The document discusses issues with measurement in health psychology, particularly with questionnaires and scales. It argues that commonly used methods like classical test theory (CTT) and factor analysis make unfounded assumptions that sets of correlated items form quantitative scales. Unless the hypothesis that items form a Guttman scale is formally tested, assessing reliability and validity is problematic. The document advocates for non-parametric item response theory models like Mokken scaling, which make weaker assumptions and aim to produce purely ordinal scales for ranking individuals rather than quantitative measurement.
The document discusses the Q methodology, which is a research method used in psychology and social sciences to study people's subjectivity or viewpoint. It involves having subjects sort statements based on a condition of instruction and analyzing the results using Q factor analysis. Key points:
- Q methodology looks at correlations between subjects across variables, unlike typical factor analysis which looks at correlations between variables across subjects.
- Data comes from Q sorts where subjects rank a set of statements. This captures how people think about ideas in relation to each other rather than in isolation.
- Statements are typically drawn from a "concourse" representing all perspectives on the topic.
- Q methodology typically uses fewer subjects than other social science methods but
Effects of valuing an individual’s wellbeing_ evoking empathy and motivating ...Kayla Brown
This study examined how valuing another person's wellbeing (high vs low) influences empathy and prosocial behavior. Undergraduate students participated in a virtual ball toss game where one player was excluded. Those in the high-valuing condition where the excluded player was described as nice reported more empathy and threw the ball to the excluded player more, compared to the low-valuing condition where the player was described as nasty. The findings suggest that valuing another person's welfare can elicit greater empathy and motivation to help them, even in remote virtual contexts like cyberball games.
This document describes the development of the Generalized Intuitional versus Analytical Decision-making Index (GIADMI) which aims to provide a brief measure of individual preferences for intuitive or analytical decision-making styles. The GIADMI was created using 13 initial items measuring each style on a 6-point scale. Factor analysis was conducted to validate the items measured the intended constructs. Reliability was assessed through internal consistency. Construct validity was evaluated by correlating GIADMI scores with other established tests. The results provided preliminary support for the reliability and validity of the intuitive scale, while further refinement is needed for the analytical scale.
Reducing Evaluative Bias in Measuring the Big Five by Dr Stewart DessonLumina Learning
What is evaluative bias, and what are we doing to reduce it from selection and development solutions? Lumina Learning CEO Dr Stewart Desson discusses his PhD research into this topic.
Watch a video of Stewart giving this presentation: https://youtu.be/86OOo3Kw8m0
Read his article on the topic: https://luminalearning.com/evaluative-bias-minimisation
This document provides an overview of key concepts from Psychology (9th Edition) by David Myers. It discusses the need for psychological science to use empirical evidence rather than intuition alone. It describes how psychologists ask and answer questions using the scientific method, including description, correlation, and experimentation. Statistical reasoning is important for interpreting data and making inferences. Frequently asked questions about psychology are also addressed, such as whether laboratory experiments can illuminate everyday life and if psychology experiments on humans are ethical.
This document discusses conceptual problems in statistics, testing, and experimentation in cognitive psychology. It identifies three main sources of variability in psychological data: (1) participant interest and motivation, (2) individual differences, and (3) potentially stochastic cognitive mechanisms. Addressing this variability poses challenges for developing normative and descriptive models of cognition and for making inferences from group-level data to individuals. The document also discusses approaches like individual differences research and modeling heterogeneous groups to help address these challenges.
The document discusses the Q methodology, which is a research method used in psychology and social sciences to study people's subjectivity or viewpoint. It involves having subjects sort statements based on a condition of instruction and analyzing the results using Q factor analysis. Key points:
- Q methodology looks at correlations between subjects across variables, unlike typical factor analysis which looks at correlations between variables across subjects.
- Data comes from Q sorts where subjects rank a set of statements. This captures how people think about ideas in relation to each other rather than in isolation.
- Statements are typically drawn from a "concourse" representing all perspectives on the topic.
- Q methodology typically uses fewer subjects than other social science methods but
Effects of valuing an individual’s wellbeing_ evoking empathy and motivating ...Kayla Brown
This study examined how valuing another person's wellbeing (high vs low) influences empathy and prosocial behavior. Undergraduate students participated in a virtual ball toss game where one player was excluded. Those in the high-valuing condition where the excluded player was described as nice reported more empathy and threw the ball to the excluded player more, compared to the low-valuing condition where the player was described as nasty. The findings suggest that valuing another person's welfare can elicit greater empathy and motivation to help them, even in remote virtual contexts like cyberball games.
This document describes the development of the Generalized Intuitional versus Analytical Decision-making Index (GIADMI) which aims to provide a brief measure of individual preferences for intuitive or analytical decision-making styles. The GIADMI was created using 13 initial items measuring each style on a 6-point scale. Factor analysis was conducted to validate the items measured the intended constructs. Reliability was assessed through internal consistency. Construct validity was evaluated by correlating GIADMI scores with other established tests. The results provided preliminary support for the reliability and validity of the intuitive scale, while further refinement is needed for the analytical scale.
Reducing Evaluative Bias in Measuring the Big Five by Dr Stewart DessonLumina Learning
What is evaluative bias, and what are we doing to reduce it from selection and development solutions? Lumina Learning CEO Dr Stewart Desson discusses his PhD research into this topic.
