Frequently the area which may be occupied at ground
level is very limited and, thus, rather slender structures are commonly used.
Another characteristic feature is that a major part of the tower design load comes from
the wind force on the tower itself and its equipment, including wires suspended by the
tower. To provide the necessary flexural rigidity and, at the same time, keeping the
area exposed to the wind as small as possible, lattice structures are frequently
preferred to more compact 'solid' structures.
Bearing in mind these circumstances, it is not surprising to find that the design
problems are almost the same irrespective of the purpose to be served by the tower.
Typical design problems are:
establishment of load requirements.
consistency between loads and tower design.
3. establishment of overall design, including choice of number of tower legs.
consistency between overall design and detailing.
detailing with or without node eccentricities.
sectioning of structure for transport and erection.
In this lecture, towers for one particular purpose, i.e. the high voltage transmission
tower, have been selected for discussion.
2. HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION TOWERS
2.1 Background
The towers support one or more overhead lines serving the energy distribution. Most
frequently three-phase AC circuits are used requiring three live conductors each. To
provide safety against lightning, earthed conductors are placed at the top of the tower,
see Figures 1 and 2.
4.
5. The live conductors are supported by insulators, the length of which increases with
increasing voltage of the circuit. To prevent short circuit between live and earthed
parts, including the surrounding environment, minimum mutual clearances are
prescribed.
Mechanically speaking, the conductors behave like wires whose sag between their
points of support depends on the temperature and the wire tension, the latter coming
from the external loads and the pre-tensioning of the conductor. As explained in
6. Section 2.4, the size of the tension forces in the conductor has a great effect upon the
tower design.
2.2 Types of Towers
An overhead transmission line connects two nodes of the power supply grid. The
route of the line has as few changes in direction as possible. Depending on their
position in the line various types of towers occur such as (a) suspension towers, (b)
angle suspension towers, (c) angle towers, (d) tension towers and, (e) terminal towers,
see Figure 1. Tension towers serve as rigid points able to prevent progressive collapse
of the entire line. They may be designed to serve also as angle towers.
To the above-mentioned types should be added special towers required at the
branching of two or more lines.
In Figure 2 examples of suspension tower designs from four European countries are
presented. Note similarities and mutual differences.
2.3 Functional Requirements
Before starting the design of a particular tower, a number of basic specifications are
established. They are:
a. voltage.
b. number of circuits.
c. type of conductors.
d. type of insulators.
e. possible future addition of new circuits.
f. tracing of transmission line.
g. selection of tower sites.
h. selection of rigid points.
i. selection of conductor configuration.
j. selection of height for each tower.
7. The tower designer should notice that the specifications reflect a number of choices.
However, the designer is rarely in a position to bring about desirable changes in these
specifications. Therefore, functional requirements are understood here as the electrical
requirements which guide the tower design after establishment of the basic
specifications.
The tower designer should be familiar with the main features of the different types of
insulators. In Figure 3 three types of insulators are shown. They are all hinged at the
tower crossarm or bridge.
Figure 4 shows the clearances guiding the shape of a typical suspension tower. The
clearances and angles, which naturally vary with the voltage, are embodied in national
8. regulations. Safety against lightning is provided by prescribing a maximum value of
the angle v. The maximum swing u of the insulators occurs at maximum load on the
conductor.
2.4 Loads on Towers, Loading Cases
The loads acting on a transmission tower are:
a. dead load of tower.
b. dead load from conductors and other equipment.
9. c. load from ice, rime or wet snow on conductors and equipment.
d. ice load, etc. on the tower itself
e. erection and maintenance loads.
f. wind load on tower.
g. wind load on conductors and equipment.
h. loads from conductor tensile forces.
i. damage forces.
j. earthquake forces.
It is essential to realize that the major part of the load arises from the conductors, and
that the conductors behave like chains able to resist only tensile forces. Consequently,
the dead load from the conductors is calculated by using the so-called weight span,
which may be considerably different from the wind span used in connection with the
wind load calculation, see Figure 5.
