Introduction (Facts, Geography and Writing)
History of China (Ancient History)
History of China (Dynastic Period 1600 BCE-1911 CE)
Greatest Philosophers
Religion
Chinese Literature (Dynastic Period)
Sample Literary Piece of the Period
History of China (Modern Period)
Chinese Literature (Modern Period)
Sample Literary Piece of the Period
The 1905 Russo-Japanese War ended in a humiliating defeat for Russia, showing that the rule of the Czar was weak and disorganized. After defeating Russia, Japan solidified its control over Korea and established itself as a new imperial power in the region. The Russo-Japanese War contributed to growing discontent within Russia and further weakened the absolute monarchy of the Czar in the lead up to the revolutions of 1917.
1) The Opium Wars marked the beginning of foreign intrusion into China and the signing of unequal treaties that allowed European powers and the US to carve out spheres of influence in China.
2) The Qing dynasty fell in 1911 and was replaced by the Republic of China, but the new republic struggled with internal conflicts, the rise of warlords, and the growing power of the Communist Party of China led by Mao Zedong.
3) After defeating the Japanese in World War 2, a civil war between the Nationalists and Communists ensued, culminating in the Communist victory in 1949 and establishment of the People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong.
The Russian Revolution was sparked by over a century of oppressive rule under the czars. Reforms under Alexander II were rolled back after his assassination in 1881. Nicholas II continued autocratic ways as industrialization increased unrest. World War I losses and food shortages led to the March Revolution of 1917, forcing Nicholas to abdicate. Bolsheviks under Lenin seized power that November, establishing the Soviet Union and signing a separate peace with Germany. A civil war ensued as the Bolsheviks fought opposition groups, establishing communist rule by 1921.
1. In the early 20th century, China was fragmented under various warlords after the fall of the Qing dynasty.
2. The Guomindang, led by Chiang Kai-shek, allied with the Communist Party to defeat the warlords during the Northern Expedition from 1926-1927.
3. However, Chiang turned on the communists, massacring them in Shanghai and Guangzhou. From 1928-1937, Chiang ruled China as dictator and focused on modernizing but faced growing communist and Japanese insurgencies.
The Russian Revolution overthrew the Czar's government in 1917 and established communist rule. It happened due to a weak ruler, poor living conditions for workers and peasants, and Russia's poor performance in WWI. There were two revolutions - in February 1917, the Czar abdicated and a provisional government took over, and in October 1917 the Bolsheviks led by Lenin seized power. Lenin immediately pulled Russia out of WWI and proposed distributing land to peasants. He established communist party rule, forming the USSR, before Stalin took control after Lenin's death in 1924.
The document summarizes the major events of the Chinese Revolution from the Opium Wars in the 19th century through the establishment of communist rule under Mao Zedong. It discusses the weakening of the Qing dynasty due to foreign encroachment, the establishment of the Republic of China after the 1911 revolution, the rise of warlords and instability, the civil war between the Kuomintang and Communist Party, and Mao's consolidation of power and disastrous economic policies like the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution.
The document summarizes major events in the Chinese revolution from the Opium Wars in the 19th century to the rule of Mao Zedong in the 20th century. It describes how foreign intrusion weakened China's Qing dynasty and led to rebellions. The revolution established a republic led by Sun Yat-sen but beset by warlords and civil wars. The Communist Party rose to power under Mao Zedong after World War 2 and he established the People's Republic of China in 1949, though his policies like the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution had disastrous consequences.
1. The document discusses reasons for the Russian Revolution in 1917, including the weak leadership of Czar Nicholas II, huge differences between social classes, and Russia's defeat in World War I.
2. After the revolution, Lenin established communist rule but died in 1924, leading to a power struggle between Stalin and Trotsky that Stalin ultimately won.
3. Under Stalin's rule, he established a cult of personality through socialist realist art, rapidly industrialized through five-year plans, and collectivized agriculture, leading to the deaths of millions from famine and purges. Stalin also exerted total control over cultural and political life.
The 1905 Russo-Japanese War ended in a humiliating defeat for Russia, showing that the rule of the Czar was weak and disorganized. After defeating Russia, Japan solidified its control over Korea and established itself as a new imperial power in the region. The Russo-Japanese War contributed to growing discontent within Russia and further weakened the absolute monarchy of the Czar in the lead up to the revolutions of 1917.
1) The Opium Wars marked the beginning of foreign intrusion into China and the signing of unequal treaties that allowed European powers and the US to carve out spheres of influence in China.
2) The Qing dynasty fell in 1911 and was replaced by the Republic of China, but the new republic struggled with internal conflicts, the rise of warlords, and the growing power of the Communist Party of China led by Mao Zedong.
3) After defeating the Japanese in World War 2, a civil war between the Nationalists and Communists ensued, culminating in the Communist victory in 1949 and establishment of the People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong.
The Russian Revolution was sparked by over a century of oppressive rule under the czars. Reforms under Alexander II were rolled back after his assassination in 1881. Nicholas II continued autocratic ways as industrialization increased unrest. World War I losses and food shortages led to the March Revolution of 1917, forcing Nicholas to abdicate. Bolsheviks under Lenin seized power that November, establishing the Soviet Union and signing a separate peace with Germany. A civil war ensued as the Bolsheviks fought opposition groups, establishing communist rule by 1921.
1. In the early 20th century, China was fragmented under various warlords after the fall of the Qing dynasty.
2. The Guomindang, led by Chiang Kai-shek, allied with the Communist Party to defeat the warlords during the Northern Expedition from 1926-1927.
3. However, Chiang turned on the communists, massacring them in Shanghai and Guangzhou. From 1928-1937, Chiang ruled China as dictator and focused on modernizing but faced growing communist and Japanese insurgencies.
The Russian Revolution overthrew the Czar's government in 1917 and established communist rule. It happened due to a weak ruler, poor living conditions for workers and peasants, and Russia's poor performance in WWI. There were two revolutions - in February 1917, the Czar abdicated and a provisional government took over, and in October 1917 the Bolsheviks led by Lenin seized power. Lenin immediately pulled Russia out of WWI and proposed distributing land to peasants. He established communist party rule, forming the USSR, before Stalin took control after Lenin's death in 1924.
The document summarizes the major events of the Chinese Revolution from the Opium Wars in the 19th century through the establishment of communist rule under Mao Zedong. It discusses the weakening of the Qing dynasty due to foreign encroachment, the establishment of the Republic of China after the 1911 revolution, the rise of warlords and instability, the civil war between the Kuomintang and Communist Party, and Mao's consolidation of power and disastrous economic policies like the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution.
The document summarizes major events in the Chinese revolution from the Opium Wars in the 19th century to the rule of Mao Zedong in the 20th century. It describes how foreign intrusion weakened China's Qing dynasty and led to rebellions. The revolution established a republic led by Sun Yat-sen but beset by warlords and civil wars. The Communist Party rose to power under Mao Zedong after World War 2 and he established the People's Republic of China in 1949, though his policies like the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution had disastrous consequences.
1. The document discusses reasons for the Russian Revolution in 1917, including the weak leadership of Czar Nicholas II, huge differences between social classes, and Russia's defeat in World War I.
2. After the revolution, Lenin established communist rule but died in 1924, leading to a power struggle between Stalin and Trotsky that Stalin ultimately won.
3. Under Stalin's rule, he established a cult of personality through socialist realist art, rapidly industrialized through five-year plans, and collectivized agriculture, leading to the deaths of millions from famine and purges. Stalin also exerted total control over cultural and political life.
After the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, nationalist and communist movements struggled for power in China. The Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) overthrew the Qing and established a new republic led by Sun Yixian, but the government was unstable. In the 1920s, the Communist Party of China was formed under Mao Zedong and began gaining support from peasants dissatisfied with the nationalist government's corruption. A civil war then broke out between the nationalists led by Jiang Jieshi and the communists led by Mao, which was still raging in the late 1930s when Japan invaded China and suspended the civil war as the two Chinese factions allied against the common enemy.