Watch a video of Stewart giving this presentation: https://youtu.be/86OOo3Kw8m0
Read his article on the topic: https://luminalearning.com/evaluative-bias-minimisation
This document provides an overview of key concepts from Psychology (9th Edition) by David Myers. It discusses the need for psychological science to use empirical evidence rather than intuition alone. It describes how psychologists ask and answer questions using the scientific method, including description, correlation, and experimentation. Statistical reasoning is important for interpreting data and making inferences. Frequently asked questions about psychology are also addressed, such as whether laboratory experiments can illuminate everyday life and if psychology experiments on humans are ethical.
This document discusses conceptual problems in statistics, testing, and experimentation in cognitive psychology. It identifies three main sources of variability in psychological data: (1) participant interest and motivation, (2) individual differences, and (3) potentially stochastic cognitive mechanisms. Addressing this variability poses challenges for developing normative and descriptive models of cognition and for making inferences from group-level data to individuals. The document also discusses approaches like individual differences research and modeling heterogeneous groups to help address these challenges.
This document discusses reliability and validity in psychological measurement and research. It defines reliability as a measure's ability to accurately capture an individual's true score, and identifies different types of reliability like test-retest and internal consistency. Validity refers to whether a measurement is actually measuring the intended construct. The document outlines criteria for assessing different types of validity, including content, criterion, and construct validity. It emphasizes that reliability and validity are key concerns in psychology due to challenges in developing reliable measures of psychological constructs.
Decoding word association 5 word to three word association testCol Mukteshwar Prasad
There is certainly certain amount of subjectivity in WAT assessment and it is not yet amenable for computerisation which is the norm today. This test is used as confirmation of findings in TAT being conducted just before this test
The need for a new WAT is felt, owing to the great amount of subjectivity in the interpretation and scoring of the test.
The new WAT which is one word to three word response aims to bring about greater objectivity in the assessment of affect, and also aims to minimise the element of subjectivity in the interpretation.
- The structural strategy involves looking for mechanisms to explain correlations, building statistical models to represent hypothesized mechanisms, testing models through statistical tests and background knowledge, and evaluating the overall validity of the model to make causal inferences.
- The interventionist strategy focuses on invariance under intervention as a definition of causation, but this lacks a clear methodological application to observational data. Weak invariance, stability across subpopulations, provides one way to test causal claims with observational data.
- Overall, the best approach is to consider causal modeling as evaluating the validity of a whole explanatory model, not just testing a single condition, to make sense of correlations.
This document provides a preview of a study that examines how task conflict can lead to positive emotions and increased job satisfaction. The study, conducted by Tordorova, Weingart, and Bear, surveyed 232 employees at a long-term health care organization over two time periods. It found that mild task conflict between employees from different departments led to more information sharing and positive emotions, such as feeling active and interested. However, intense task conflict did not always have these positive effects and depended on other contextual factors. The study aimed to understand how task conflict, positive emotions, and information acquisition relate to job satisfaction.
Attitude scales are designed to quantitatively measure attitudes towards issues, institutions, or groups of people. They present statements along a continuum from strongly favorable to strongly unfavorable. Respondents indicate their level of agreement using a rating scale. Common methods include Thurstone's technique of having judges sort statements, Likert's method of summated ratings which scores responses, and Guttman's approach which orders statements by level of agreement. The scales aim to indirectly assess attitudes on controversial topics through standardized questionnaires.
This document provides an overview of expectancy theory, a motivation theory developed by Victor Vroom in 1964. The theory proposes that motivation is based on the expectation that effort will lead to good performance, which will result in an attractive reward. It defines three key variables that determine motivation level: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Motivation is calculated as the product of these three variables. The document discusses the theory's mechanism, application in work settings, limitations, and subsequent developments like Lawler's model.
An attitude scale is used to measure attitudes towards issues, institutions, or groups of people. It provides a quantitative measure on a continuum from extremely positive to extremely negative. The Likert scale and Thurstone technique are two common methods for indirectly measuring attitudes. The Likert scale uses statements rated on a 5-point agreement scale, while the Thurstone technique has judges sort statements into categories to determine scaled values. Attitude scales are useful but have limitations such as respondents potentially hiding their true attitudes or being unaware of them. Overall, attitude scales remain a valuable tool for measuring attitudes in social research.
Cognitive Psychology, Learning and Memory for IGNOU studentsPsychoTech Services
The triarchic theory of intelligence proposes that human intelligence involves three aspects: meta-components which control problem-solving and decision making, performance components which carry out actions, and knowledge-acquisition components which obtain new information. Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as adapting to and shaping one's environment. His theory analyzed the mind in terms of these executive, processing, and learning components to provide a more cognitive and less psychometric view of intelligence than prior approaches.
The role of social heuristics in deliberative outcomes | María G. NavarroMaría G. Navarro
This document discusses social heuristics and their role in deliberative outcomes. It begins by defining key concepts related to heuristics such as ecological rationality, recognition, fluency take the best, satisficing, tit-for-tat, imitate the majority, and imitate the successful. It then examines how social heuristics can impact the results of deliberation and discusses two potential social heuristics: the reputation heuristic and group identification heuristic. The document provides references for further research on heuristics and deliberation.
The statistical analyses found that:
1) Ability to manage stress and course difficulty significantly predicted students' satisfaction with their college social life, explaining 7.2% of the variance. Adding social involvement improved the model, with it contributing most to prediction.
2) Students spent on average 3.77 nights studying and 3.34 nights partying per week. While a paired t-test found this 0.44 mean difference statistically significant, the author questions the strength of the effects and risks of type I/II errors due to the means and standard deviations being very close.
