The document discusses several key aspects of evolution including: 1) Organisms evolve through random mutations that are influenced by environmental factors, with beneficial mutations increasing an organism's chances of survival and reproduction. 2) Genetic drift, the random changes in allele frequencies within a population from one generation to the next, can cause populations to diverge over time leading to speciation. 3) Reproductive isolation through mechanisms like habitat, behavioral, and temporal isolation can further drive speciation when populations become separated and diverge genetically.

1. Evolution

6. Fig. 22-7

8. Descent with modifications

17. Organisms evolve in order to better suit an environment. Evolution involves mutations in the genetic information of organisms that lead to changes in the appearance or phenotype of organisms. Factors from the environment that influence survival, such as availability of food, water and shelter, generate random mutations in organisms. Many mutations are neutral; they have no effect on the organism’s phenotype. Some mutations are detrimental and make the organism less likely to survive. If an organism develops a detrimental mutation, it will not have offspring and so the detrimental mutation will not be passed down. If an organism has a beneficial mutation, its offspring will have that beneficial mutation and will be better able to survive and reproduce. This process of random mutation and selection from the environment insures that organisms advance to more and more complex levels of biological structure.

19. Fig. 22-18 Human embryo Chick embryo (LM) Pharyngeal pouches Post-anal tail

21. Fig. 22-19 Hawks and other birds Ostriches Crocodiles Lizards and snakes Amphibians Mammals Lungfishes Tetrapod limbs Amnion Feathers Homologous characteristic Branch point (common ancestor) Tetrapods Amniotes Birds 6 5 4 3 2 1

22. Convergent Evolution

24. Human Evolution

26. mtDNA Control Region

28. Two Opposing Theories Multiregional Theory Parallel evolution Displacement Theory Out of Africa theory http://news.bbc.co.uk/

32. Molecular Clock

35. Published by AAAS A. Gibbons Science 328, 680-684 (2010)

36. Published by AAAS A. Gibbons Science 328, 680-684 (2010)

37. Neandertal Genome Study Reveals That We Have a Little Caveman in Us Svante Paabo Europeans and Asians share 1% to 4% of their nuclear DNA with Neandertals. But Africans do not

38. Published by AAAS A. Gibbons Science 328, 680-684 (2010)

40. 100 Years 1 bp/sec 17 Minutes

44. Human mtDNA Haplotypes

47. Two Factors Effecting Haplotypes Evolution. Genetic Drift.

48. Genetic Drift

50. My mtDNA Haplotype

52. Genetic Drift

53. SNP For each individual they analysed half a million SNPs, and then amalgamated the results mathematically to produce two numbers representing that person. This allowed each individual's genome to be shown as a point on a two-dimensional plot: the bigger the differences in the genomes, the greater the distance between them on the plot.

54. Reproductive Isolation

55. Habitat Isolation

56. Temporal Isolation

57. Behavioral Isolation

58. Mechanical Isolation

59. Gametic Isolation

60. Reduced Hybrid Viability

61. Reduced Hybrid Fertility + =

62. Hybrid Breakdown

63. Fig. 24-4 Prezygotic barriers Habitat Isolation Individuals of different species Temporal Isolation Behavioral Isolation Mating attempt Mechanical Isolation Gametic Isolation Fertilization Reduced Hybrid Viability Reduced Hybrid Fertility Postzygotic barriers Hybrid Breakdown Viable, fertile offspring (a) (b) (d) (c) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (l) (k)

64. Fig. 24-5 (a) Allopatric speciation (b) Sympatric speciation

65. Fig. 24-14-1 Gene flow Population (five individuals are shown) Barrier to gene flow

66. Fig. 24-14-2 Gene flow Population (five individuals are shown) Barrier to gene flow Isolated population diverges

67. Fig. 24-14-3 Gene flow Population (five individuals are shown) Barrier to gene flow Isolated population diverges Hybrid zone Hybrid

68. Fig. 24-14-4 Gene flow Population (five individuals are shown) Barrier to gene flow Isolated population diverges Hybrid zone Hybrid Possible outcomes: Reinforcement OR OR Fusion Stability

69. Breakdown of Reproductive Barriers

70. Evolution of Populations

71. Fig. 23-5 Porcupine herd Porcupine herd range Beaufort Sea NORTHWEST TERRITORIES MAP AREA ALASKA CANADA Fortymile herd range Fortymile herd ALASKA YUKON

72. Fig. 23-6 Frequencies of alleles Alleles in the population Gametes produced Each egg: Each sperm: 80% chance 80% chance 20% chance 20% chance q = frequency of p = frequency of C R allele = 0.8 C W allele = 0.2

73. No mutations

74. Random mating

75. No natural selection

76. Extremely Large Populations

77. No gene flow

80. PV92 and the ALU Transposon SINEs, or Short INterspersed Elements ~300 bp

81. ALU Human Evolution all primates showing an Alu insertion at a particular locus have inherited it from a common ancestor. This is called identity by descent

82. 100,000 ALUs Retroposon: rt (reverse trancriptase) Identity by descent ALU Transposons

88. Fig. 23-9 Original population Bottlenecking event Surviving population

89. Genetic Drift