The document discusses different perspectives on Mao Zedong and events during his rule in China such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. It outlines Chinese official views that emphasize Mao's contributions as well as critical Western views since the 1980s that have revised their earlier more sympathetic stances due to new evidence of human costs such as the 30-38 million deaths from famine during the Great Leap Forward. The document also examines varying interpretations of historical events from different time periods and ideological stances.
The document summarizes the history of revolution and communism in China from the early 20th century to modern times. It describes the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 and the rise of nationalist and communist movements led by Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong. Mao emerged as the leader of the communists after their famous Long March retreat. The communists defeated the nationalists in 1949, establishing the People's Republic of China under Mao's leadership. Mao implemented authoritarian policies and economic programs that had mixed results, including the Great Leap Forward that caused a devastating famine.
The document summarizes major events in modern Chinese history from the late 19th century to present day. It describes the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912 and establishment of the Republic of China led by Sun Yat-sen. However, the republic faced weaknesses like disunity and foreign imperialism. Communist ideas grew under Mao Zedong, and civil war broke out between Nationalists and Communists. They temporarily united to fight the Japanese invasion from 1937-1945. The Communists emerged victorious in 1949, establishing the People's Republic of China under Mao's rule. His economic policies like the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution had major impacts, though issues in China continue today around balancing reforms with communist ideals.
Sun Yat-sen was a Chinese revolutionary who played a key role in overthrowing the Qing dynasty and establishing the Republic of China. He served as the first provisional president from 1912-1912. Throughout his life, Sun led numerous uprisings against the Qing that failed before the successful Xinhai Revolution in 1911. He developed the political philosophy of the Three Principles of the People that focused on nationalism, democracy, and people's livelihood. Sun spent many years in exile raising support and funds before returning to lead the new Republic of China.
The document provides an overview of the Russian Revolution. It describes the oppressive conditions under the rule of Czar Nicholas II, including poverty among peasants and unrest from protests and uprisings. World War I exacerbated issues and led to further revolts in 1917, forcing Nicholas to abdicate. This March Revolution established a provisional government led by Kerensky. In November 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power in the November Revolution and established the Soviet Union. A civil war then broke out between the Reds and Whites, which the Bolsheviks ultimately won through force and brutality under Lenin's leadership based on interpretations of Marxism.
1. The document provides information about reasons for the Russian Revolution and the rise of communism in Russia. It discusses the weak leadership of Czar Nicholas II and huge differences between social classes that led to unrest.
2. After Lenin's death in 1924, there was a power struggle between Stalin and Trotsky for control of the Soviet Union. Stalin eventually consolidated power through ruthless political maneuvers.
3. Under Stalin's rule, the Soviet Union instituted policies like collectivization, industrialization, and censorship of cultural life. Stalin aimed to transform Russia into a global power through these programs and by glorifying himself.
The document summarizes key events and individuals in modern Chinese history, including the 1911 Chinese Revolution led by Sun Yat-sen that helped Westernize China; Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People that promoted nationalism, socialism, and democracy; the establishment of the Kuomindang political party by Sun Yat-sen and its rule under Chiang Kai-shek; the Chinese Civil War between the Kuomindang and Communists led by Mao Zedong, who went on to found the People's Republic of China; and major events and policies under Mao like the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution, as well as the Tiananmen Square Massacre.
in this PPT you can see history/civil war etc.. you can do your project by watching this ppt. All information about Russian Revolution you can get in this ppt. so guys watch/Like/Comment & Share!
Thank You
Mao tse tung a transformational leader and his guerilla warBhadra Thakuri
Mao Tse Tung as a transformation leader who is credited for the creation of modern PRC from agrarian and semi-feudal China. He deserved charisma, vision, strong conviction as well as commitment. He was the multi-dimensional personality. He served as an revolutionary soldier, teacher, leader and a poet.
Tsar Nicholas II - IB History Higher Russia03iris10
Tsar Nicholas II - IB History Higher Russia
A fun, definitely not serious at all look at our bei Nicky's well successful(not) rule of Russia
WARNING: Contains expletives at times, but only in jest
The document is a collection of sources about the fall of the Tsarist monarchy in Russia and the rise of Stalin's Soviet Union. Source A is a map showing the large territorial extent of the Russian Empire in 1900. Sources B-C provide inferences about poor conditions for peasants and workers under the Tsarist system. Source D suggests the Tsar was viewed negatively after Bloody Sunday in 1910. Sources F-G explain the impact of World War I, including mass desertions that undermined the Tsarist regime. Source H outlines Lenin's role in promoting land, peace and bread in the 1917 revolution. Sources J-L depict artistic portrayals of key events in the Russian Civil War and establishment of communist rule.
The Russian (Boshevik) Revolution - Flipped LearningMillsWHHS
An overview of the causes, beginnings, and events of the Russian (Bolshevik) Revolution. Use this to build a base of knowledge so that you can participate in the class activities.
The Russian Revolution began in March 1917 and led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II. A provisional government took over but faced challenges from the Bolsheviks. In November 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power in the "October Revolution", establishing the Soviet socialist republic and beginning a civil war. Lenin consolidated power as head of the Communist Party and worked to transform Russia into a socialist state.
Nicholas II initially resisted reforms but gradually made concessions in response to the 1905 revolution. These included promising an advisory Duma, or parliament, and introducing the October Manifesto which established basic civil liberties and reduced autocratic power. However, the Duma's membership was only elected by wealthy Russians, ignoring peasants. And the concessions did little to address worker and peasant grievances over land and political rights. Ultimately the revolution failed because the moderate liberals who led it did not pursue far-reaching social and economic reforms, leaving the underlying causes of discontent unresolved.
The document summarizes the Russian Revolution. It describes Czar Nicholas II as a strict ruler who relied on the army and large government to maintain power. His wife Alexandra was German and isolated him from events during WWI. Growing unrest over food shortages and Russia's poor performance in the war led to the overthrow of the Czar in March 1917. Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks then seized power in November 1917 and established the world's first communist state, fighting a civil war against opposing forces until 1920 when they emerged victorious, establishing the Soviet Union.
The document provides an overview of the 1911 Revolution in China. It discusses:
1) How China was traditionally ruled through dynasties, but by the late 1900s the Qing dynasty was in decline due to internal problems, foreign humiliation, and modernization elsewhere.
2) Sun Yat Sen emerged as a revolutionary leader advocating for nationalism, democracy, and socialism. He founded the Tongmenghui group to overthrow the Qing.
3) In 1911, the Wuchang Uprising broke out and quickly spread. A provisional republican government was formed in Nanjing. Yuan Shi Kai negotiated for the abdication of the child emperor, becoming China's first president.
The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 began with widespread strikes and riots in February 1917 in response to food shortages, high casualties in World War 1, and harsh winters. This led to Czar Nicholas II abdicating in March. However, the provisional government that replaced him continued fighting in the war despite public opposition. Lenin and the Bolsheviks gained popularity by advocating for peace. In October 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power in Petrograd and other major cities, establishing the world's first communist state with Lenin as its leader. This marked the beginning of communist rule in Russia and a major transformation of the country's political and economic systems.
The document summarizes the history of China from the 1800s to the establishment of communist rule under Mao Zedong in 1949. It describes how Western influence and the declining power of the Qing dynasty led to the rise of Chinese nationalism and communism in the early 20th century. Mao's leadership and military strategies, including the Long March, helped the Communist party gain support and eventually defeat the Nationalists in 1949, leading to the founding of the People's Republic of China with Mao as its leader.