3) The author is cautious about fully trusting the results due to the small effect sizes, confidence intervals overlapping, and p-value being very close
The document discusses various theories of intelligence including general intelligence, multiple intelligences, emotional intelligence, and practical and creative intelligence. It also examines the genetic and environmental influences on intelligence, differences in intelligence scores between demographic groups, and controversies around measuring and quantifying intelligence.
Cognitive Psychology: Past, Present, and Contributions of PsychometricsJames Smith
Ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle made early contributions to cognitive psychology through their examination of perception, knowledge, and reasoning. In the pre-20th century, philosophers such as Descartes, Locke, and Berkeley further explored topics like the mind-body problem. In the 20th century, psychologists including Piaget, Kohler, and Skinner revolutionized the field through theories of cognitive development, studies of problem solving and perception, and research in behaviorism. Modern cognitive psychology also utilizes measures from psychometrics to study cognitive processes, with ongoing work to improve testing methods and their reliability and validity.
Improving Writing and Critical Thinking Competence in Psychology: A Primer a...James Tobin, Ph.D.
This manual was composed to support psychology students' ability at the undergraduate and graduate levels to write more effectively in a variety of contexts within academic and applied settings. The primer is not meant to be a comprehensive writing guide, but focuses instead on the core components of scholarly writing, critical thinking, and the formulation and execution of original ideas. The relevance of these competencies for clinical psychology training is emphasized throughout the manual. Exercises are provided to help the instructor and/or student with practice experiences to support the refinement of the ideas and skills presented.
This study examined the relationship between intuitive and reflective thinking and beliefs in God. 55 college students completed the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) to assess intuitive vs reflective thinking, and surveys on religious beliefs. Results showed that females had higher intuitive scores and beliefs in God, while males had higher reflective scores. Specifically, females were more likely to believe in God's existence, have increased religious beliefs since childhood, and report experiences confirming God's existence. Males were more likely to not believe in God's existence. The study suggests gender and thinking style (intuitive vs reflective) influence religious beliefs.
The limbic system is a set of brain structures located in the middle of the brain involved in emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction. It includes the hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, and other structures. The limbic system regulates emotions and plays an important role in learning, memory, and emotional responses. It is involved in the formation of memories related to events with emotional significance. The limbic system also influences the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system in the regulation of responses to stress and threats to survival.
The document discusses the semantic differential scale (S.D. scale), which was developed by Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum to measure psychological meanings of objects. The S.D. scale is based on the idea that objects have multiple connotative meanings that can be located in a multidimensional "semantic space." It uses bipolar rating scales, usually 7 points, for respondents to rate concepts. For example, leadership candidates could be rated on scales like "successful-unsuccessful" to analyze meanings. The S.D. scale aims to measure three factors - evaluation, potency, and activity - that contribute most to meaningful judgments.
Sentence completion tests are a class of semi-structured projective techniques.
Sentence completion tests typically provide respondents with beginnings of sentences, referred to as "stems", and respondents then complete the sentences in ways that are meaningful to them.
The responses are believed to provide indications of
Attitudes,
Beliefs,
Motivations, or other
Mental states.
Therefore, sentence completion technique, with such advantage, promotes the respondents to disclose their concealed feelings.
There is debate over whether or not sentence completion tests elicit responses from conscious thought rather than unconscious states.
This debate would affect its categorizing as projective tests
The document discusses four main types of attitude scales: Likert scales, Thurstone scales, Guttman scales, and semantic differential scales. It provides examples of each type of scale and how they are constructed and used to measure attitudes. Likert scales use a rating system to measure agreement with statements, Thurstone scales assign values to statements ranked by judges, Guttman scales use a cumulative approach, and semantic differential scales measure evaluations along bi-polar adjective scales.
1. Cognition involves obtaining, transforming, storing, retrieving and using information. It processes information actively and purposefully.
2. There are several theories of intelligence including Spearman's theory of general intelligence, Horn and Cattell's two-factor theory, Sternberg's triarchic theory, Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, and Goleman's theory of emotional intelligence.
3. Problem solving involves identifying the problem, understanding its elements, and generating and evaluating solutions. Common barriers to problem solving are functional fixedness and only applying past methods.
There are two main types of composite measures - indexes and scales. Indexes use nominal level indicators that are given equal weight, while scales use continuous level indicators where each response contributes differently to the total score. Both can be weighted or unweighted. Constructing indexes and scales requires selecting valid items, examining relationships between items and constructs, and handling missing data. Common scale types include Thurstone, Likert, semantic differential, and Guttman scales. Typologies summarize variables into nominal categories but risk oversimplification. Validity and reliability are important concepts for measuring devices.
This variable is nominal. It classifies respondents into categories (married, widowed, divorced, etc.) without implying any rank among them. The numbers assigned to the categories (1, 2, 3, etc.) have no mathematical meaning.
The document provides an overview of objective and projective personality tests used in clinical assessment. It defines clinical assessment and its purposes. It then describes several commonly used objective personality tests, including the MMPI-2, MCMI-III, PAI, BDI-II, MBTI, 16PF, and SASSI. It discusses the purpose, administration, scales, reliability, and validity of each test. The document also provides an overview of projective tests, focusing on the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
This document discusses reliability and validity in psychological measurement and research. It defines reliability as a measure's ability to accurately capture an individual's true score, and identifies different types of reliability like test-retest and internal consistency. Validity refers to whether a measurement is actually measuring the intended construct. The document outlines criteria for assessing different types of validity, including content, criterion, and construct validity. It emphasizes that reliability and validity are key concerns in psychology due to challenges in developing reliable measures of psychological constructs.
