The document explores the biological and cultural aspects of human sexuality, differentiating between sex (biological attributes) and gender (cultural attributes derived from sex differences). It discusses the roles of primary and secondary sex characteristics, kinship, the culture-specific nature of gender roles, and societal restrictions on sexual behavior, including the incest taboo and punitive practices like honor homicides. The document emphasizes the universality of sexual reproduction while illustrating how different cultures impose various norms and regulations surrounding sexual conduct.

1. Human Sexuality The Biological Foundation of Kinship

2. A Cultural Universal: Sex and its Cultural Derivative, Gender If there is a universal among all cultures, let alone most animals, it is sex. Because we are cultural beings, gender differences is everywhere present. This section looks at the following: The differences between sex and gender The range of sexual restriction (sorry, we won’t look at people “doing it” across cultures) The incest tabu and explanations of why this tabu is so widespread in the world’s culture. The question of gender status The gender division of labor

3. Gender and Sex Sex refers to all the physical attributes that distinguish women and men They include the reproductive systems and the body attributes of each sex. Gender refers to the cultural attributes derived from sex differences. The clothing styles that women and men wear is cultural. The stereotyped personality differences is cultural; the kind of behavior expected from each gender The tasks assigned to one gender or the other is derived from cultural expectations. And, finally, the question of status between the two genders is a cultural one. The genders are nearly equal in status in some cultures and very unequal among others.

4. Where It All Begins: Sex Characteristics There are two types of sex characteristics: Primary sex characteristics are the reproductive organs. Secondary sex characteristics are the body attributes of each sex. Sexual dimorphism refers to the extent to which the secondary characteristics are evident between women and men. What follows is a refresher on sex education.

5. A Refresher on Male Sex Characteristics Males of our and all species have: Testicles that produce sperm Sperm that fertilizes the ovum And contributes half the genes The penis transmits sperm to the vagina when reproducing. To overstate the obvious, the male role is brief, measurable in minutes.

6. A Refresher on Female Sex Characteristics Females of our and all species have Ovaries that produce ova (sing. ovum, or egg) then send them through the Oviducts or Fallopian tubes that convey the egg to the Uterus, “the “reception area” of the egg where, once fertilized by the sperm, the zygote (fertilized egg) is implanted. Beforehand, the vagina has received the sperm which goes through the cervix and into the uterus. Starting as the zygote, the lifeform as embryo then fetus develops in the uterus for the next nine months. To state the obvious again, the reproductive role of the female takes much longer than that of the male

7. Reproductive Process: The Implications of Cooperation Between the Sexes The sperm enters the cell wall of the ovum and fertilizes the nucleus, starting the process of mitosis that will lead to the embryo, fetus, and infant (upper left) Of course, there are misconceptions as to the facts of life. . . (upper right) In any event, it is clear why conception involves two constants that kinship has to address.

8. Secondary Sex Characteristics Definition: Those physical characteristics that define the two sexes but not directly related to reproduction. The associated characteristics may be quite pronounced among some species and barely perceptible among others. Culture plays a role in defining their importance; nudity is allowed in some societies (mostly in tropical regions) whereas it is illegal in our own. The Yanomamo and other societies in and near Amazonia allow near-nudity; yet even then Yanomamo males feel immodest without a penis string. Dani and other Western New Guinean males wear a namba or penis sheath. In one sense, this shows that nudity is separated from sexual behavior; jealousy does occur among the Yanomamo, as does the incest tabu and mother-in-law avoidance.

9. Secondary Sex Characteristics: Animal Species Sexual dimorphism varies from barely noticeable to the extreme. Gibbons : Females and males are indistinguishable from each other (top photo) (Burning question: would a gibbon buy Playboy or Playgirl —for the interviews, of course.) Peacocks: Males have showy feathers—with functions of sexual attraction—while females are neutrally colored Here, a peacock woos a peahen (bottom)

10. Secondary Sex Characteristics: Human Species Censored Human sexual dimorphism falls somewhere in the middle range of all animal species Women have the following Pendulous breasts for lactation Wide pelvis for childbirth Men have the following Facial hair Greater grip strength Larger hearts and lungs Narrow pelvis (Censorship courtesy of Ethnocentrity, Inc. )

11. Gender Characteristics Gender: the cultural attributes arising from sex differences Haviland define gender as the “Cultural elaboration and meanings assigned to the biological differentiation between the sexes” Examples include the following Gender roles: bread winning among the men until the mid-20 th century; child rearing among women until about the same time. Behavior: emotional expression (women), assertiveness (men) Clothing, ornamentation, make-up were distinctive in 1940s North America (upper). Morocco: Both men and women wear caftans; women’s caftans are more decorative; and most women also wear the veil (lower).

12. Rules Governing Sexual Behavior All societies restrict sexual behavior in one way or another Only 5% of the world’s cultures limit sexual behavior to marriage (including us, despite the “Sexual Revolution) Of course, how we behave differs from the norm, in sexual as well as other matters. Severity of punishment is more widespread, such as the “honor homicides” in the Middle East (next panel) Clitoridectomy removes source of sexual pleasure in women throughout the Middle East and Africa (next panel) Incest tabus are de facto restrictions, such as tabus in the family and the wider kin networks.

13. Enforcing Sexual Prohibitions: Honor Homicides Honor homicides occur across the Middle East, usually in stoning the victim, usually but not always women. “ Offense” is adultery, even in rape cases where a raped woman at least precludes her marriage Upper left: A biblical scene of a mob threatening to stone Mary Magdalene for adultery. This is the scene in which Jesus, on being asked about stoning her, says “Let him who is without sin cast the first stone.” Both men and women could be stoned to death, as in Afghanistan (lower left) Here, a man is being stoned to death; the already dead woman is in the circle. A question of ethical relativism ; do we as anthropologists suspend our judgment of this practice?

14. Clitoricectomy and Circumcision Clitoridectomy is the removal of the clitoris in women; it eliminates sexual pleasure Often, the term “circumcision” is applied to both women and men, but it obscures the distinction; in men, only the foreskin of the penis is opened and removed. Above: Kipsigis girls (in veils) of East Africa are preparing for clitoridectomy. Often, parts of the vulva are sewn afterward to ensure virginity. Circumcision in males has also been questioned as a valid practice as well, as suggested in this political cartoon. For more information, log on to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8sBhTY EE030

15. On Human Sex and Sexuality No matter the culture, two persons must always get together to reproduce offspring. There are restrictions everywhere on mating. Some sanctions may be preventive (clitoridectomy, for example), and others may be punitive (honor killings by stoning, to cite an example) The most universal prohibition is the incest tabu, which we take up next.