The document provides background information on Mao Zedong's Cultural Revolution in China from the 1910s-1970s. It discusses how Mao launched the movement in 1966 to remake Chinese culture and society along communist revolutionary lines. This involved attacking intellectuals, traditional culture, and the communist party establishment. Mao's Red Guards spread violence and turmoil across China as they destroyed heritage sites and persecuted opponents. The Cultural Revolution had disastrous social and economic consequences before Mao's death in 1976 led to the movement's end.
China experienced significant political upheaval and changes between 1897 and 1927. The Hundred Days of Reform in 1898 sought to modernize China's education and government. The Boxer Rebellion in 1900 aimed to drive out foreign influence. In 1912, the last emperor abdicated, ending over 2000 years of imperial rule and establishing a republic with Yuan Shikai as president. However, China then descended into warlordism and civil war between competing forces as no single group could establish control over all of China. By 1927, the Guomindang under Chiang Kaishek had reunified much of northern and central China and established a national government, but still faced ongoing resistance from communists and regional warlords.
After the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, nationalist and communist movements struggled for power in China. The Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) overthrew the Qing and established a new republic led by Sun Yixian, but the government was unstable. In the 1920s, the Communist Party of China was formed under Mao Zedong and began gaining support from peasants dissatisfied with the nationalist government's corruption. A civil war then broke out between the nationalists led by Jiang Jieshi and the communists led by Mao, which was still raging in the late 1930s when Japan invaded China and suspended the civil war as the two Chinese factions allied against the common enemy.
The document discusses different perspectives on Mao Zedong and events during his rule in China such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. It outlines Chinese official views that emphasize Mao's contributions as well as critical Western views since the 1980s that have revised their earlier more sympathetic stances due to new evidence of human costs such as the 30-38 million deaths from famine during the Great Leap Forward. The document also examines varying interpretations of historical events from different time periods and ideological stances.
The document summarizes the history of revolution and communism in China from the early 20th century to modern times. It describes the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 and the rise of nationalist and communist movements led by Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong. Mao emerged as the leader of the communists after their famous Long March retreat. The communists defeated the nationalists in 1949, establishing the People's Republic of China under Mao's leadership. Mao implemented authoritarian policies and economic programs that had mixed results, including the Great Leap Forward that caused a devastating famine.
The document summarizes major events in modern Chinese history from the late 19th century to present day. It describes the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912 and establishment of the Republic of China led by Sun Yat-sen. However, the republic faced weaknesses like disunity and foreign imperialism. Communist ideas grew under Mao Zedong, and civil war broke out between Nationalists and Communists. They temporarily united to fight the Japanese invasion from 1937-1945. The Communists emerged victorious in 1949, establishing the People's Republic of China under Mao's rule. His economic policies like the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution had major impacts, though issues in China continue today around balancing reforms with communist ideals.
Sun Yat-sen was a Chinese revolutionary who played a key role in overthrowing the Qing dynasty and establishing the Republic of China. He served as the first provisional president from 1912-1912. Throughout his life, Sun led numerous uprisings against the Qing that failed before the successful Xinhai Revolution in 1911. He developed the political philosophy of the Three Principles of the People that focused on nationalism, democracy, and people's livelihood. Sun spent many years in exile raising support and funds before returning to lead the new Republic of China.
The document provides an overview of the Russian Revolution. It describes the oppressive conditions under the rule of Czar Nicholas II, including poverty among peasants and unrest from protests and uprisings. World War I exacerbated issues and led to further revolts in 1917, forcing Nicholas to abdicate. This March Revolution established a provisional government led by Kerensky. In November 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power in the November Revolution and established the Soviet Union. A civil war then broke out between the Reds and Whites, which the Bolsheviks ultimately won through force and brutality under Lenin's leadership based on interpretations of Marxism.
1. The document provides information about reasons for the Russian Revolution and the rise of communism in Russia. It discusses the weak leadership of Czar Nicholas II and huge differences between social classes that led to unrest.
2. After Lenin's death in 1924, there was a power struggle between Stalin and Trotsky for control of the Soviet Union. Stalin eventually consolidated power through ruthless political maneuvers.
3. Under Stalin's rule, the Soviet Union instituted policies like collectivization, industrialization, and censorship of cultural life. Stalin aimed to transform Russia into a global power through these programs and by glorifying himself.
The document summarizes key events and individuals in modern Chinese history, including the 1911 Chinese Revolution led by Sun Yat-sen that helped Westernize China; Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People that promoted nationalism, socialism, and democracy; the establishment of the Kuomindang political party by Sun Yat-sen and its rule under Chiang Kai-shek; the Chinese Civil War between the Kuomindang and Communists led by Mao Zedong, who went on to found the People's Republic of China; and major events and policies under Mao like the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution, as well as the Tiananmen Square Massacre.
in this PPT you can see history/civil war etc.. you can do your project by watching this ppt. All information about Russian Revolution you can get in this ppt. so guys watch/Like/Comment & Share!
Thank You
Mao tse tung a transformational leader and his guerilla warBhadra Thakuri
Mao Tse Tung as a transformation leader who is credited for the creation of modern PRC from agrarian and semi-feudal China. He deserved charisma, vision, strong conviction as well as commitment. He was the multi-dimensional personality. He served as an revolutionary soldier, teacher, leader and a poet.
Tsar Nicholas II - IB History Higher Russia03iris10
Tsar Nicholas II - IB History Higher Russia
A fun, definitely not serious at all look at our bei Nicky's well successful(not) rule of Russia
WARNING: Contains expletives at times, but only in jest
The document is a collection of sources about the fall of the Tsarist monarchy in Russia and the rise of Stalin's Soviet Union. Source A is a map showing the large territorial extent of the Russian Empire in 1900. Sources B-C provide inferences about poor conditions for peasants and workers under the Tsarist system. Source D suggests the Tsar was viewed negatively after Bloody Sunday in 1910. Sources F-G explain the impact of World War I, including mass desertions that undermined the Tsarist regime. Source H outlines Lenin's role in promoting land, peace and bread in the 1917 revolution. Sources J-L depict artistic portrayals of key events in the Russian Civil War and establishment of communist rule.
The Russian (Boshevik) Revolution - Flipped LearningMillsWHHS
An overview of the causes, beginnings, and events of the Russian (Bolshevik) Revolution. Use this to build a base of knowledge so that you can participate in the class activities.
The Russian Revolution began in March 1917 and led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II. A provisional government took over but faced challenges from the Bolsheviks. In November 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power in the "October Revolution", establishing the Soviet socialist republic and beginning a civil war. Lenin consolidated power as head of the Communist Party and worked to transform Russia into a socialist state.
Nicholas II initially resisted reforms but gradually made concessions in response to the 1905 revolution. These included promising an advisory Duma, or parliament, and introducing the October Manifesto which established basic civil liberties and reduced autocratic power. However, the Duma's membership was only elected by wealthy Russians, ignoring peasants. And the concessions did little to address worker and peasant grievances over land and political rights. Ultimately the revolution failed because the moderate liberals who led it did not pursue far-reaching social and economic reforms, leaving the underlying causes of discontent unresolved.
The document summarizes the Russian Revolution. It describes Czar Nicholas II as a strict ruler who relied on the army and large government to maintain power. His wife Alexandra was German and isolated him from events during WWI. Growing unrest over food shortages and Russia's poor performance in the war led to the overthrow of the Czar in March 1917. Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks then seized power in November 1917 and established the world's first communist state, fighting a civil war against opposing forces until 1920 when they emerged victorious, establishing the Soviet Union.
The document provides an overview of the 1911 Revolution in China. It discusses:
1) How China was traditionally ruled through dynasties, but by the late 1900s the Qing dynasty was in decline due to internal problems, foreign humiliation, and modernization elsewhere.
2) Sun Yat Sen emerged as a revolutionary leader advocating for nationalism, democracy, and socialism. He founded the Tongmenghui group to overthrow the Qing.
