Cognitive Psychology, Learning and Memory for IGNOU students

Psychology Super Notes© 2015, M S Ahluwalia Psychology Learners
MPC001/ASST/TMA/2014-15
IGNOU Assignment

Cognitive Psychology,
Learning and Memory
Solved Assignment - MAPC

1000 words
Section A
3

Discuss the information processing
and computer simulation approach
to problem solving.
Q1.
4

Information Processing and Computer Simulation
5
A1
The development of the modern computer has influenced current ways of thinking about cognition through
computer simulation of cognitive processes for research purposes and through the creation of information-
processing models.
These models portray cognition as a system that receives information, represents it with symbols, and then
manipulates the representations in various ways. The senses transmit information from outside stimuli to the brain,
which applies perceptual processes to interpret it and then decides how to respond to it. The information may simply
be stored in the memory or it may be acted on. Acting on it usually affects a person’s environment in some way,
providing more feedback for the system to process.
Information is defined as a pattern that "rides" on matter or energy. In information sciences patterns and structures
are the primary focus of study. One entity can cause a change in another with only an infinitesimal transference of
energy. The causer or controller does it with a signal rather than a push.

The General Problem Solver (GPS)
6
A1
It is a theory of human problem solving stated in the form of a simulation program (Ernst & Newell, 1969; Newell &
Simon, 1972). This program and the associated theoretical framework had a significant impact on the subsequent
direction of cognitive psychology. It also introduced the use of productions as a method for specifying cognitive
models.
The theoretical framework was information processing and attempted to explain all behavior as a function of
memory operations, control processes and rules.
The methodology for testing the theory involved developing a computer simulation and then comparing the results of
the simulation with human behavior in a given task. Such comparisons also made use of protocol analysis (Ericsson &
Simon, 1984) in which the verbal reports of a person solving a task are used as indicators of cognitive processes.
GPS was intended to provide a core set of processes that could be used to solve a variety of different types of
problems. The critical step in solving a problem with GPS is the definition of the problem space in terms of the goal to
be achieved and the transformation rules. Using a means-end-analysis approach, GPS would divide the overall goal
into sub-goals and attempt to solve each of those. Some of the basic solution rules include: (1) transform one object
into another, (2) reduce the different between two objects, and (3) apply an operator to an object. One of the key
elements need by GPS to solve problems was an operator-difference table that specified what transformations were
possible.
While GPS was intended to be a general problem-solver, it could only be applied to "well-defined" problems such as
proving theorems in logic or geometry, word puzzles and chess. However, GPS was the basis other theoretical work
by Newell et al. such as SOAR and GOMS.

The General Problem Solver (GPS) contd.
7
A1
Principles
Problem-solving behavior involves means-ends-analysis, i.e., breaking a problem down into subcomponents (sub-
goals) and solving each of those.
Information processing systems
Simon and Newell: An analysis follows what happens from the beginning of a task, such as being given a problem to
solve, to the end with the problem solved. The basic theory is that much of the sequence of events can be thought of
as the movement, storage and transformation of information.
Major components and information flow
· receptors—senses
· processors--transform, interpret, integrate, select--attention, set, automatic and controlled processes
· memories--long term, short term, working, STSS.
· effectors--muscles, glands
Information enters the system via the receptors and then is transformed and operated on by the processors, some
intervening outputs are temporarily stored and others are more permanently stored in memory, outputs are
generated which lead to behavior and interaction with the environment.

The General Problem Solver (GPS) contd.
8
A1
Procedure
1) Identifying the problem space. The first stage of an analysis of a problem is to identify the initial and goal states
(Newell & Simon, 1972). These two states define the boundary of the problem space. The larger the "distance"
between the two states the larger the problem space.
2) Identifying some of the intermediate states between the initial and goal state. Only for trivial problems can the
solver go directly from the initial state to the goal state. There are usually going to be relatively stable describable
intermediate states which need to be reached. Both the problem solver and the analyst may need to know of these.
3) Identifying what needs to be done; the "moves," which enable the problem solver to get from one state to
another. In order for a problem to be solved there has to be some procedure by which the situation is transformed
from one state to another.
4) Identifying the resources, e.g., knowledge, skills, materiel, personnel and time, needed to execute each of the
moves. What is needed in order to reach each of the states from the immediately previous state?
David Marr's approach
The classical view of cognitive science distinguishes at least three different levels of analysis, named according to
David Marr terminology:
1) Computation. The problem solver must analyze the task that needs to be done rather carefully. This requires an
analysis of the specific parts. What are the inputs to the problem? What are the relations between the parts?
2) Algorithm (and representation). The second task for the problem solver is to specify an effective procedure that
one can carry out in order to achieve the goal of the task. This requires a specific characterization of the sequence of
operations that operate on a given data base; if the sequence is followed, it will lead to a solution of the problem.
3) Implementation. This requires identifying a set of physical objects which can carry out the algorithm automatically.
Strategies
Trial and error, Hill climbing, Means-ends analysis, sub-goals, goal stack, forward chaining, structural analysis.