Decoding word association 5 word to three word association testCol Mukteshwar Prasad
There is certainly certain amount of subjectivity in WAT assessment and it is not yet amenable for computerisation which is the norm today. This test is used as confirmation of findings in TAT being conducted just before this test
The need for a new WAT is felt, owing to the great amount of subjectivity in the interpretation and scoring of the test.
The new WAT which is one word to three word response aims to bring about greater objectivity in the assessment of affect, and also aims to minimise the element of subjectivity in the interpretation.
- The structural strategy involves looking for mechanisms to explain correlations, building statistical models to represent hypothesized mechanisms, testing models through statistical tests and background knowledge, and evaluating the overall validity of the model to make causal inferences.
- The interventionist strategy focuses on invariance under intervention as a definition of causation, but this lacks a clear methodological application to observational data. Weak invariance, stability across subpopulations, provides one way to test causal claims with observational data.
- Overall, the best approach is to consider causal modeling as evaluating the validity of a whole explanatory model, not just testing a single condition, to make sense of correlations.
This document provides a preview of a study that examines how task conflict can lead to positive emotions and increased job satisfaction. The study, conducted by Tordorova, Weingart, and Bear, surveyed 232 employees at a long-term health care organization over two time periods. It found that mild task conflict between employees from different departments led to more information sharing and positive emotions, such as feeling active and interested. However, intense task conflict did not always have these positive effects and depended on other contextual factors. The study aimed to understand how task conflict, positive emotions, and information acquisition relate to job satisfaction.
Attitude scales are designed to quantitatively measure attitudes towards issues, institutions, or groups of people. They present statements along a continuum from strongly favorable to strongly unfavorable. Respondents indicate their level of agreement using a rating scale. Common methods include Thurstone's technique of having judges sort statements, Likert's method of summated ratings which scores responses, and Guttman's approach which orders statements by level of agreement. The scales aim to indirectly assess attitudes on controversial topics through standardized questionnaires.
This document provides an overview of expectancy theory, a motivation theory developed by Victor Vroom in 1964. The theory proposes that motivation is based on the expectation that effort will lead to good performance, which will result in an attractive reward. It defines three key variables that determine motivation level: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Motivation is calculated as the product of these three variables. The document discusses the theory's mechanism, application in work settings, limitations, and subsequent developments like Lawler's model.
An attitude scale is used to measure attitudes towards issues, institutions, or groups of people. It provides a quantitative measure on a continuum from extremely positive to extremely negative. The Likert scale and Thurstone technique are two common methods for indirectly measuring attitudes. The Likert scale uses statements rated on a 5-point agreement scale, while the Thurstone technique has judges sort statements into categories to determine scaled values. Attitude scales are useful but have limitations such as respondents potentially hiding their true attitudes or being unaware of them. Overall, attitude scales remain a valuable tool for measuring attitudes in social research.
Cognitive Psychology, Learning and Memory for IGNOU studentsPsychoTech Services
The triarchic theory of intelligence proposes that human intelligence involves three aspects: meta-components which control problem-solving and decision making, performance components which carry out actions, and knowledge-acquisition components which obtain new information. Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as adapting to and shaping one's environment. His theory analyzed the mind in terms of these executive, processing, and learning components to provide a more cognitive and less psychometric view of intelligence than prior approaches.
The role of social heuristics in deliberative outcomes | María G. NavarroMaría G. Navarro
This document discusses social heuristics and their role in deliberative outcomes. It begins by defining key concepts related to heuristics such as ecological rationality, recognition, fluency take the best, satisficing, tit-for-tat, imitate the majority, and imitate the successful. It then examines how social heuristics can impact the results of deliberation and discusses two potential social heuristics: the reputation heuristic and group identification heuristic. The document provides references for further research on heuristics and deliberation.
The statistical analyses found that:
1) Ability to manage stress and course difficulty significantly predicted students' satisfaction with their college social life, explaining 7.2% of the variance. Adding social involvement improved the model, with it contributing most to prediction.
2) Students spent on average 3.77 nights studying and 3.34 nights partying per week. While a paired t-test found this 0.44 mean difference statistically significant, the author questions the strength of the effects and risks of type I/II errors due to the means and standard deviations being very close.
3) The author is cautious about fully trusting the results due to the small effect sizes, confidence intervals overlapping, and p-value being very close
The document discusses various theories of intelligence including general intelligence, multiple intelligences, emotional intelligence, and practical and creative intelligence. It also examines the genetic and environmental influences on intelligence, differences in intelligence scores between demographic groups, and controversies around measuring and quantifying intelligence.
Cognitive Psychology: Past, Present, and Contributions of PsychometricsJames Smith
Ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle made early contributions to cognitive psychology through their examination of perception, knowledge, and reasoning. In the pre-20th century, philosophers such as Descartes, Locke, and Berkeley further explored topics like the mind-body problem. In the 20th century, psychologists including Piaget, Kohler, and Skinner revolutionized the field through theories of cognitive development, studies of problem solving and perception, and research in behaviorism. Modern cognitive psychology also utilizes measures from psychometrics to study cognitive processes, with ongoing work to improve testing methods and their reliability and validity.
Improving Writing and Critical Thinking Competence in Psychology: A Primer a...James Tobin, Ph.D.
This manual was composed to support psychology students' ability at the undergraduate and graduate levels to write more effectively in a variety of contexts within academic and applied settings. The primer is not meant to be a comprehensive writing guide, but focuses instead on the core components of scholarly writing, critical thinking, and the formulation and execution of original ideas. The relevance of these competencies for clinical psychology training is emphasized throughout the manual. Exercises are provided to help the instructor and/or student with practice experiences to support the refinement of the ideas and skills presented.