3) In 1911, the Wuchang Uprising broke out and quickly spread. A provisional republican government was formed in Nanjing. Yuan Shi Kai negotiated for the abdication of the child emperor, becoming China's first president.
The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 began with widespread strikes and riots in February 1917 in response to food shortages, high casualties in World War 1, and harsh winters. This led to Czar Nicholas II abdicating in March. However, the provisional government that replaced him continued fighting in the war despite public opposition. Lenin and the Bolsheviks gained popularity by advocating for peace. In October 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power in Petrograd and other major cities, establishing the world's first communist state with Lenin as its leader. This marked the beginning of communist rule in Russia and a major transformation of the country's political and economic systems.
The document summarizes the history of China from the 1800s to the establishment of communist rule under Mao Zedong in 1949. It describes how Western influence and the declining power of the Qing dynasty led to the rise of Chinese nationalism and communism in the early 20th century. Mao's leadership and military strategies, including the Long March, helped the Communist party gain support and eventually defeat the Nationalists in 1949, leading to the founding of the People's Republic of China with Mao as its leader.
The document provides background information on Mao Zedong's Cultural Revolution in China from the 1910s-1970s. It discusses how Mao launched the movement in 1966 to remake Chinese culture and society along communist revolutionary lines. This involved attacking intellectuals, traditional culture, and the communist party establishment. Mao's Red Guards spread violence and turmoil across China as they destroyed heritage sites and persecuted opponents. The Cultural Revolution had disastrous social and economic consequences before Mao's death in 1976 led to the movement's end.
China experienced significant political upheaval and changes between 1897 and 1927. The Hundred Days of Reform in 1898 sought to modernize China's education and government. The Boxer Rebellion in 1900 aimed to drive out foreign influence. In 1912, the last emperor abdicated, ending over 2000 years of imperial rule and establishing a republic with Yuan Shikai as president. However, China then descended into warlordism and civil war between competing forces as no single group could establish control over all of China. By 1927, the Guomindang under Chiang Kaishek had reunified much of northern and central China and established a national government, but still faced ongoing resistance from communists and regional warlords.
The document summarizes Lu Xun's criticism of early 20th century Chinese society and analyzes whether modern China still faces the same issues. Lu Xun depicted Chinese society as living in an "Iron House" with a weak national character and oppressive government that suppressed reform. While China has developed economically, its central government remains authoritarian and corruption is widespread. Modern China also still struggles with issues of national ethics and character that value wealth over empathy seen in Lu Xun's works.
The document summarizes the collapse of Imperial China and the rise of nationalism and calls for democracy and economic reforms led by Sun Yixian. Though he helped overthrow the Qing dynasty in 1911, Sun was unable to unite China under democratic rule. After his death, Jiang Jieshi and the Nationalists rose to power with support from foreign powers, while Mao Zedong established the Communist Party with support from rural peasants. This led to a civil war between the Nationalists and Communists, which was suspended when Japan invaded China in 1931.
The document provides an overview of the Russian Revolution from 1917-1939. It summarizes key events such as Czar Nicholas II being forced to introduce Russia's first constitution in 1905 due to defeat in the Russo-Japanese War. By 1917, Russia was poorly prepared for WWI and facing major issues. The March Revolution of 1917 led to the abdication of the Czar and establishment of a Provisional Government, but Lenin and the Bolsheviks overthrew this government in November 1917, establishing the Soviet Union. The document then discusses Stalin's rise to power in the 1920s-1930s and his policies of rapid industrialization and collectivization of agriculture, which led to millions of deaths.
The document summarizes the history of revolution in China from the 1800s to the present. It discusses major events like the Opium Wars, establishment of the Republic of China, civil war between the Nationalists and Communists leading to Mao's rise to power in 1949, his economic reforms like the Great Leap Forward, the Cultural Revolution, and Tiananmen Square protests in 1989. It also covers China's relationship with foreign powers like the UK governing Hong Kong until 1997.
Mao Zedong was a revolutionary leader who established communist rule in China and served as the first Chairman of the People's Republic of China from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. As chairman, Mao launched controversial campaigns like the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution that had disastrous economic and social consequences but aimed to solidify his power and communist ideology. Mao's rule transformed China's government and society but also led to widespread violence, oppression, and millions of deaths under his authoritarian leadership before his death ended his dictatorship.
The document provides a historical overview of China from ancient times to the present day. It summarizes the major dynasties and periods of Chinese history, including the imperial era, ancient inventions, aborted commercial revolution, opium wars, decline of the imperial era, republican revolution, warlord era, nationalist and communist movements, establishment of the People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong, post-Mao economic reforms under Deng Xiaoping, Tiananmen incident, and current leadership under Hu Jintao.
The document provides an overview of Chinese history from ancient dynasties to the modern era. It discusses the origins and impacts of the Chinese Civil War, the establishment of Communist China under Mao Zedong, the ideological and governmental aspects of Mao's rule, and the political, social and economic challenges China faced. It also examines the historical context and key figures involved in the rise of Chinese communism in the early 20th century.
The document provides definitions and explanations of key terms and events related to modern Chinese history from the early 20th century to the post-Mao reform era, including political campaigns, economic reforms, religious and philosophical movements, revolutionary organizations and figures, and Sino-foreign relations. Events covered include the 1927 Canton commune, the 1955 agricultural cooperatives, the 1973 Anti-Lin Biao campaign, and the introduction of the contract responsibility system in the 1980s. People mentioned include Mao Zedong, Chiang Kai-shek, Chen Duxiu, Chen Yun, and the empress dowager Cixi.
Red Star Over China (Speaker: Vincent Lee Kwun-leung) [Part 1]VincentKwunLeungLee
The "Red Star Over China" is a publication of Edgar Snow in 1968, with Victor Gollancz Limited in London as the publisher.
"Red Star Over China" recorded how the proletariat ideal of Communist Party was prospered as the mainstreamed ruling ideology in 20th-century China - from Menshevism of Chen Duxiu to Bolshevism of Mao Zedong.
Vincent Lee Kwun-leung (李冠良), the speaker of this academic talk, received the education of Prof. Cindy Chu Yik-yi (朱益宜教授) during her "Sino-American Relations" course at HKBU History Department in early 2009. Prof. Cindy Chu requested Vincent Lee and other students to do a "History Book Review" on "Red Star Over China" to analyze how an American journalist observed Communism in China.
Prof. Cindy Chu Yik-yi obtained a Ph-D qualification in University of Hawaii at Manoa. Her BA and M-Phil qualifications were from the University of Hong Kong. Prof. Chu is an alumnus of Maryknoll Convent School, and her Catholic growing background enables her to devote to the research on Maryknoll Sisters' missionary and charitable services in Hong Kong. Now, Prof. Chu is the Associate Director of HKBU David C. Lam Institute for East-West Studies.
The document provides an overview of modern Chinese history from the late Qing Dynasty in the late 19th century through the establishment of the Republic of China in the early 20th century. It discusses the failed reforms under the Guangxu Emperor in the late Qing period. It then covers the rise of nationalism and anti-foreign sentiment, the Boxer Rebellion, and the increasing foreign encroachment on Chinese territory in the form of concessions. The document next summarizes the Xinhai Revolution that overthrew the Qing Dynasty and established the Republic of China with Sun Yat-sen as provisional president. It then discusses the early Republican period under Yuan Shikai and the warlord era, as well as the
ChinaChina emerged from the Second World War with some serious iJinElias52
China
China emerged from the Second World War with some serious issues. First, it had suffered through the war. Remember, the Japanese invaded China in 1937. Secondly, it had already been fighting a Civil War for many years. From 1912 until the Japanese invaded in 1937, China had been suffering with a good deal of internal strife. Once the Emperor had been deposed, China had been trying to create a cohesive state. However, due to the ravages of Colonialism and poor governmental policies for about 100 years, instead of segueing into a western style democracy such as Japan (Dr. Sun Yat Sen’s dream), there was a corrupt crony capitalism with a somewhat democratic leadership, that had to deal with extreme poverty, and regional warlords.