Summary and Sources
9
A1
Other contributions in the area of information processing include D.E. Broadbent’s information theory of attention,
learning, and memory; Miller, Galanter, and Pribram’s analysis of planning and problem solving; and, Wickelgren’s
General Problem Solving Strategies.
* * *
Computer simulations have played a key role in the development and dissemination of knowledge in various areas.
Information processing is no different. Computer simulations have enabled a better understanding of how
information processing may be happening inside the human brain. The breakthrough work in the area was done by
Simon and Newell and is called the General Problem Solver. The theoretical framework was information processing
and attempted to explain all behavior as a function of memory operations, control processes and rules. Computer
simulations were created and compared with human behaviour to understand cognitive processes.
Sources:
http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~segal/Information.htm
http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/general-problem-solver.html
Gale encyclopedia of Psychology

Describe Sternberg’s
Triarchic theory of intelligence.
Q2.
10

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
11
A2
The triarchic theory of intelligence was formulated by Robert J. Sternberg (Sternberg, 1985; Sternberg et al., 1995), a
prominent figure in the research of human intelligence. The theory was among the first to go against the
psychometric approach to intelligence and take a more cognitive approach.
Sternberg’s definition of human intelligence is “a mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection
and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one’s life” (Sternberg, 1985, p. 45), which means that intelligence
is how well an individual deals with environmental changes throughout their lifespan.
Sternberg associated the workings of the mind with a series of components (Sternberg, 1985). They are:
1. Meta-components: Executive processes used in problem solving and decision-making those involve the majority
of managing our mind. They tell the mind how to act. Also sometimes referred to as a homunculus, a fictitious or
metaphorical "person" inside our head that controls our actions, and which is often seen to invite an infinite regress
of homunculi controlling each other (Sternberg, 1985).
2. Performance components: Processes that actually carry out the actions the meta-components dictate. These are
the basic processes that allow us to do tasks, such as perceiving problems in our long-term memory, perceiving
relations between objects, and applying relations to another set of terms (Sternberg, 1997).
3. Knowledge-acquisition components: Used in obtaining new information. These components complete tasks that
involve selectively choosing information from irrelevant information and selectively combine the various pieces of
information gathered. Gifted individuals are proficient in using these components because they are able to learn new
information at a greater rate (Sternberg, 1997).
Whereas Sternberg explains that the basic information processing components underlying the three parts of his
triarchic theory are the same, different contexts and different tasks require different kind of intelligence (Sternberg,
2001). According to the Triarchic theory, there are three basic types of human intelligence.

Types of Intelligence
12
A2
1. Componential or analytic intelligence: It involves the abilities to think critically and analytically. Analytical
giftedness is influential in being able to take apart problems and being able to see solutions not often seen.
Persons high on this dimension usually excel on standard tests of academic potential and make excellent students.
Professors are typically high on this aspect of intelligence.
Unfortunately, individuals with only this type are not as adept at creating unique ideas of their own. This form of
giftedness is the type that is tested most often. (Sternberg, 1997).
2. Experiential or creative intelligence: It emphasizes insight and
the ability to formulate new ideas. Persons who rate high on this
dimension excel at zeroing in on what information is crucial in a
given situation, and at combining seemingly unrelated facts.
This is the kind of intelligence shown by many scientific geniuses
and inventors, such as Einstein, and Newton, and—some would
say— Freud.
Sternberg splits the role of experience into two parts: novelty and
automation. A novel situation is one that you have never
experienced before. People that are adept at managing a novel
situation can take the task and find new ways of solving it that
the majority of people would not notice (Sternberg, 1997). A
process that has been automated has been performed multiple
times and can now be done with little or no extra thought. Once a
process is automatized, it can be run in parallel with the same or
other processes. The problem with novelty and automation is
that being skilled in one component does not ensure that you are
skilled in the other (Sternberg, 1997).

Types of Intelligence contd.
13
A2
3. Contextual or practical intelligence: It “deals with the mental activity involved in attaining fit to context”
(Sternberg, 1985, p. 45). It involves the ability to apply synthetic and analytic skills to everyday situations. Persons
high on this dimension are often referred to as "street smarts."
Practically gifted people are superb in their ability to succeed in any setting (Sternberg, 1997). They use three
processes to create an ideal fit between themselves and their environment:
a. Adaptation occurs when one makes a change within oneself in order to better adjust to one’s surroundings
(Sternberg, 1985). Ex: when temperatures drop, people adapt by wearing extra layers of clothing to remain warm.
b. Shaping occurs when one changes their environment to better suit one’s needs (Sternberg, 1985). Ex: A teacher
may invoke the new rule of raising hands to speak to minimize disruption during speaking.
c. Selection is undertaken when a completely new alternate environment is found to replace the previous,
unsatisfying environment to meet the individual’s goals (Sternberg, 1985). Ex: Immigrants leave their homeland
countries where they endure economical and social hardships and go to other countries in search of a better and less
strained life.
Sternberg acknowledges that an individual is not restricted to having excellence in only one of these three
intelligences. Many people may possess an integration of all three and have high levels of all three intelligences.

Criticism of the theory
14
A2
Psychologist Linda Gottfredson (Gottfredson, 2003) criticises the unempirical nature of triarchic theory and argues
that it is absurd to assert that traditional Intelligence tests are not measuring practical intelligence when they show a
moderate correlation with income, especially at middle age when individuals have had a chance to reach their
maximum career potential, an even higher correlation with occupational prestige, and that IQ tests even predict the
ability to stay out of jail and stay alive (all of which qualifies as practical intelligence or "street smarts").
Gottfredson claims that what Sternberg calls practical intelligence is not a broad aspect of cognition at all but simply
a specific set of skills people learn to cope with a specific environment (task specific knowledge).
There is evidence to suggest that certain aspects of creativity (i.e. Divergent thinking) are separable from analytical
intelligence, and are better accounted for by the cognitive process of executive functioning. More specifically, task-
switching and interference management are suggested to play an important role in divergent thinking. A more recent
meta-Analysis found only small correlations between IQ and creativity (Kim, 2005).