This study examined the relationship between intuitive and reflective thinking and beliefs in God. 55 college students completed the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) to assess intuitive vs reflective thinking, and surveys on religious beliefs. Results showed that females had higher intuitive scores and beliefs in God, while males had higher reflective scores. Specifically, females were more likely to believe in God's existence, have increased religious beliefs since childhood, and report experiences confirming God's existence. Males were more likely to not believe in God's existence. The study suggests gender and thinking style (intuitive vs reflective) influence religious beliefs.
The limbic system is a set of brain structures located in the middle of the brain involved in emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction. It includes the hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, and other structures. The limbic system regulates emotions and plays an important role in learning, memory, and emotional responses. It is involved in the formation of memories related to events with emotional significance. The limbic system also influences the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system in the regulation of responses to stress and threats to survival.
The document discusses the semantic differential scale (S.D. scale), which was developed by Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum to measure psychological meanings of objects. The S.D. scale is based on the idea that objects have multiple connotative meanings that can be located in a multidimensional "semantic space." It uses bipolar rating scales, usually 7 points, for respondents to rate concepts. For example, leadership candidates could be rated on scales like "successful-unsuccessful" to analyze meanings. The S.D. scale aims to measure three factors - evaluation, potency, and activity - that contribute most to meaningful judgments.
Sentence completion tests are a class of semi-structured projective techniques.
Sentence completion tests typically provide respondents with beginnings of sentences, referred to as "stems", and respondents then complete the sentences in ways that are meaningful to them.
The responses are believed to provide indications of
Attitudes,
Beliefs,
Motivations, or other
Mental states.
Therefore, sentence completion technique, with such advantage, promotes the respondents to disclose their concealed feelings.
There is debate over whether or not sentence completion tests elicit responses from conscious thought rather than unconscious states.
This debate would affect its categorizing as projective tests
The document discusses four main types of attitude scales: Likert scales, Thurstone scales, Guttman scales, and semantic differential scales. It provides examples of each type of scale and how they are constructed and used to measure attitudes. Likert scales use a rating system to measure agreement with statements, Thurstone scales assign values to statements ranked by judges, Guttman scales use a cumulative approach, and semantic differential scales measure evaluations along bi-polar adjective scales.
1. Cognition involves obtaining, transforming, storing, retrieving and using information. It processes information actively and purposefully.
2. There are several theories of intelligence including Spearman's theory of general intelligence, Horn and Cattell's two-factor theory, Sternberg's triarchic theory, Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, and Goleman's theory of emotional intelligence.
3. Problem solving involves identifying the problem, understanding its elements, and generating and evaluating solutions. Common barriers to problem solving are functional fixedness and only applying past methods.
There are two main types of composite measures - indexes and scales. Indexes use nominal level indicators that are given equal weight, while scales use continuous level indicators where each response contributes differently to the total score. Both can be weighted or unweighted. Constructing indexes and scales requires selecting valid items, examining relationships between items and constructs, and handling missing data. Common scale types include Thurstone, Likert, semantic differential, and Guttman scales. Typologies summarize variables into nominal categories but risk oversimplification. Validity and reliability are important concepts for measuring devices.
This variable is nominal. It classifies respondents into categories (married, widowed, divorced, etc.) without implying any rank among them. The numbers assigned to the categories (1, 2, 3, etc.) have no mathematical meaning.
The document provides an overview of objective and projective personality tests used in clinical assessment. It defines clinical assessment and its purposes. It then describes several commonly used objective personality tests, including the MMPI-2, MCMI-III, PAI, BDI-II, MBTI, 16PF, and SASSI. It discusses the purpose, administration, scales, reliability, and validity of each test. The document also provides an overview of projective tests, focusing on the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
This document discusses approaches to measurement in social science, including quantitative and qualitative methods. It addresses conceptual issues around measuring abstract concepts and outlines methodological precepts. Two examples are provided: measuring socioeconomic status and age. While age is relatively easy to measure, socioeconomic status involves more controversy over indicators. The document advocates first using qualitative methods on small scales to observe practices before measuring on a large scale. It also argues that larger samples and more precise measurements are not always better, and qualitative research can provide important contextual interpretation to complement quantitative data.
Research methods 2 operationalization & measurementattique1960
The document discusses key concepts in research methods including operationalization, hypotheses generation, units of analysis, measurement, levels of measurement, and reducing errors. It explains that a hypothesis is a proposed relationship between variables that can be tested. Good hypotheses should be empirical, general, plausible, specific, and relate to collected data. Measurement involves systematically observing variables and assigning numerical values. There are four levels of measurement - nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio - that determine appropriate statistical analyses. Error can be reduced through pilot testing, thorough training, and using multiple measures.
1. The document discusses several key concepts in psychology including intuition, common sense, the scientific method, experimentation, correlation, causation, statistical analysis and making inferences from data. It provides examples to illustrate limits of intuition and use of various research methods.
2. Key research methods covered include case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, experiments and correlation research. Steps of the scientific method and experimentation are outlined.
3. The importance of statistical analysis for interpreting data is emphasized. Concepts like measures of central tendency, variation, distributions and determining statistical significance are examined.
Psychometrics is the field of studying psychological measurement and focuses on measuring psychological constructs. It originated from both Victorian and Germanian streams of thought and measurement theory has since developed, including classical test theory and item response theory. Key concepts in psychometrics include reliability, validity, factor analysis, and measuring latent traits indirectly through observable behaviors. Challenges in psychological measurement include lack of universal agreement on approaches, measurement error, and defining units of measurement for latent constructs.