While trying to make order out of this chaos, this government was then presented with a growing Communist party threat. Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the Chinese Communists were a new breed. Mocked by the Russians because even Stalin believed that you couldn’t have a communist revolution in such a poor, peasant, non-industrial society, Mao was undeterred and began a decades-long campaign to “win the hearts and minds of the people” – mostly the peasants. This was the beginning of what we now call 4th generation warfare (guerrilla warfare, small bands attacking targets, terrorism). Mao befriended villages, won their hearts, attacked the Chinese Nationalists and then disappeared into the villages. This “war” went on for about 10 years until the Japanese invaded – in fact, it was one reason that the Japanese were able to attack China so successfully.
During the Second World War, the Communists and the Nationalists made an uneasy truce called the United Front. The idea was to team up to defeat the Japanese and then figure out the government. Mao greatly benefited from this truce. He managed to get the Nationalists to stop attacking him, and to concentrate on the Japanese. Meanwhile, he spent very little effort at attacking the Japanese but continued building up his strength and winning over new converts. Thus by 1945, when the Japanese were defeated, Mao was in a very strong position from a large majority of popular support.
History and Geography
China is one of the oldest civilizations on earth. The land area is roughly equivalent to the U.S, but there are about 1.4 billion residents. It is bordered on the north with Mongolia and Russia (the Soviet Union during almost all of the Twentieth Century), on the west with India, Nepal and Myanmar (Burma), on the south-west with Vietnam, Laos, on the south with the China Sea and the Philippines and Taiwan in the China Sea, on the Northeast with Korea, on the east with the East China Sea and Yellow Sea with Japan in the Yellow Sea (across from Korea).
Economically, China was the engine that drove world growth at least until the 17th century. Many historians believe that the strength of the Chinese economy lasted until the second industrial revolution in England. The ...
This document provides historical context about events in Russia from 1914-1917 that led to the overthrow of the Romanov dynasty and the February Revolution. It discusses:
1) Russia's disastrous performance in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 and the subsequent Revolution of 1905, which weakened the Tsarist autocracy.
2) The impact of World War I on Russian society, including massive casualties, economic crisis, and radicalization of the populace.
3) The February Revolution of 1917, sparked by International Women's Day protests and unrest over food shortages and the war, which overthrew the Tsar and established dual power between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet
The document provides an overview of the rise of dictators in the period between 1918-1939. It begins by discussing how many believed a new age of democracy had dawned after World War 1, but instead the years became an era of dictatorship. It then summarizes the rise of three dictators:
1) Joseph Stalin in Russia/Soviet Union who consolidated power after Lenin's death and instituted brutal policies like collectivization, purges, and famine that killed millions.
2) Benito Mussolini in Italy who formed the Fascist party and seized power in 1922, becoming Il Duce and allying with Hitler.
3) Adolf Hitler in Germany who joined the Nazi party after WW1 and transformed it
Vladimir Lenin was a Russian revolutionary who led the Bolshevik Revolution in October 1917, establishing the Soviet Union and communist rule. He was influenced by Karl Marx and believed in a revolution led by workers. After years of exile, Lenin returned to Russia during World War I and seized power. Joseph Stalin later succeeded Lenin after his death and established an authoritarian regime, carrying out brutal purges that eliminated his political opponents. Both leaders established communist single-party states in Russia through revolutionary and oppressive means that had lasting impacts.
Dynastic monarchies in Russia and China faced economic and social problems in the early 20th century, leading to revolutions. In Russia, the tsar was overthrown and a provisional democratic government formed, but it failed amid World War I losses. Radicals like the Bolsheviks gained power, and their leader Lenin seized control. A civil war ensued as anti-communist forces fought back, but the Bolsheviks prevailed. Lenin established communist rule, redistributing land and industrializing through five-year plans. In China, the Qing dynasty fell in 1912 and a provisional government took over, but problems continued and communists gained victory in 1949, establishing the People's Republic of China.
Dynastic monarchies in Russia and China faced economic and social problems in the early 20th century, leading to revolutions. In Russia, the tsar was overthrown and a provisional democratic government formed, but it failed amid World War I losses. Radicals like the Bolsheviks gained power, and their leader Lenin seized control. A civil war ensued as anti-communist forces fought back, but the Bolsheviks prevailed. Lenin established communist rule, redistributing land and industrializing through five-year plans. In China, the Qing dynasty fell in 1912 and a provisional government took over, but problems continued and communists gained victory in 1949, establishing the People's Republic of China.
The document profiles several influential historical figures from the 20th century including leaders, revolutionaries, and activists. It provides brief biographies on important individuals such as David Ben-Gurion, Winston Churchill, Mohandas Gandhi, Mikhail Gorbachev, Adolf Hitler, Martin Luther King Jr., Ayatullah Khomeini, Vladimir Lenin, Nelson Mandela, Pope John Paul II, Ronald Reagan, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Teddy Roosevelt, Margaret Thatcher, Lech Walesa, Mao Zedong, and others. It also includes definitions of relevant terms and concepts mentioned in the biographies. The document concludes by proposing an assignment to create a powerpoint on the most influential people of a particular group from
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By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
1. History of China (Modern Period)
Republic of China (1912-1949)
On1 January 1912,the Republic ofChinawasestablished,andSun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang(theKMT or
NationalistParty) was proclaimedprovisional president. However,the presidencywaslater given to Yuan
Shikai,a formerQinggeneralwhoin1915proclaimedhimselfEmperorofChina.In the faceof popular
condemnationandoppositionfrom hisownBeiyangArmy, hewas forcedto abdicateandre-establishthe
republic.
After Yuan Shikai's deathin 1916,Chinawas politicallyfragmented.Its Beijing-basedgovernmentwas
internationallyrecognizedbutvirtually powerless;regionalwarlordscontrolledmostofits territory. In the late
1920s,the Kuomintang,underChiangKai-shek,wasabletoreunifythe countryunderits own controlwitha seriesof deft militaryand
politicalmaneuverings,knowncollectivelyasthe NorthernExpedition.
Chinese Civil War
In 1927, Chiangturnedon the CPCand relentlesslychasedthe CPCarmiesandits leadersfrom theirbases
in southernandeastern China.In 1934, driven from their mountainbasessuchasthe ChineseSoviet
Republic,theCPCforcesembarkedonthe LongMarchacrossChina'smostdesolateterrainto the northwest,
wherethey establishedaguerrillabaseat Yan'an in ShanxiProvince.
Duringthe LongMarch,thecommunistsreorganizedunderanewleader,MaoZedong(MaoTse-tung).The
bitter strugglebetweenthe KMT andtheCPC continued,openlyor clandestinely,through the 14-yearlong
Japaneseinvasion(1931-1945),even thoughthe two partiesnominallyformedaunited front to opposethe
Japaneseinvadersin 1937, duringtheSino-JapaneseWar(1937-1945)portionof World War II.
World War II (Second-Sino Japanese War)
TheSecondSino-JapaneseWar(1937-1945),atheaterof World War II, forcedan uneasyalliancebetweentheKuomintangandthe
PLA. Japaneseforcescommittednumerouswaratrocitiesagainstthecivilianpopulation;inall,as manyas 20 millionChinese civilians
died.
An estimated200,000Chineseweremassacredinthecityof Nanjing aloneduringthe
Japaneseoccupation.Duringthewar,China,alongwith the UK, the US andthe Soviet Union,
werereferred to as "trusteeship of the powerful"and wererecognizedasthe Allied"Big Four" in
the DeclarationbyUnitedNations.