Summary and Sources
15
A2
Growing evidence suggests that there is more to intelligence than the verbal, mathematical, and reasoning abilities
that are often associated with academic success. Sternberg proposed a tri-archic theory comprised of three
components. In his words, “You need creative intelligence to come up with an idea, analytical intelligence to know if
it’s a good idea, and practical intelligence to sell it” (Sternberg). Depending on the context, different types of
intelligence may be required by a person to succeed, or even survive.
Sources:
http://sites.psu.edu/caradorercl1314/2014/02/12/sternbergs-solution/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triarchic_theory_of_intelligence
Psychology, Robert Baron (Click for free eBook preview)

Discuss the structure of language.
Q3.
16

Structure of Language
17
A3
Structure of language is considered to be hierarchical
In a hierarchy elements at one level combine to construct elements at the higher level, a causal or constructive
relationship. Elements at one level ‘choose’ or constrain elements at the lower level, a regulatory relationship. Low
level elements are necessarily smaller than higher level units. Language is hierarchical in its structure. Ex: what we
use syntax for is constrained by what we wish to say i.e., semantics rules over syntax.
But, language isn’t a pure hierarchy. Ex: Phonology can impinge on syntactical analysis and on semantics - as in ‘Oh
yeah, I really love statistics’
The four key constraints on the various levels of language are:
1. Rule-based constraints: Formally specifiable mappings from one entity to another. Ex: syntax has regularities which
can be filled with variable values.
2. Physiological constraints: Specified by physiological or neurological limitations. Ex: the structure of the human
mouth cavity and tongue makes certain phonological combinations impossible for us to produce.
3. Statistical constraints: Refers to statistical regularities. Ex: very frequent words are easier to access than less
frequent words. Word frequency is just a statistical fact, not a rule-governed process.
4. Contextual constraints: The impact of context on the meaning of a linguistic element. Elements at one level of the
hierarchy (as well as external elements) may constrain how other levels are interpreted or processed.
These constraints are not independent: Ex: memory limitations (= physiological constraint) make some kinds of
sentences impossible, and may seem therefore like ‘rules’.

The Language Hierarchy
18
A3
The language hierarchy comprises of 6 levels as shown in the diagram below. Brief descriptions follow:

The Language Hierarchy contd.
19
A3
1. Phonology: Elementary sounds
Phonemes are the smallest units in a language that are experienced as different sounds by its native speakers. Ex:
'bat' and 'pat' differ by just one phoneme.
They are composed of different combinations of discernibly-different features that form the level below Phonemes.
Ex: voice onset time. Anything with voice-onset time < 20 ms. is 'b'; and voice onset time > 40 ms. is 'p'. People can't
distinguish between differences within the range.
English has 46 separate phonemes: vowels, a, e, i, o, and u; consonants, such as p, m, k, and d; and blends of the two.
Different languages often employ different groups of phonemes – sounds used in one language may be absent in
another, although learning the phonological structure of one language may increase one’s chances of proficiency in a
second language (Holm & Dodd, 1996).
2. Morphology: Elementary letter/sound combinations
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. Ex: “disliked” has three morphemes: “dis,” “lik,” and “ed.” In
English, Morphemes are usually whole words or meaningful parts of words, such as prefixes, suffixes, and word
stems. Some languages also allow infix attachment - morpheme is attached inside another morpheme.
Many words are made up of more than one morpheme, because they can take other morphemes as suffixes. In some
languages all words are made up of multiple morphemes, because they can be combined in richer ways than they can
in English, often playing the role that is played by word order (at the syntactical level) in English.
English has about 100,000 morphemes. Some of these are words; others, such as the plural s or prefixes such as un or
sub, are not.

20
A3
3. Lexical: Individual words
Word is a unit of language that native speakers can identify. They can be single or multi-morphemic. Ex: ‘a’ and ‘I’ are
single morphemic words, and, ‘disliked’ and ‘unknown’ are multi-morphemic.
Much of what we think of as word meaning is contained in the relation between words. Although your knowledge of,
say, dogs is not entirely linguistic because you have encountered real dogs- it is likely that your knowledge of justice
or Plato or East Timor probably is, because you probably know about all these things only from words.
The number of English words is considered to be around 500,000.
4. Syntax: Word combinations
Syntax is the process by which words are combined together to form phrases and sentences. Ex: an article such as
“the” must come before a noun, not after: “Read the book,” not “Read book the.”
Importance: Having a pronouncing dictionary of a foreign language (complete access to phonology and morphological
knowledge), gives almost no useful information about how to say anything. Most information is contained in the
word order, especially, in languages that do not use morphology to tag information about what role a word plays.
Syntax is aligned to the level of surface structure proposed by Chomsky: a superficial appearance, literal ordering of
words.
Number of possible combinations of words, is for all practical purposes infinite.

21
A3
5. Semantics: Meaning
Semantics refers to the rules used to communicate meaning using the lower level elements of language.
It is aligned to the level of deep structure proposed by Chomsky: Underlying representation of meaning. Producing
sentences requires transformation of the deep structure into a surface structure.
6. Pragmatics: Behavioral constraints on language use
There are additional higher-level constraints on what we can say, ones operating at the level of pragmatics – the
practical use of language. It determines our word choice and our interpretation of language in different settings.
Factors such as relevance and politeness play their role.
Ex: If someone asks "Do you want potato chips?” due to rules of pragmatics we consider the next thing said by you to
be relevant to the question. The reply "I'm getting too fat”, therefore, is not considered to be a new topic, but a
negative answer.
Discourse: The next level
Most linguistic interchanges consist of more than one sentence. When we string multiple sentences together, there
are rules about how they should relate to each other. This is called discourse. It is composed of sentences (L4 of
hierarchy) composed of constituents composed of words (L3) composed of morphemes (L2) composed of phonemes
(L1).