10. The average span length is usually chosen between 300 and 450 metres.
The occurrence of ice, etc. adds to the weight of the parts covered and it increases
their area exposed to the wind. Underestimation of these circumstances has frequently
led to damage and collapse. It is, therefore, very important to choose the design data
carefully. The size and distribution of the ice load depends on the climate and the
local conditions. The ice load is often taken as a uniformly distributed load on all
spans. It is, however, evident that different load intensities are likely to occur in
neighbouring spans. Such load differences produce longitudinal forces acting on the
towers, i.e. acting in the line direction.
The wind force is usually assumed to be acting horizontally. However, depending on
local conditions, a sloping direction may have to be considered. Also, different wind
directions (in the horizontal plane) must be taken into account for the conductors as
11. well as for the tower itself. The maximum wind velocity does not occur
simultaneously along the entire span and reduction coefficients are, therefore,
introduced in the calculation of the load transferred to the towers.
The tensile forces in the conductors act on the two faces of the tower in the line
direction(s). If they are balanced no longitudinal force acts on a tower suspending a
straight line. For angle towers they result in forces in the angle bisector plane, and for
terminal towers they cause heavy longitudinal forces. As the tensile forces vary with
the external loads, as previously mentioned, even suspension towers on a straight line
are affected by longitudinal forces. For all types of towers the risk of mechanical
failure of one or more of the conductors has to be considered.
The loads and loading cases to be considered in the design are usually laid down in
national regulations.
2.5 Overall Design and Truss Configuration
The outline of the tower is influenced by the user's functional requirements. However,
basically the same requirements may be met by quite different designs. In general, the
tower structure consists of three parts: the crossarms and/or bridges, the peaks, and the
tower body.
Statically speaking, the towers usually behave like cantilevers or frames, in some
cases with supplementary stays. For transmission lines with 100 kV voltage or more,
the use of steel lattice structures is nearly always found advantageous because they
are:
easily adaptable to any shape or height of tower.
easily divisible in sections suitable for transport and erection.
easy to repair, strengthen and extend.
durable when properly protected against corrosion.
By far the most common structure is a four-legged tower body cantilevering from the
foundation, see Figure 6. The advantages of this design are:
12. the tower occupies a relatively small area at ground level.
two legs share the compression from both transverse and longitudinal loads.
the square or rectangular cross-section (four legs) is superior to a triangular
tower body (three legs) for resisting torsion.
the cross-section is very suitable for the use of angles, as the connections can
be made very simple.
The following remarks in this section relate mainly to a cantilever structure. However,
many features also apply to other tower designs.
13. For a cantilever structure, the tower legs are usually given a taper in both main
directions enabling the designer to choose the same structural section on a
considerable part of the tower height. The taper is also advantageous with regard to
the bracing, as it reduces the design forces (except for torsional loads).
The bracing of the tower faces is chosen either as a single lattice, a cross bracing or a
K-bracing, possibly with redundant members reducing the buckling length of the leg
members, for example see Figure 6. The choice of bracing depends on the size of the
load and the member lengths. The most common type is cross bracing. Its main
advantage is that the buckling length of the brace member in compression is
influenced positively by the brace member in tension, even with regard to deflection
perpendicular to the tower face.
Generally, the same type of bracing is chosen for all four tower body faces, most
frequently with a staggered arrangement of the nodes, see Figure 7. This arrangement
provides better space for the connections, and it may offer considerable advantage
with respect to the buckling load of the leg members. This advantage applies
especially to angle sections when used as shown in Figures 10 and 11, since it
diminishes the buckling length for buckling about the 'weak' axis v-v. For further
study on this matter see [1].
14.
15.
16.
17. Irrespective of the type of bracing, the tower is generally equipped with horizontal
members at levels where leg taper changes. For staggered bracings these members are
necessary to 'turn' the leg forces. Torsional forces, mostly acting at crossarm bottom
levels, are distributed to the tower faces by means of horizontal bracings, see Figure 8.
Cross arms and earthwire peaks are, in principle, designed like the tower itself.
However, as the load on the cross arms rarely has an upward component, cross arms
are sometimes designed with two bottom chords and one upper chord and/or with
single lattice bracings in the non-horizontal faces.
2.6 Structural Analysis
Generally, the structural analysis is carried out on the basis of a few very rough
assumptions:
the tower structure behaves as a self-contained structure without support from
any of the conductors.
the tower is designed for static or quasi-static loads only.