Along with the other threegreat powers, Chinawasone of the four majorAllies of World War II,
andwas later consideredoneofthe primaryvictors inthe war. After the surrenderof Japanin
1945,Taiwan,includingthePescadores,wasreturnedto Chinesecontrol.Chinaemerged
victoriousbut war-ravagedand financiallydrained.Thecontinueddistrustbetweenthe
KuomintangandtheCommunistsledtothe resumptionofcivil war. Constitutionalrulewas
establishedin1947,but becauseof the ongoingunrest,manyprovisionsof the ROC
constitutionwerenever implementedinmainlandChina.
People's Republic of China (1949-present)
MajorcombatintheChineseCivil War endedin 1949withthe CommunistPartyin controlof mostof mainlandChina,andthe
Kuomintang retreatingoffshore,reducingtheROC'sterritory to only Taiwan,Hainan,andtheirsurroundingislands.On21September
1949,CommunistPartyChairman
2. MaoZedongproclaimedtheestablishmentofthe People'sRepublic ofChina.In 1950, the People'sLiberation
Army succeededincapturingHainanfrom theROCandincorporatingTibet.
Theregimeconsolidateditspopularityamongthepeasantsthrough landreform,whichsawbetween1 and2
millionlandlordsexecuted.Underits leadership,Chinadevelopedanindependentindustrialsystem andits own
nuclearweapons.TheChinesepopulationalmostdoubledfrom around550milliontoover 900 million.
However, the Great LeapForward,a large-scaleeconomic andsocialreform project,resultedinan estimated45
milliondeathsbetween1958and1961,mostlyfrom starvation. In 1966,Maoandhis allieslaunchedtheCultural
Revolution, sparkingadecadeof politicalrecriminationandsocialupheavalwhichlasteduntilMao'sdeathin1976. In October1971,
the PRC replacedtheRepublic ofChinainthe UnitedNations,and took its seat as a permanentmemberofthe SecurityCouncil.
After Mao'sdeath, DengXiaopingtookpowerin 1978,and institutedsignificanteconomic
reforms.TheCommunistPartyloosenedgovernmentalcontrolovercitizens' personallives,
andthe communesweregraduallydisbandedinfavor of private landleases.Thismarked
China'stransitionfrom a plannedeconomytoa mixedeconomywithan increasinglyopen-
marketenvironment.Chinaadoptedits currentconstitutionon4 December1982.
JiangZemin,LiPengand ZhuRongjiledthe nationin the 1990s.Undertheir administration,
China'seconomicperformancepulledanestimated150millionpeasantsoutof poverty and
sustainedan averageannualgross domestic productgrowthrateof 11.2%.
Thecountryformallyjoinedthe World TradeOrganizationin2001,and
maintaineditshighrate of economicgrowthunderHuJintaoandWen
Jiabao'sleadershipinthe 2000s.However, rapid growthalsoseverely
impacted thecountry'sresourcesandenvironment,andcausedmajorsocial
displacement.Livingstandardscontinuedtoimproverapidlydespite the late-
2000srecession,butcentralizedpoliticalcontrolremainedtight.
Preparationsfor a decadalCommunistPartyleadershipchangein2012weremarkedby factional
disputesand political scandals.DuringChina's18thNationalCommunistPartyCongressin
November2012,Hu Jintaowas replacedasGeneralSecretaryof the CommunistPartyby Xi
Jinping.
UnderXi, the Chinesegovernmentbeganlarge-scaleeffortsto reform its economy,whichhas
suffered from structuralinstabilitiesandslowinggrowth.TheXi-LiAdministrationalsoannounced
majorreformsto the one-childpolicyandprisonsystem.
Chinese Literature (Modern Period)
Republican Era (1912-1937)
Theliterarysceneinthe first few years before the collapseofthe Qingin1911was
dominatedbypopularlove stories, somewrittenin the classical languageandsomein
the vernacular.Thisentertainmentfictionwouldlaterbelabeled"MandarinDucksand
Butterfly"fictionbyNewCulturalists, whodespisedits lackof socialengagement.
In the courseof the New CultureMovement (1917-23),thevernacularlanguagelargely
displacedtheclassical inallareasof literatureand writing.Literary reformersHu Shih
(1891-1962)and Chen Duxiu (1880-1942)declaredtheclassical language"dead"and
promotedthevibrant vernacularinits stead. Hu Shi oncesaid,"A deadlanguagecan
never producealiving literature." In terms of literary practice,Lu Xun (1881-1936)isusuallysaid to be the first majorstylist in the new
vernacularprosethat Hu Shi andChenDuxiuwere promoting.
Thoughoftensaidto be less successfulthantheircounterpartsinfictionwriting, poets alsoexperimentedwiththevernacularinnew
poetic forms,suchas free verse andthe sonnet. Given that there was no traditionof writingpoetry in the vernacular,these experiments
weremoreradicalthanthose infictionwritingand alsoless easilyacceptedbythe readingpublic.Modernpoetryflourishedespecially
in the 1930s,in the handsof poetslike Zhu Xiang,Dai Wangshu,Li Jinfa,Wen Yiduo ,andGeXiao.
3. MayFourthradicalism,combinedwithchangesintheeducationsystem,madepossible theemergenceofalargegroup of women
writers. While therehad beenwomenwritersinthe lateimperialperiodandthelate Qing,they hadbeen few innumber.These writers
generallytackleddomestic issues,suchasrelationsbetweenthe sexes, family, andfriendship,but they were revolutionaryin giving
directexpressionto femalesubjectivity. DingLing'sstory MissSophia'sDiaryexposesthe thoughtsandfeelingsof its femalediaristin
alltheir complexity.
The1920sand1930ssaw the emergenceofspokendrama.Mostoutstandingamongplaywrightsof the dayare Ouyang Yuqian,
Hong Shen,Tian Han,and Cao Yu .Morepopularthanthis Western-style drama,however, wasPeking opera,raisedtonewartistic
heightsby the likes of MeiLanfang.
In the late 1920sand 1930s,literary journalsandsocietiesespousingvariousartistic theoriesproliferated.Amongthe majorwritersof
the periodwere:
Guo Moruo (1892-1978),apoet, historian,essayist, and critic.
Mao Dun (1896-1981),thefirst of the novelists to emergefrom the Leagueof Left-Wing Writers andone whosework reflected
the revolutionarystruggleand disillusionmentof the late1920s.
Lao She (1899-1966)-satirist andnovelist
Ba Jin (1904-2005),anovelist whosework was a trilogythat depictedthestruggleof modernyouth againstthe ageold
dominanceofthe Confucianfamilysystem.
TheLeagueofLeft-Wing Writers foundedin1930includedLuXunamongitsleadership.By1932it hadadoptedthe Soviet doctrine
ofsocialistrealism;thatis, the insistencethatart must concentrateoncontemporaryevents in a realistic way, exposingthe illsof
nonsocialistsocietyandpromotingagloriousfuture undercommunism.
Otherstyles of literaturewere at oddswith the highly-politicalliteraturebeingpromotedbythe League.The"New Sensationists",a
groupof writersbasedin Shanghaiwhowereinfluenced,tovarying degrees,by Western andJapanesemodernismwrotefictionthat
was moreconcernedwiththeunconsciousandwithaestheticsthanwithpoliticsorsocialproblems.Mostimportantamongthese
writers wereMuShiying, Liu Na'ou, andShi Zhecun.Otherwriters,includingShenCongwenand FeiMing,balkedatthe utilitarianrole
for literature by writinglyrical,almostnostalgic,depictionsofthe countryside.Lin Yutang, whohadstudied at Harvard and Leipzig,
introducedtheconceptofyoumo (humor),whichheusedin trenchantcriticismofChina'spoliticalandcultural situationbeforeleaving
for the United States.