Summary and Sources
22
A3
The structure of language is hierarchical comprising of six levels – Phonology, Morphology, Lexical, Syntax, Semantics
and Pragmatics. Phonology refers to the elementary sounds. Morphology refers to elementary combinations of
letters and sounds. Lexical level refers to individual words formed of Morphemes. Syntax refers to combination of
words. Semantics refers to the rules used to convey meaning using the lower levels. Pragmatics refers to behavioral
constraints on the use of language. Discourse can be considered to be the next level, as most linguistic interchanges
comprise of more than one sentence.
Sources:
http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/popcult/lingstruct.html
http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/psyc101g/lessons/lesson09/module9.1.pdf
http://www.sparknotes.com/psychology/psych101/languageandcognition/section1.rhtml
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Major_levels_of_linguistic_structure.svg
http://web.psych.ualberta.ca/~chrisw/Psych357/L2Structure.pdf
http://ccl.pku.edu.cn/doubtfire/Semantics/Chapter_1_What_is_meaning.pdf

400 words
Section B
23

Kaufman Assessment Battery for
Children
Q4.
24

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
25
A4
KABC, was developed (by Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman in 1983) from neuropsychological theory. The
second edition (KABC-II, published in 2004), is an individually administered measure of the processing and cognitive
abilities of children and adolescents aged 3–18. It is a theory based instrument grounded in a dual theoretical
foundation: the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) psychometric model of broad and narrow abilities and Luria’s
neuropsychological theory of processing.
Test format
The KABC-II has 18 subtests of two types: core and supplementary. Before testing the examiner decides which model
to follow: Luria or CHC. The subtests are grouped into 4 or 5 scales depended on the age and interpretive model
chosen. KABC-II scales and their subtests include:
Glr Learning (Luria) or Long Term Storage and Retrieval (CHC)
Atlantis • assessor teaches the child nonsense names for pictures of fish, shells and plants
• child then has to point to the correct picture when read out the nonsense name
Atlantis Delayed • child repeats the Atlantis subtest 15–25 minutes later to demonstrate delayed recall
Rebus • assessor teaches the child the word or concept associated with a rebus (drawing)
• child reads aloud phrases and sentences composed of these rebuses
Rebus Delayed • child repeats the Rebus subtest 15–25 minutes later to demonstrate delayed recall of
paired associates

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children contd.
26
A4
Gv Simultaneous (Luria) – Visual Processing (CHC)
Triangles child assembles several foam triangles to match a picture.
Face Recognition child looks a photographs of one or two faces for 5 seconds and then selects the correct
face/faces shown in a difference pose from a selection.
Block Counting child counts the number of blocks in a picture of a stack of blocks, some of the blocks are
partially hidden.
Conceptual Thinking child selects one picture from a set of 4 or 5 which does not belong with the set
Rover child moves a toy dog to a bone on a grid that contains several obstacles trying to find the
quickest path to the bone.
Gestalt Closure child mentally fills in the gaps in a partially completed inkblot drawing and names or
describes the object/action depicted in the drawing.
Pattern Reasoning (ages
5 and 6)
Pattern Reasoning
Story Completion (ages
5 and 6)
Story Completion
Gc Knowledge/ Crystallised Ability (CHC only)
Riddles • examiner says several characteristics of a concrete or abstract verbal concept
• child has to point to it or name it
Expressive Vocabulary • measures the Childs ability to say the correct names of objects and illustrations
Verbal Knowledge • child selects from an array for 6 pictures the one that corresponds to a vocabulary
word or answers a general information question

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children contd.
27
A4
Gsm Sequential (Luria) – Short Term Memory (CHC)
Word Order • assessor reads the names of common objects
• child the touches a series of silhouettes of these objects in the same order they
were read out in
Number Recall • assessor reads a string of numbers
• child repeats the string in the same order. The strings range from 2 to 9 digits
Hand Movements • child copies a series of taps the examiner makes on the table with the fist, palm or
side of the hand
Gf Planning (Luria) or Fluid Reasoning (CHC)
Pattern Reasoning (ages
7–18)
• child is shown a series of stimulus that form a logical linear pattern with one
stimulus missing
• child selects the missing stimulus from several options.
Story Completion (ages
7–18)
• child is shown a row of pictures that tell a story, some pictures are missing
• child selects several pictures from a selection that are needed to complete the
story and places them in the correct location
KABC-II yields two general intelligence composite scores: Mental Processing Index (MPI; Luria’s model) and Fluid-
Crystallised Index (FCI; CHC model). The Luria model takes 25–60 minutes to administer while the CHC model takes
30–75 minutes to administer depending on the child’s age.