1. A good questionnaire must demonstrate validity, reliability, and discrimination. Discrimination means that people with different scores on the questionnaire should differ in meaningful ways on the underlying construct being measured.
2. Validity refers to whether the questionnaire accurately measures what it intends to measure. This includes content validity, criterion validity, and factorial validity. Reliability means the questionnaire produces consistent results under the same conditions.
3. The document provides examples to illustrate discrimination and discusses strategies for establishing validity and reliability, including factor analysis and Cronbach's alpha. It emphasizes that designing a good questionnaire takes significant time and effort.
A Theory Of Careers And Vocational Choice Based Upon...Dana Boo
The document discusses the Holland Codes RIASEC theory of careers and vocational choice based on personality types. Psychologist John Holland developed the theory which categorizes personality into six types: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. The theory uses a three-letter code to represent a client's overall personality based on their interests. Tests like the O*NET Interest Profiler and Interest-Finder use Holland's codes to assess personality types and suggest suitable careers.
Standardized testing can take two forms: norm-referenced which compares test takers to each other, and criterion-referenced which determines if an individual has achieved a specified standard. Norm-referenced testing aims to discriminate between test takers in order to distribute scarce resources like university places. It became popular during WWI when psychological testing was used to contribute to the war effort. Proponents viewed testing as a scientific process of quantifying and measuring abilities. However, others argue that defining and measuring constructs like traits is problematic. Test scores are distributed along a normal curve and take on meaning based on their position within that distribution compared to other test takers. Reliability ensures test scores are consistent over time without instruction.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS.pptBhawna173140
This document discusses key concepts in quantitative research design and methods. It covers types of quantitative research including exploratory, descriptive, and causal research. It also discusses measurement fundamentals such as concepts, variables, levels of measurement including nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. Additionally, it covers research validity including construct validity, internal validity, external validity, and statistical validity. The document provides examples and definitions to explain these important quantitative research concepts.
Methodology and EthicsSocial Psychology An Empirical .docxARIV4
Methodology and Ethics
Social Psychology:
An Empirical Science
2
Social Psychology:
An Empirical Science
Results of some experiments may seem obvious
Why?
3
Scientific Method
H ypothesize
O perationalize
M easure
E valuate
R evise/Replicate
4
How are Hypotheses Formulated?
Previous theories and research
Personal observation
HYPOTHESIS: an explicit, testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur.
5
Operationalize
Conceptual variable: The general abstract definition of a variable. (the dictionary definition)
Operational definition: The specific procedures for manipulating or measuring a conceptual variable. (concrete application)
6
“Birds of a feather flock together.”
Hypothesis (conceptual)
similar people will be more attracted to each other
Hypothesis (operational)
personality test choose partners
height, age attraction questionnaire
Construct Validity: How well measures in a study reflect the variables they are intended to measure and manipulations in a study reflect the variables they are intended to manipulate.
7
1.Response to a mirror
2. Questionnaire
1. Questionnaire
2. non-verbal behavior
1. time spend staring
2. questionnaire
3. pupil dilation
1. speed running away
2. questionnaire
3. facial expression
Evaluation of the self
Negative feeling based on group membership
Desire between two people
Feeling scared
Self-esteem
Prejudice
Attraction
Fear
Operational
(concrete)
Conceptual (dictionary)
Variables
Click to edit Master text styles
Second level
Third level
Fourth level
Fifth level
8
Scientific Method
H ypothesize
O perationalize
M easure
E valuate
R evise/Replicate
Social psychologists use the same methods as other scientists.
Theories and hypotheses can change dramatically
Researchers often find that collected data indicate findings that are quite disparate from the projected findings
9
Three Measurement Methods
Observational
Goal: Description
Correlational
Goal: Prediction
Experimental
Goal: Answer causal questions
Observational Method
Researcher observes people and systematically records measurements of impressions of their behavior.
11
Observational Method
Ethnography
12
Observational Method
Archival Analysis (Historical Records)
13
Observational Method
Example
Research Question
14
Observational Method
Example
Method
Behaviors are concretely defined before the observation begins
Observer systematically:
Accuracy of observer is assessed
Interjudge reliability
15
Interjudge Reliability
Interjudge Reliability
The level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data.
16
Limits of Observational Method
Certain behaviors difficult to observe
Archival analysis
Does not allow prediction and explanation
17
Advantage:
Disadvantage:
18
Correlational Method
Two or more variables are systematically mea ...