The war years (1937-1949)
Duringthe Sino-JapaneseWar(1937-45),mostwriters fled to the interior, wherethey contributedtothe war effort by writingpatriotic
literatureunderthe bannerof the ZhonghuaQuanguoWenyijieKangdi Xiehui (All-ChinaAnti-JapaneseFederation ofWritersand
Artists), foundedin1938and directedbyLao She. All genreswere represented,includingreportage(baogaowenxue),anenormously
influentialtype of writingthat was a naturaloutgrowthof the federation'scallfor writers to go to the countrysideandthe front lines.
Literarymagazineswerefilled withshort, easilyproducedandadaptableplays,topicalpatriotic verse,and war-zone dispatches.
Amongthe majorwriterswhocontinuedtoproduceworkof high qualityduringthis periodwereBa Jin, Cao Yu, and MaoDun.The
short stories andnovels that Sha Dingwrotein the late 1930sand mid-1940salsoreceivedacclaimfrom fellowwriters.
DingLing's fictionalexplorationsofthefemalepsycheand the social conditionofwomenhadcaughtthepublic'simaginationinthe
1920s,and in the late1930s sheestablishedherselfas the majorliteraryfigurein the communiststrongholdofYan'an.
Maoist Era (1949-1976)
After comingtopowerin1949, the Communists graduallynationalizedthepublishingindustry,centralizedthe book
distributionsystem, and broughtwriters underinstitutionalcontrolthroughtheWriters Union.A system of strict
censorshipwasimplemented.
Socialistrealism becametheuniform style, and manySoviet works were translated.Party culturalleaderssuchas
ZhouYang used Mao'scallto have literature"serve the people"to mountattacks on"petty bourgeoisidealism"" and
"humanitarianism."
At the timeof the GreatLeap Forward (1957-59),thegovernmentincreaseditsinsistenceontheuse of socialistrealism and
combinedwithit so-calledrevolutionaryrealism andrevolutionaryromanticism.
Despitethe literary controlandstricturesto limitsubjectsto contemporaryChinaandthe gloriesof the revolution, writers produced
widelyreadnovels of energyandcommitment.Examplesofthis new socialistliteratureinclude:
1. TheBuilderbyLiu Qing
2. TheSong ofYouth byYang Mo
3. Tracksin theSnowyForestbyQu Bo
4. Keep the Red Flag FlyingbyLiangBin
5. TheRed Sun by Wu Qiang
6. Red Crag by Luo Guangbin
7.Yang Yiyan
4. Duringthe Cultural Revolution (1966-1976),Mao'swife,Jiang Qing ledthecampaignagainst"feudal"and"bourgeois"culture.The
onlystage productionsallowedwereher"EightModelOperas,"whichcombinedtraditional andwesternforms,whilegreatfanfarewas
given to politicallyorthodoxfilmsandheroic novels, suchas those by HaoRan. Theperiodhaslongbeenregardedasa cultural
wasteland,but somenowsuggest that the leadingworkshave an energywhichisstill of interest.
Opening and Reform (1978-1989)
Muchof the literatureinwhat wouldbe calledthe"newera" discussedtheseriousabusesof powerthat had taken placeatboth the
nationalandthe locallevelsduringthe CulturalRevolution.Thewritersdecriedthewaste of timeand talent duringthat decadeand
bemoanedabusesthathadheldChinaback.Thisliterature,often called"scarliterature,"or "the literatureof the wounded,"discussed
the experiencesofsent-downyouth with great thoughnot completefranknessandconveyeddisquietingviewsof the party andthe
politicalsystem.
Duringthis period,the numberof literarymagazinesrosesharply, andmanyfrom before the CulturalRevolutionwererevived.
Poetry also changedinitsform andcontent.Four"mistypoets,"Bei Dao, Gu Cheng,Duo Duo and Yang Lian expressed
themselvesin deliberatelyobscureverse whichreflectedsubjectiverealism.Therewasaspecialinterestin foreignworks. Recent
foreignliteraturewas translated, often withoutcarefullyconsideringitsinterestfor the Chinesereader.Literarymagazinesspecializing
in translationsof foreignshort stories becameverypopular,especiallyamongtheyoung.
At the sametime,writers remainedfreerto writein unconventionalstyles andto treat sensitive subjectmatter.A spiritof literary
experimentationflourished inthesecondhalfof the 1980s.Fictionwriterssuchas Wang Meng,Zhang Xinxin,andZong Pu and
dramatistssuchas Gao Xingjian experimentedwithmodernistlanguageandnarrativemodes.
Another group of writers collectivelysaidto constitutethe "Roots"movementincluding Han Shaogong,Mo Yan,Ah Cheng andJia
Pingwasoughtto reconnectliteratureandculturetoChinesetraditions,from whicha centuryof modernizationandculturalandpolitical
iconoclasm hadseveredthem.
Post Tiananmen and Present (1989-Present)
AccordingtoMartinWoesler, trends incontemporaryChineseliteratureinclude:
1. "Cultliterature" with Guo Jingming's"Crymeasad river"
2. "Vagabond literature" with Xu Zechen's"Running Through Beijing"and
Liu Zhenyun's"Thepickpockets"
3. "Underground literature" with Mian Mian's"PandaSex"
4 "Longing forsomething literature"divided in historicizingliteraturewith
Yu Dan's"Confuciusin yourheart",Yi Zhongtian in Tibetanliteratureand
with Alai,literatureofthemegacities.
5. "Women'sliterature" with Bi Shumin's"Women'sboxing"
6. "Masternarratives" bynarratorslikeMo Yan with "Lifeand Death areWearing meout".
Chineselanguageliteraturealso flourishedoutsidethecountryin South East Asia, the UnitedStates, andEurope.Chinais the largest
publisherof books,magazinesandnewspapersinthe world. In book publishingalone,some128,800newtitles
of books werepublishedin2005,accordingtotheGeneralAdministrationof Press andPublication.
Therearemorethan600literary journalsacrossthecountry. Living in Francebutcontinuingtowriteprimarilyin
Chinese,Gao Xingjian becamethefirstChinesewriterto receivetheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein 2000.
In 2012, Mo Yan also received theNobel Prizein Literature.In2015, children's
authorCao Wenxuan wasawarded theHansChristianAndersen Award,thefirst
Chineseauthorto win the top internationalchildren'sbookprize(althoughseveral Chineseauthorshad
previously beennominated).
5. Sample Literary Piece of the Period
Lu Xun,formerlyromanizedLu Hsün,was the pen nameofZhouShuren (25 September
1881– 19 October1936),a leadingfigureof modernChineseliterature.Writingin
VernacularChineseaswellas ClassicalChinese,LuXunwas a short story writer, editor,
translator, literarycritic,essayist, poet, anddesigner.In the 1930she becamethetitular
headof the LeagueofLeft-Wing Writers inShanghai.
He hasbeen considered asChina'sgreatestmodernwriterfor mostof the 20th century. In
fact, scholarsplacehim asthefather of modernChineseliterature. Manyof the other authorsof fictionalworksof socialcriticism
popularduringthe1920sand 1930shave been at least partiallydiscreditedorcriticizedduringthevariouspoliticalmovementsin
Chinasince1949,but LuXun's reputationhasremainedconsistentlydistinguished.MaoZedong(1893-1976)calledhim "commander
of China'sculturalrevolution."
MEDICINE
by Lu Xun
It was autumn,inthe smallhoursof the morning.Themoonhadgonedown,butthe sunhad not yet risen, andthe sky appeared a
sheet of darklingblue.Apart from night-prowlers,allwasasleep.OldChuansuddenlysat up inbed. He strucka matchandlit the
grease-coveredoillamp,whichshedaghostlylight over the two roomsof the tea-house.
"Are you goingnow, dad?"queriedanold woman'svoice.And from the smallinnerroom afit of coughingwasheard.
"H'm."