These assumptions do not reflect the real behaviour of the total system, i.e. towers and
conductors, particularly well. However, they provide a basis from simple calculations
which have broadly led to satisfactory results.
Generally speaking, a tower is a space structure. It is frequently modelled as a set of
plane lattice structures, which are identical with the tower body planes together with
the planes of the cross arms and the horizontal bracings mentioned in Section 2.5.
18. In a simplified calculation a four-legged cantilevered structure is often assumed to
take the loads as follows:
a. centrally acting, vertical loads are equally distributed between the four legs.
b. bending moments in one of the main directions produce an equal compression in
the two legs of one side, and equal tension in the two legs of the other side. The shear
forces are resisted by the horizontal component of the leg forces and the brace forces
(thus, the leg taper has a significant influence on the design of the bracing).
c. torsional moments broadly produce shear forces in the tower body faces, i.e. in the
braces.
A classical analysis assuming hinges in all nodes leads to very simple calculations.
However, the effect of redundancies should be considered, especially concerning the
forces and moments in the brace members.
Although this approach is satisfactory in most cases attention must be drawn to the
function of redundant members, which in some cases may change the load distribution
considerably. In addition, the effect of fixed connections (as opposed to hinged
connections) must be considered, since they produce moments in the bracing
members. The effect of eccentricities in the joints should also be taken into account,
see Section 2.7.
Finally, the distribution of an eccentric horizontal load is studied. In Figure 9 the force
H is acting at the cross arm bottom level. Without horizontal bracing in the tower,
three tower body planes are affected by H. The deflections of the plane lattice
structures of the tower body deform the rectangle ABCD to a parallelogram
A B C D . By adding member AC or BD this deformation is restricted and all four
tower body planes participate in resisting the force H.
19. 2.7 Detailing of Joints
The detailed design is governed by a number of factors influencing the structural costs
once the overall design has been chosen, such as:
simple and uniform design of connections.
simple shaping of structural components.
details allowing for easy transportation and erection.
details allowing for proper corrosion protection.
20. As an introductory example of design and calculation, a segment of a four-legged
tower body is discussed, see Figure 10. All members are made of angle sections with
equal legs. The connections are all bolted without the use of gussets, except for a
spacer plate at the cross bracing interconnection. This very simple design requiring a
minimum of manufacturing work is attained by the choice and orientation of the leg
and brace member sections.
By choosing the design described above, some structural eccentricities have to be
accepted. They arise from the fact that the axes of gravity of the truss members do not
intersect at the theoretical nodes. According to the bending caused by the
eccentricities they may be classified as in-plane or out-of-plane eccentricities. In
Figure 11, the brace forces C and T meet at a distance eo from the axis of gravity. The
resultant force S produces two bending moments: Me = S eo and Mf=S e1.
These moments are distributed among the members meeting at the joint according to
their flexural stiffness, usually leaving the major part to the leg members. As z-z is the
'strong' axis of the leg section, a resultant moment vector along axis v-v will be
advantageous. This is achieved, when eo=-e1 . In this case C and T intersect
approximately at the middle of the leg of the section. Usually this situation is not fully
practicable without adding a gusset plate to the joint.
Additional eccentricity problems occur when the bolts are not placed on the axis of
gravity, especially when only one bolt is used in the connection (eccentricities ec and
et).
The out-of-plane eccentricity causing a torsional moment, V = H e2, acting on the leg
may be measured between the axes of gravity for the brace members (see Figure 11).
However, the torsional stiffness of the leg member may be so moderate - depending
on its support conditions - that V cannot be transferred by the leg and, consequently,
e2 must diminish. The latter causes bending out-of-plane in the brace members.
The leg joint shown in Figure 10 is a splice joint in which an eccentricity e3 may
occur. In this case there is a change of leg section, or the gravity axis for the four (or
two) splice plates in common does not coincide with the axis of the leg(s). For legs in
compression the joint must be designed with some flexural rigidity to prevent
unwanted action as a hinge.
The joint eccentricities have to be carefully considered in the design. As the lower
part of the leg usually is somewhat oversized at the joint - this is, in fact, the reason
for changing leg section at the joint - a suitable model would be to consider the upper
part of the leg centrally loaded and thus, let the lower part resist the eccentricity
moment. The splice plates and the bolt connections must then be designed in
accordance with this model.