Uses, Summary and Sources
28
A4
Uses
The KABC-II helps to identify an individual’s strengths and weaknesses in cognitive ability and mental processing. It
was developed to evaluate pre-schoolers, minority groups, and children with learning disabilities. It is used to provide
educational planning and placement, neurological assessment, and research. The assessment is to be administered in
a school or clinical setting and is intended for use with English/Spanish speaking, bilingual, or nonverbal children.
* * *
The KABC is a clinical instrument (psychological diagnostic test) for assessing cognitive development and helps to
identify an individual’s strengths and weaknesses in cognitive ability and mental processing
Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaufman_Assessment_Battery_for_Children

Self reference effect
Q5.
29

Self reference effect
30
A5
The self-reference effect is a tendency for people to encode information differently depending on the level to which
the self is implicated in the information. When people are asked to remember information related in some way to the
self, the recall rate can be improved.
Research suggests that self-structure is unique, relative to other concepts (e.g., those about other people; see
Kihlstrom et al., 1988; Markus, 1977; and Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker, 1977), in its motivational and affective implications
as well as in its structure and content. Appraisal theories of emotion have emphasized the phenomenological
importance of the self in the interpretation of events and the resulting effect on emotions (Fiske & Taylor, 1991 ).
Example, the tendency to attribute another person's behavior to dispositional factors but one's own behavior to
situational factors occurs because the self dominates one's phenomenal perspective (Ross & Nisbett, 1991; Storms,
1973).

Brain regions associated with self-reference effect
31
A5
1. Cortical mid-line structures: A quantitative meta-analysis that included 87 studies, representing 1433 participants,
uncovered activity within several cortical midline structures in activities in which participants performed tasks
involving the concept of self. Most studies that report such midline activations use tasks geared towards uncovering
neural processes that are related to social or psychological aspects of the self, such as self-referential judgments and
self-appraisal.
2. Prefrontal cortex: During various functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI) tests conducted while participants
were performing self-referential tasks, there was a consistent showing of increases in Blood-oxygen-level dependent
(BOLD) signals in the ventral medial and dorsal medial prefrontal cortex.
3. Parietal lobe: During fMRI given during self-referential tasks there also appeared to be increases in BOLD signals
within the medial and lateral parietal cortex. When participants were subjected to transcranial magnetic stimulation
over the region it decreased the ability of participants to retrieve previous judgments of mental self when compared
to the retrieval of judgment of others.

Development of self-reference effect over lifespan,
Summary and Sources
32
A5
Childhood: Research focusing on recall abilities of children show self-referencing advantage in children as young as
five years old. Language development appears to play a significant role in the development and use of the self-
reference effect.
Adulthood: Theories of intimacy and personal relationships suggest that self-reference effect is affected by the
closeness of a relationship with the other used as a target. The capacity for utilizing the self-reference effect remains
relatively high throughout the lifespan, even well into old age. Older adults exhibit increased recall when using self-
generated strategies that rely on personally relevant information (e.g., important birthdates) relative to other
mnemonic strategies.
* * *
Self-reference effect refers to the tendency of a person to better remember information when it is in some way
related to the person. Three parts of the brain viz. cortical mid-line structures, prefrontal cortex and parietal lobes
play a role in the self-reference effect. It has been found to start as early as the age of five and continue throughout
the lifespan, becoming stronger compared to other mnemonic methods as a person grows old.
Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-reference_effect
The Self-Reference Effect in Memory: A Meta-Analysis by Cynthia S. Symons, Blair T. Johnson

Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive
domain
Q6.
33

Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive domain
34
A6
Beginning in 1948, a group of educators undertook the task of classifying education goals and objectives with the
intent to develop a classification system for three domains: the cognitive, the affective, and the psychomotor. Work
on the cognitive domain was completed in the 1950s and is commonly referred to as Bloom's Taxonomy of the
Cognitive Domain (Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956).

Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive domain contd.
35
A6
They identified six levels as follows:
1. Knowledge: ability to remember previously learned material to enable recalling the appropriate information as
required.
Includes:
· Knowledge of specifics - terminology, specific facts
· Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics - conventions, trends and sequences, classifications and
categories, criteria, methodology
· Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field - principles and generalizations, theories and structures
Verbs: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state.
2. Comprehension: ability to understand facts and ideas demonstrated by organizing, comparing, translating,
interpreting, giving descriptions, and stating the main ideas.
Verbs: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review, select,
translate.
3. Application: ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations by applying rules, methods, concepts,
principles, laws, and theories in different ways.
Verbs: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve,
use, write.

Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive domain contd.
36
A6
4. Analysis: ability to break down material into its component parts to understand its organizational structure.
Includes:
· identification of parts
· analysis of relationships between parts
· recognition of the organizational principles involved
This requires an understanding of both the content and the structural form of the material.
Verbs: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish,
examine, experiment, question, test.
5. Synthesis: ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This requires creative behavior, with emphasis on
formulation of new patterns or structures.
Includes production of:
· a unique communication (theme or speech)
· a plan of operations (research proposal),
· a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying information).
Verbs: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan,
prepare, propose, set up, write.
6. Evaluation: ability to judge the value of material for a given purpose and based on definite criteria. Criteria may be
internal (organization) or external (relevance to the purpose). The student may be given the criteria or have to
determine them.
Verbs: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support,
value, evaluate.