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1. How does health psychology measure up? A critical look at measurement in health psychology Matthew Hankins16th September 2011
2. The empirical basis of Health Psychology Why do Health Psychologists collect data? Theory generation, esp. identifying constructs Theory corroboration Measuring outcomes (trials etc.) The value of such activities is therefore critically dependent on the quality of the data 2
3. Questionnaire measures Majority of data collected by Health Psychologists is generated by questionnaire measures (‘scales’) Questionnaires vary in the quality of data that they generate Validity: extent to which the questionnaire measures what is intended Reliability: extent to which variance in data reflects variance in construct measured Index of measurement error 3
4. Pragmatic approach Validity Unidimensionality (factor analysis) Associations between measures Discrimination between known groups Reliability Estimated by Cronbach’s Alpha Or test-retest correlation 4
5. Scale development Combination of these approaches is derived from ‘Classical Test Theory’ (CTT) Originated with Spearman (1904) Landmark text: Guilford 2nd ed. (1954) Fully developed by Lord & Novick (1968) Further developments: ‘item-response theory’ (IRT) E.gRasch model (1960) CTT implicit in most empirical Health Psychology research 5
6. What is a scale? A scale orders people on the construct of interest Both CTT & IRT agree that a person’s position on the dimension can be estimated from the item scores Strength of IRT is that it does not assume that a set of correlated items forms a scale Implicit in CTT: if items load on same factor, we automatically assume that they form a scale 6 LowPerson APerson BPerson CPerson D High Construct
7. Scaling problem Whether a set of items forms a scale is a hypothesis (Guttman 1950) Formally tested whether items formed ‘Guttman scales’ “In contemporary psychometric practice, it is the rule rather than the exception that two people having the same score on a test will have [endorsed]different items…Such scores are crude empirical devices known to have some predictive efficiency, but they cannot be called measurements in any strict sense” (Loevinger 1948) Additionally, there is no rational basis for adding up a set of ordinalLikert scores unless they have been shown to scale 7
8. Example: PHQ-9 Feeling tired + Little interest in doing things + Poor appetite several days in last 2 weeks Scale score = +3 Thoughts of hurting yourself in some way nearly every day in last 2 weeks Scale score = +3 Are these responses really equivalent? 8
9. Implications If a set of items are assumed to form a scale, then we cannot be sure that the scale score accurately ranks people on the construct of interest People with different positions may be assigned the same score People with the same position may be assigned different scores Unless we test this hypothesis, assessing reliability & validity is pointless 9
10. Rejecting the hypothesis of a scale Scales are very rarely ‘rejected’ in health psychology Reliability is usually reported as ‘acceptable’ or ‘good’ Based on arbitrary cut-off around 0.7 (0.6, 0.5…) “Test-retest reliability was acceptable (r=0.43)” Criteria for validity are usually not specified in advance Any factor structure can be accommodated Any association can be cited as ‘validating’ scale Formal testing of ‘scalability’ of items rare 10
11. 11 Disordered categories What we would like: interval scales What we might have: ordinal scales What we probably have: disordered categories A scale that cannot rank-order people is not a scale
12. Item ‘difficulty’ (intensity) The problem arises because CTT does not account for item difficulty or intensity Some items are endorsed at low levels of the construct ‘Low intensity item’ Endorsement may indicate low or high level of construct Some items are endorsed at high levels of the construct ‘High intensity item’ Endorsement indicates high level of construct 12
13. Example: PHQ-9 Feeling tiredon several days is a low intensity item Endorsed at low level of depression But may also be endorsed at higher levels of depression 13 LowYesYesYesYes High Depression
14. Example: PHQ-9 Thoughts of hurting yourself in some way nearly every day in last 2 weeks is a high intensity item Endorsed at high level of depression But not endorsed at lower levels of depression 14 LowNoNoNo Yes High Depression
15. How CTT fails to deal with item intensity Factor analysis groups items of similar intensity Factor analysis of a unidimensional construct will produce more than one ‘factor’ These ‘factors’ are simply sets of items with similar intensities 15
16. Example: GHQ-12 Example: GHQ-12 Many studies report 2- or 3-factor solutions ‘Factors’ simply group items by intensity (Hankins 2008) 16 Low High 7 45 2 6 10 11 1 129 8 3 Psychiatric morbidity
17. How CTT fails to deal with item intensity Selecting items on basis of factor analysis exacerbates problem, but simultaneously conceals it Items are selected on basis of similar intensities, creating scales with limited range but high reliability 17 Low High 7 45 2 6 10 11 1 129 8 3 Psychiatric morbidity 7 4 1 12 8 3 Low High Psychiatric morbidity
18. Why Rasch modelling is not the answer Rasch modelling (RM) explicitly takes into account item intensities Stochastic Guttman scale Tests the hypothesis that items form a scale Additionally claims to produce interval scaling & ‘objective’ measurement Increasingly popular in Health Psychology 18
19. CTT vs. IRT Argument tends to be that IRT is superior to CTT & IRT is ‘objective’ measurement Differences more apparent than real: Large correlations between CTT data & IRT data If data treated as ordinal, perfect correlation between CTT & Rasch data 19 From Embretson & Reise (2000)
21. Problems Rasch models require very large samples to allow estimation of person and item parameters Very strong assumptions, e.g. logistic item-response curve Why should all items have the same form of response? The data must fit the model, not the other way round Discards potentially useful data to fit arbitrary assumptions Interval scaling is questionable gain if psychological constructs are not quantitative in the first place 21
22. Ontological diversion In general, psychologists seem to believe that attributes are either categorical or quantitative A ‘cat’ is a different from a ‘tree’: different categories, difference is qualitative 30cm is different 60cm: different quantities, difference is quantitative Having made this distinction, quantitative attributes may be measured as categorical, ordinal, interval Ordinal attributes cannot exist in their own right Just a way of collecting data on a quantitative attribute 22