21. The bolted connections might easily be replaced by welded connections with no major
changes of the design. However, except for small structures, bolted connections are
generally preferred, as they offer the opportunity to assemble the structural parts
without damaging the corrosion protection, see Section 2.8.
This introductory example is very typical of the design with angle sections.
Nevertheless some additional comments should be added concerning the use of
gussets and multiple angle sections.
The use of gussets is shown in Figure 12. They provide better space for the bolts,
which may eliminate the in-plane eccentricities, and they allow for the use of double
angle sections. In the latter case out-of-plane eccentricities almost vanish.
For heavily loaded towers it might be suitable to choose double or even quadruple
angle sections for the legs. Figure 13 shows some possibilities.
22. Towers designed with other profiles than angles
In principle any of the commercially available sections could be used. However, they
have to compete with the angle sections as regards the variety of sections available
and the ease of designing and manufacturing simple connections. So far only flat bars,
round bars and tubes have been used, mostly with welded connections. The use is
limited to small size towers for the corrosion reasons mentioned above.
In other contexts, e.g. high rise TV towers, circular sections may be more interesting
because their better shape reduces wind action.
Construction joints and erection joints
The tower structure usually has to be subdivided into smaller sections for the sake of
corrosion protection, transportation and erection. Thus a number of joints which are
easy to assemble on the tower site, have to be arranged. Two main problems have to
be solved: the position and the detailing of the joints.
In Figure 14 two examples of the joint positions are shown. The framed structure is
divided into lattice structure bodies, each of which may be fully welded, and stays.
The cantilevered structure usually is subdivided into single leg and web members.
23. The two types of joints are lap (or splice) joints and butt plate joints. The former is
very suitable for angle sections. The latter is used for all sections, but is mostly used
for joints in round tube or bar sections. Figure 15 shows some examples of the two
types.
25. Today, corrosion protection of steel lattice towers is almost synonymous with hot-galvanising,
possibly with an additional coating. The process involves dipping the
structural components into a galvanic bath to apply a zinc layer, usually about
100 m thick.
No welding should be performed after galvanizing, as it damages the protection. The
maximum size of parts to be galvanized is limited by the size of the available galvanic
bath.
3. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
The overall design of a lattice tower is very closely connected with the user's
functional requirements. The requirements must be studied carefully.
A major part of the design loads on the tower results from the wind force on
tower and equipment.
The occurrence of an ice cover on the tower and equipment must be considered
in the design.
For towers supporting wires, differential loads in the wire direction must be
taken into account.
For systems of interconnected towers it must be considered that the collapse of
one tower may influence the stability of a neighbouring tower.
In most cases a cantilevered tower with four legs is preferred, as it offers
structural advantages and occupies a relatively small ground area.
The type of bracing greatly affects the stability of both legs and braces. K-bracings
and/or staggered cross bracings are generally found advantageous.
Horizontal braces at certain levels of the tower add considerably to its torsional
rigidity.
Angle sections are widely used in towers with a square or rectangular base, as
they permit very simple connection design.
Both in-plane and out-of-plane eccentricities in the connections must be
considered.
A proper, long lasting corrosion protection must be provided. The protection
method influences the structural design.
4. REFERENCES
[1] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, ECCS, "Recommendations
for Angles in Lattice Transmission Towers", ECCS Technical Committee 8, Brussels
1985.
26. Recommendations concerning slenderness ratios and buckling curves from leg and
web members taking into account redundancies and eccentricities.
5. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Fischer, R. and Kiessling, F., "Freileitungen - Planung, Berechung,
Ausführung", Springer Verlag 1989 (In German)
Comprehensive treatment of all aspects on high-voltage transmission lines, i.e.
planning, conductors, insulators and other equipment, design and calculation of
towers, foundation, corrosion protection and erection.
2. International Electrotechnical Commission - Technical Committee No 11,
"Recommendations for Overhead Lines" (Draft, December 1988).
Recommendations for establishing design criteria and loadings.
3. Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures", CEN (in preparation)
Definition of wind action.
4. Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General
rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
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