Summary and Sources
37
A6
In 1956, Bloom et al formulated the taxonomy of the cognitive domain, with the aim of helping educators classify
education goals and objectives. The taxonomy classifies the domain into six levels, Knowledge, Comprehension,
Application, Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation. These are in increasing level of complexity with Knowledge being the
simplest and Evaluation being the most complex. Also, the lower levels require lower order (concrete) thinking skills
whereas higher levels require higher order (abstract) thinking skills.
Sources:
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/bloom.html
http://www.ucdenver.edu/faculty_staff/faculty/center-for-faculty-
development/Documents/Tutorials/Assessment/module2/index.htm
http://www.redwoods.edu/Departments/Distance/Tutorials/BloomsTaxonomy/bloomstaxonomy_print.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom's_taxonomy
http://cehdclass.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/bloomstax.htm
http://cehdclass.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/bloomstax.htm

Cultural blocks to problem solving
Q7.
38

Cultural blocks to problem solving and their causes
39
A7
Cultural blocks refers to the ‘mental blocks’ that are created in the mind due to conditioning to accept certain
behaviour as normal in a given situation, even though we might find a much better solution to a problem if we look
beyond what is normal.
Some specific cultural inhibitions, according to Adams (1979) and Simbeng (1964) are:
1. Playfulness is for children only, and serious problem solving requires a serious attitude
2. Humor has no place in problem solving
3. The value judgment that inquisitiveness and scepticism are undesirable qualities
4. Overemphasis on cooperation or on competition
5. Too much faith in statistics: people don’t look beyond the statistic
6. Too much faith in reason and logic.
7. Indulging in fantasy and reflection is worthless and lazy.
What causes cultural blocks?
To summarize in two words: conformity pressures. It is uncomfortable to be different, to challenge accepted ways of
thinking and behaving. We learn that it's good to be correct, logical and practical; to follow rules and avoid mistakes;
and that "play is for kids."
Cultural blocks or inhibitions can fall under several different kinds of conformity or social influences (Rokeach, 1981).
1. An individual who is a member of a group may be influenced by group situations.
2. A member of a group may be influenced by another member with prestige.
3. One member may influence the judgment of another member (in this case there is not a prestige effect).

Overcoming cultural blocks, Summary and Sources
40
A7
The following methods can be used to help overcome various cultural blocks:
1. critically question existing ideas and look for areas for improvement
2. identify constraints and question their validity
3. if you dislike change, do some 'wishful thinking’ to see what benefits change would bring; ask yourself what
would be the consequences of taking a new approach.
4. if you think fantasy and humour have no place in problem solving, practice using your day dreams to develop
your ideas; next time someone cracks a joke about a situation, think about what new perspectives it creates
5. if you think intuition is unreliable, think back over recent problems you have solved; did that first 'hunch' turn out
to be dose to your final solution?
6. if you are in a very competitive environment, be careful how you explain your ideas to people competing with
you; emphasise the likely benefits to them
7. if there is a strong climate of cooperation, ask members of your group for their ideas and comments; share the
problem with them.
* * *
Cultural blocks are mental barriers to problem solving. Effective problem solving requires overcoming these blocks.
These are majorly driven by the tendency of a person to conform to set customs and not question the status quo. In
fact, a person may not even be aware that he/she has a cultural block until an expert advises them. The blocks can be
overcome by questioning and consciously countering the specific dimension where you observe a mental barrier.
Sources:
http://www.itseducation.asia/overcoming-blocks.htm
http://www.winstonbrill.com/bril001/html/article_index/articles/1-50/article17_body.html
http://www.co-bw.com/BSC_CPS_blocks_to_problem_solving.htm

Speech sound disorders
Q8.
41

Speech sound disorders and their types
42
A8
Speech sound disorders are speech disorders in which some speech sounds (called phonemes) in a person’s native
language are either not produced, not produced correctly, or are not used correctly.
Most children make mistakes when learning new words and sounds. A disorder occurs when the child reaches a
certain age and is still making certain mistakes.
Types of SSDs:
1. Articulation disorders: Articulation disorders are characterized by substitution, distortion, omission or addition
of sounds in words. A child with an articulation disorder will have difficulty learning how to physically produce
certain sounds. Ex: the inability for a child to produce the “r” sound, substituting it with “w,” like saying “twee,”
instead of “tree.”
2. Phonological process disorder: It is characterized by set pattern of sound errors. A child with a phonological
process disorder will have difficulties learning the sound system and may not realize that certain different sounds
have different meanings. Ex: replacing the “d” sound with a “g”; saying “dot,” for example, instead of “got.”
Children hear the sound distinction in other peoples’ voices, but unaware when they make the distortion.
3. Mixed Speech Sound Disorders: In some cases phonetic and phonemic errors may coexist in the same person. In
such case the primary focus is usually on the phonological component but articulation therapy may be needed as
part of the process, since teaching a child how to use a sound is not practical if the child doesn't know how to
produce it.

Classification of errors, Causes and Diagnosis,
Summary and Sources
43
A8
Classification of errors produced by children with speech sound disorders
1. Omissions: Certain sounds are not produced - entire syllables or classes of sounds may be deleted; e.g., fi' for fish
or 'at for cat.
2. Additions (or Commissions): an extra sound or sounds are added to the intended word.
3. Distortions: Sounds are changed slightly so that the intended sound may be recognized but sounds "wrong," or
may not sound like any sound in the language. Ex: lisp.
4. Substitutions: One or more sounds are substituted for another; e.g., wabbit for rabbit or tow for cow
Causes and Diagnosis
Some speech sound errors can result from physical problems, such as: developmental disorders (e.g. autism), genetic
syndromes (e.g. Down syndrome), hearing loss, cleft palate or other physical anomalies of the mouth, illness,
neurological disorders (e.g. cerebral palsy). In most cases, the reason speech sound disorders occur is unknown.
Many children outgrow the problem, but those who cannot learn to produce sounds correctly, or do not learn the
rules of speech on their own, need intervention.
* * *
When a person is not able to (or not able to correctly) produce a sound of his/her native language it is known as a
Speech sound disorder. It may take the form of Omission, Commission, Distortion or Substitution. SSDs are
categorised as Articulation or Phonological based on whether there’s a inability to learn sound or physically produce
sound. In most cases the disorders are resolved with time, if not a speech-language pathologist should be consulted.
Sources:
http://www.hasa.org/topics/speech-sound-disorders
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_sound_disorder