23. Ontological diversion Russell (1896): the difference between two quantities is itself a quantity The difference between two lengths is itself a length For psychological attributes to be quantitative, the difference between two ‘levels’ of that attribute must itself be a ‘level’ of that attribute Is the difference between two pleasures itself a pleasure? Is the difference between two levels of depression itself a level of depression? If not, are psychological states then merely categorical? But what then do we mean by ‘severity’ of depression? 23
24. Ontological diversion Is it possible for psychological attributes to be ordinal? Can something exist in degree but not quantity? Michell (2009) argues that we cannot assume quantity from degree shows that they are logically separable: “It is possible that an ordered attribute is non-quantitative” Collingwood (1933) argues that some concepts exist only in degree 24
25. Ontological diversion Are we comfortable talking about degree, rather than quantity? Implicit in our descriptions and experiences of psychological attributes But does not require the assumption that the attributes are quantitative 25
26. The degrees of the lie JAQUES Can you nominate in order now the degrees of the lie? TOUCHSTONE O sir, we quarrel in print, by the book; as you have books for good manners: I will name you the degrees. The first, the Retort Courteous; the second, theQuip Modest; the third, the Reply Churlish; thefourth, the Reproof Valiant; the fifth, theCountercheque Quarrelsome; the sixth, the Lie withCircumstance; the seventh, the Lie Direct. As You Like It, Act 5 Scene 1 26
27. Summary Measurement methods in health psychology are suboptimal In particular, the fundamental assumption that correlated items form a scale is not routinely tested IRT models such as the Rasch model assume that interval scaling is meaningful Psychological attributes may not exist as quantities Is there a method for constructing purely ordinal scales? 27
28. Non-parametric IRT (NPIRT) E.g. Mokken (1971) Takes into account item intensities Stochastic Guttman scale Claims only to rank order people Very weak assumptions Retains data Complements CTT Uses simple scale score 28
30. Mokken (1971) proposed two models Monotone homogeneity model (MH) Doubly monotone model (DM) Scales fitting the MH model rank order people on the attribute of interest Corollary is that scales not fitting the MH model do not rank order people on the attribute of interest
31. Select items for the scale based on homogeneity Assess whether the resulting scale fits the MH model Scaling procedure and the MH model based on the following minimal assumptions: For all items, if person A has a higher degree of X than person B, A’s probability of endorsing an item will be equal to or higher than B’s Local independence: item scores are uncorrelated for the same degree of attribute
32. If the purpose of the scale is to rank order peopleon a given attribute then the scale must be monotone homogenous Probability of item being endorsed must be monotone nondecreasingagainst attribute i.e. probability of item endorsement does not decrease with an increase in the measured attribute * - as estimated from the remaining items of the scale
33. For this GHQ-12 item the probability of endorsement reaches 50% at a low level of psychological distress. It is therefore a low intensity item: people endorsing this item are signalling a low level of distress.
34. For this GHQ-12 item the probability of endorsement reaches 50% at a high level of psychological distress. It is therefore a high intensity item: people endorsing this item are signalling a high level of distress.
35. If two items belong to a unidimensional scale, then: Endorsing the more intense item entails that the less intense item also be endorsed Endorsing the less intense item does not entail that the more intense item be endorsed For a Guttman scale, these are deterministic statements For a Mokken scale, these are probabilistic statements
36. Less intense item More intense item AGuttman error occurs when the moreintense item is endorsed but not the less intense item Too many Guttman errors imply that items are not measuring the same attribute
37. This asymmetrical relationship between item pairs can be summarised with Loevinger’s H H is the coefficient of homogeneity between two items i and j Ranges from 0.0 to 1.0 0.0 indicates no association between items 1.0 indicates perfect association, given the differences in item intensity 1.0 also indicates no Guttman errors Mokken (1971) developed H for scale development Hij: Homogeneity of pair of items Hi : Homogeneity of item i with all items H : Homogeneity of scale
38. All Hij > 0 Start with item pair with highest Hij Select third item to maximise scale H Proceed until H reaches threshold value c Produces a unidimensional scale c = 0.3; weak scale c = 0.4; medium scale c = 0.5; strong scale c = 1.0; perfect Guttman scale
39. Results for GHQ-12 Step Item Scale H 1 p6d 0.79 1 n4d 0.79 2 n6d 0.73 3 n5d 0.68 4 n2d 0.64 5 n3d 0.61 6 p5d 0.59 7 p3d 0.57 8 p4d 0.55 9 n1d 0.53 10 p2d 0.51 11 p1d 0.50 => the items of the GHQ-12 form a strong unidimensional scale
43. Conclusion The GHQ-12 is a strongly homogenous unidimensional scale Small deviations from monotone homogeneity, none significant The GHQ-12 summed score can rank order people by the measured attribute i.e. it can serve as an ordinal measure of severity of psychiatric impairment Compare to results of EFA/CFA studies
44. Example: Northwick Park dependency scale Item selection from pool of 16 items Item Scale H Q8 0.93 Q5 0.93 Q9 0.93 Q2 0.91 Q1 0.88 Q13 0.87 Q7 0.84 Q12 0.82 Q6 0.79 Q14 0.76 Q4 0.74 Q3 0.70 Q11 0.67 Q15 0.62 14 items form unidimensional scale
45. Two items with serious violations of monotone homogeneity Item H #vi maxvizmax #zsig Q3 0.45 6 0.25 2.88 4 Q11 0.32 5 0.28 3.43 2 Q3: help required using toilet (urination) Q11: help required with drinking
46.
47. Some items decrease in probability as attribute increases With extreme dependency, patients require less help with drinking and emptying bladder Because at this extreme, they are more likely to be tube-fed and catheterised Hence, for these items, probability of endorsement decreases as dependency increases Scale is not monotone homogenous The summed score will not rank order people on the measured attribute
48. Summary The credibility of Health Psychology research & practice rests on its empirical evidence base This evidence base relies on the quality of questionnaire data The quality of questionnaire data may be compromised by the use of inappropriate methods We should stop relying on factor analysis & reliability coefficients & test the hypothesis that a set of items constitutes a scale 48