50 words
Section C
44

Primary Mental Abilities
45
A9
Primary mental abilities were first discussed by L.L. Thurstone in 1935 and could be described as latent core
constructs that can explain nearly all cognitive differences.
Thurstone found that when measuring intelligence, there are only a handful of aspects that really matter. He found
the following aspects:
1. Verbal comprehension - knowledge of vocabulary and in reading
2. Number facility - solving simple arithmetical computation and reasoning problems
3. Word fluency - writing and producing words
4. spatial visualization (mentally visualizing and manipulating objects),
5. inductive reasoning (completing a number series or predicting the future based on past experience),
6. associative memory (remembering people’s names or faces), and
7. perceptual speed (rapidly proofreading to discover typographical errors in a typed text)
The primary mental abilities are organised into clusters known as Secondary Mental abilities – two major
components, proposed by Cattell, include fluid and crystallised intelligence.
* * *
Sources:
Encyclopedia of applied psychology
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/primary-secondary-mental-abilities-definition-examples.html

Spatial intelligence
46
A10
Spatial Intelligence is an area in the theory of multiple intelligences that deals with spatial judgment and the ability to
visualize with the mind's eye. It is defined by Howard Gardner as a human computational capacity that provides the
ability or mental skill to solve spatial problems of navigation, visualization of objects from different angles and space,
faces or scenes recognition or to notice fine details. Gardner further explains that Spatial Intelligence could be more
effective to solve problems in areas related to realistic, thing-oriented, and investigative occupations.
This capability is a brain skill that is also found in people with visual impairment. The spatial reasoning of the blind
person allows them to translate tactile sensations into mental calculation of length and visualisation of form.
Spatial intelligence would be important for students interested in studying architecture or engineering. He/she might
be an inventor or develop factory processes, or an artist/sculptor. If you can visualize internally in three dimensions,
you can more easily get a sense of how something looks or works from all angles.
* * *
Sources:
https://www.udemy.com/blog/visual-spatial-intelligence/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_intelligence_(psychology)

Hippocampus
47
A11
Hippocampus is a seahorse shaped paired structure, with one hippocampi located in each hemisphere of the brain. It
is located within the temporal lobes, adjacent to the amygdala, under the cerebral cortex and contains two main
interlocking parts: Ammon's horn and dentate gyrus.
Functions of Hippocampus include:
1. Inhibition: The behavioral inhibition theory postulates that Hippocampus plays a role in controlling emotional
response. Ex: damage to Hippocampus could make a person hyperactive; they may have difficulty learning to inhibit
responses.
2. Memory: Hippocampus plays an important role in the formation of new memories about experienced events
(episodic or autobiographical memory). Part of this function is the detection of novel events, places and stimuli.
3. Navigation and Spatial orientation: Hippocampus acts as a cognitive map—a neural representation of the layout
of the environment. Without a fully functional hippocampus, humans may not remember where they have been and
how to get where they are going.
Brain imaging shows that people have more active hippocampi when correctly navigating. It also plays a role in
finding shortcuts and new routes between familiar places.
* * *
Sources:
http://biology.about.com/od/anatomy/p/hippocampus.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Hippocampus

Dysarthria
48
A12
Dysarthria is a motor speech disorder resulting from neurological injury of the motor component of the motor-
speech system and is characterized by poor articulation of phonemes.
Individuals with dysarthria may experience challenges in the following: Timing, Vocal quality, Pitch, Volume, Breath
control, Speed, Strength, Steadiness, Range and Tone.
Causes
Causes of dysarthria include nervous system disorders such as stroke, brain injury, brain tumors; toxic, metabolic,
degenerative diseases and conditions that cause facial paralysis or tongue or throat muscle weakness. It may also be
caused by certain medications.
These result in lesions to key areas of the brain involved in planning, executing, or regulating motor operations in
skeletal muscles, including muscles of the head and neck. This results in dysfunction, or failure of: the motor or
somatosensory cortex of the brain, corticobulbar pathways, the cerebellum, basal nuclei, brainstem, or the neuro-
muscular junction which block the nervous system's ability to activate motor units and effect correct range and
strength of movements.
Treatment
Articulation problems resulting from dysarthria are treated by speech language pathologists, using treatments that
include exercises to increase strength and control over articulator muscles and using alternate speaking techniques to
increase speaker intelligibility.
* * *
Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysarthria

Surface structure
49
A13
Chomsky argues that the underlying logic, or deep structure, of all languages is the same and that human mastery of
it is genetically determined, not learned. Those aspects of language that humans have to study are termed surface
structures.
Surface structure refers to the actual words people use and what’s readily apparent about them, whereas deep
structure refers to the information that underlies a sentence and gives it meaning. Another way of seeing this
distinction is by considering sentences that are grammatically correct but totally devoid of meaning.
For example, consider the sentence, “Dark purple ideas eat angrily.” It is perfectly correct in terms of grammar but
has no meaning whatsoever.
In view of such facts, Chomsky and others have argued that we can never understand the true nature of spoken
language by focusing only on words and grammatical rules. Rather, we must search for underlying meaning and the
ways in which people translate, or transform, this into overt speech.
* * *
Sources:
Gale encyclopedia of Psychology

Chomsky
50
A14
American linguist whose theory of transformational or generative grammar has had a profound influence on the
fields of both linguistics and psychology.
Chomsky was born in Philadelphia and educated at University of Pennsylvania. In 1955, he was appointed to the
faculty of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), as professor of foreign languages and linguistics.
He was a pioneer in psycholinguistics, which helped establish a new relationship between linguistics and psychology.
He opposed the behaviorist view of the mind as a tabula rasa and instead proposed the Innateness theory suggesting
that certain aspects of linguistic knowledge and ability are the product of a universal innate ability, or "language
acquisition device" (LAD), which enables each normal child to construct a systematic grammar and generate phrases.
Chomsky argues that the underlying logic, or deep structure, of all languages is the same and that human mastery of
it is genetically determined, not learned. Those aspects of language that humans have to study are termed surface
structures.
His theories also distinguish between language competence (knowledge of rules and structure) and performance
(how an individual uses language in practice).
* * *
Source:
Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology

Means-Ends Analysis
51
A15
Means-ends analysis is a problem solving strategy that arose from the work on problem solving of Newell and Simon
(1972). In means-ends analysis, one solves a problem by considering the obstacles that stand between the initial
problem state and the goal state. The elimination of these obstacles (and, recursively, the obstacles in the way of
eliminating these obstacles) are then defined as (simpler) sub-goals to be achieved.
When all of the sub-goals have been achieved – when all of the obstacles are out of the way – then the main goal of
interest has been achieved. Because the sub-goals have been called up by the need to solve this main goal, means-
ends analysis can be viewed as a search strategy in which the long-range goal is always kept in mind to guide problem
solving. It is not as near-sighted as other search techniques, like hill climbing.
Means-ends analysis is a version of divide-and-conquer. The difference between the two is that divide-and-conquer
is purely recursive: the sub-problems that are solved are always of the same type. Means-ends analysis is more
flexible, and less obviously recursive, because the sub-problems that are defined for it need not all be of the same
type.
* * *
Sources:
http://www.bcp.psych.ualberta.ca/~mike/Pearl_Street/Dictionary/contents/M/meansends.html

Algorithms
52
A16
Algorithm is an approach of problem solving where defined set of step-by-step procedures are followed to reach the
correct answer to a particular problem. By correctly following the instructions, you are guaranteed to reach the right
answer.
Algorithms have four properties:
1. Clear and precise definition of steps
2. Finite number of steps (it ends)
3. Provides correct answer to problem
4. Generically applicable within given context
They are contrasted with heuristics - a mental shortcut that allows people to quickly make judgments and solve
problems. When problem-solving, deciding which method to use depends on the need for either accuracy or speed. If
complete accuracy is required, use an algorithm. If time is an issue, use a heuristic.
Example: You have a reservation at a restaurant to meet a friend but can’t remember the name of the place. What
can you do? One approach is to look at yellow pages and see if you remember. Other approach is to try calling all
restaurants listed to ask if your friend made a reservation there. This algorithm—“Call every restaurant in the
book”— will work; but it is time-consuming and inefficient.
* * *
Source:
psychology.about.com
IGNOU study material

Working memory
53
A17
Short-term memory is a memory system that holds a limited amount of information for brief periods of time, usually
thirty seconds or less. This is the memory system you use when you look up a phone number and dial it.
Many experts on memory view it as a kind of workbench for consciousness. That’s why another term for short-term
memory is working memory.
How short-term memory works.
A growing body of evidence indicates that short-term memory consists of two basic components: a phonological
store of representations of words, reflecting how they sound, and a rehearsal mechanism that refreshes the contents
of the phonological store through repetition of these words (Baddeley, 1992).
How much can short-term memory hold?
The answer turns out to be something like seven to nine separate pieces of information. By the process of chunking,
short-term memory can hold larger amount of information, even though it can retain only seven to nine separate
items at once.
How long does information in short-term memory last?
Not very long. Unless it is actively rehearsed, information entered into short-term memory fades quickly. If individuals
are prevented from rehearsing—the information may be almost totally gone within twenty seconds.
* * *
Source:

Simultaneous processing
54
A18
Simultaneous processing is one of the components of Cognition which, as per PASS theory of intelligence, is organized
in three systems and four processes.
It is the process of combining discrete and unconnected stimuli into a single group or whole to assist in
comprehension and interpretation. It involves the comprehension of the relationships of and between separate
entities and its relation or position to the whole. The integration of distinct yet interrelated stimuli can also facilitate
the ability to uncover underlying patterns in verbal and nonverbal information.
Simultaneous processing is necessary for language comprehension, as in: “Who is the person in the following
statement: My mother’s father was his only son (Naglieri & Das, 1997)?” Simultaneous processing can be helpful to
accomplish tasks where the focus is on solving problems where the objective of the task demands conceptualization
of parts into a cohesive whole. Spatial characteristics are often associated with simultaneous processing for this
reason. Additionally, simultaneous processing has been applied to utilization and comprehension of logical and
grammatical statements.
Simultaneous processing and Successive processing occur in the posterior region or the back of the brain.
Simultaneous processing is broadly associated with the occipital and the parietal lobes.
* * *
Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PASS_theory_of_intelligence
http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/das.shtml
http://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-0-387-79948-3_1492

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