OldChuanlistenedas hefastened his clothes,thenstretchingout his handsaid, "Let's have it."
After somefumblingunderthepillowhiswifeproducedapacketof silver dollarswhichshehandedover. OldChuanpocketedit
nervously, patted his pockettwice,thenlightinga paperlanternand blowingoutthe lampwentinto the innerroom.A rustling was
heard,and then morecoughing.Whenallwas quietagain,Old Chuancalledsoftly: "Son! . . Don't you get up! . . . Your motherwillsee
to the shop."
Receivingnoanswer,OldChuanassumedhisson mustbe soundasleepagain;so he went out into the street. In the darknessnothing
couldbeseenbut the grey roadway. Thelanternlightfell onhis pacingfeet. Hereand therehe cameacrossdogs,but noneof them
barked.It wasmuchcolderthanindoors,yet Old Chuan'sspiritsrose, as if he hadgrownsuddenlyyounger andpossessedsome
miraculouslife-givingpower.Helengthenedhisstride. And the road becameincreasinglyclear,thesky increasinglybright.
Absorbed in hiswalking,OldChuanwas startled whenhesaw distinctlythe cross-roadaheadofhim.He walkedbackafew stepsto
stand underthe eaves of a shop, infront of its closeddoor.After sometimehe beganto feel chilly.
"Uh, an oldchap."
"Seemsrather cheerful.. . ."
OldChuanstarted againand, openinghiseyes, sawseveral menpassing.Oneof them even turned backto lookat him,andalthough
he couldnotsee him clearly,the man'seyes shonewith a lustfullight, like a famishedperson'sat the sight of food. Lookingat his
lantern,Old Chuansawit had goneout. He patted his pocket—thehardpacketwasstill there. Thenhelookedroundandsaw many
strangepeople,in twos and threes, wanderingaboutlikelostsouls. However, when hegazed steadily at them,he couldnotsee
anything elsestrange aboutthem.
Presently hesaw somesoldiersstrollingaround.Thelargewhitecirclesontheiruniforms,both infront andbehind,were cleareven at
a distance;andas they drew nearer,he sawthe darkred bordertoo. Thenextsecond,witha tramplingoffeet, a crowdrushedpast.
Thereuponthesmallgroupswhichhadarrivedearliersuddenlyconvergedandsurgedforward. Just before the cross-road,they came
to a suddenstop and groupedthemselvesina semi-circle.
OldChuanlookedinthat directiontoo,but couldonlyseepeople'sbacks.Craningtheir necksasfar as they wouldgo, they lookedlike
so manyducksheldandlifted by someinvisiblehand.For a momentallwasstill; then a soundwasheard, anda stir swept throughthe
on-lookers.Therewasarumbleas they pushedback,sweepingpastOldChuanandnearlyknockinghim down.
"Hey! Give me the cash,andI'll give you the goods!" A mancladentirelyin blackstoodbefore him,hiseyes like daggers,makingOld
Chuanshrinkto halfhis normalsize. Thismanthrust onehugeextendedhandtowards him,whileinthe other he helda rollof steamed
bread,from whichcrimsondropsweredrippingtothe ground.
6. HurriedlyOld Chuanfumbledforhis dollars,andtremblinghewasabout to handthem over, but hedared not take the object. Theother
grewimpatientandshouted: "What are you afraidof? Why not take it?" When OldChuanstill hesitated,the manin blacksnatchedhis
lanternand tore off its papershadeto wrap up the roll.Thispackagehethrustinto OldChuan'shand, at the sametimeseizing the
silver and giving it a cursoryfeel. Thenheturnedaway, muttering,"Oldfool. . . ."
"Whose sicknessis this for?" OldChuanseemedtohear someoneask;but he madenoreply. His wholemindwasonthe package,
whichhecarriedascarefullyas if it werethe sole heirto anancienthouse.Nothingelsematterednow. He wasabout to transplantthis
newlife to hisown home,andreapmuchhappiness.Thesunhadrisen,lightingupthe broadhighwaybeforehim,whichledstraight
home,andthe worn tabletbehindhim at the cross-roadwithits faded goldinscription:"AncientPavilion."
II
When OldChuanreachedhome,theshophadbeencleaned,andthe rowsof tea-tablesshonebrightly; but nocustomershadarrived.
Onlyhis son sat eatingat a tableby the wall. Beadsof sweat stood out on hisforehead, hislinedjacketclungtohis spine, andhis
shoulderbladesstuckout so sharply, an inverted V seemedstampedthere.At this sight, OldChuan's brow,whichhadbeenclear,
contractedagain.Hiswifehurriedin from the kitchen,with expectanteyes anda tremor to her lips:
"Get it?"
"Yes."
Theywent togetherinto the kitchen,andconferredfor a time.Thentheold womanwentout, to return shortly with a driedlotus leaf
whichshespreadon the table. OldChuanunwrappedthecrimson-stainedrollfrom thelanternpaperandtransferred it to the lotusleaf.
Little Chuanhadfinishedhis meal,buthis motherexclaimedhastily:
"Sit still, Little Chuan!Don't comeoverhere."
Mendingthefire inthe stove, OldChuanput the greenpackageandthered and whitelanternpaperinto the stove together. A red-
blackflameflaredup, anda strange odourpermeatedtheshop.
"Smellsgood!What areyou eating?"Thehunchbackhadarrived. Hewas one of those whospendall theirtime intea-shops, the first to
comeinthe morningandthelast to leave. Nowhe hadjust stumbledto a cornertablefacingthestreet, and sat down. But no one
answeredhisquestion.
"Puffed ricegruel?"
Still noreply. OldChuanhurriedout to brew tea for him.
"Comehere,Little Chuan!" Hismothercalledhim intothe innerroom,set a stool in the middle,andsat the childdown.Then,bringing
him a roundblackobjectona plate,she said gently:
"Eat it up . . . then you'll be better."
Little Chuanpickedupthe blackobjectandlookedatit. Hehad the oddestfeeling, as if he wereholding hisownlife in his hands.
Presently hesplit it carefullyopen.From withinthe charredcrustajet of whitevapour escaped,thenscattered,leaving onlytwo halves
of a steamedwhiteflour roll. Soonit wasall eaten, the flavour completelyforgotten,only the emptyplatebeingleft. His father and
motherwerestandingoneon eachsideof him, theireyes apparentlypouringsomethingintohim andatthe sametimeextracting
something.Hissmallheartbeganto beat faster, and, puttinghis handsto his chest, hebeganto coughagain.
"Have a sleep;then you'll be allright," saidhis mother.
Obediently,Little Chuancoughedhimselftosleep. Thewomanwaitedtillhisbreathingwasregular,then coveredhim lightly witha
muchpatchedquilt.
III
Theshopwascrowded,andOldChuanwasbusy, carryinga bigcopperkettleto maketea for onecustomerafter another.Therewere
dark circlesunderhiseyes.
"Aren't you well, OldChuan?. . . What's wrongwith you?" askedone greybeard.
"Nothing."
"Nothing?. . . No, I supposefrom your smile,therecouldn'tbe. . ." the oldmancorrectedhimself.
7. "It's just that OldChuan'sbusy," saidthe hunchback."If his son. . . ." But beforehe couldfinish,a heavy-jowled manburst in. Over his
shouldershehad a darkbrown shirt, unbuttonedandfastened carelesslybya broad darkbrowngirdleat hiswaist. As soonas he
entered, heshoutedto OldChuan:
"Has he eatenit? Any better? Luck'swith you, OldChuan.What luck! If not for my hearingof thingsso quickly. . . ."
Holdingthekettle in onehand, the other straight by hisside in anattitude of respect, OldChuanlistenedwitha smile.In fact, all
presentwere listeningrespectfully.Theoldwoman,darkcirclesunderhereyes too, cameoutsmilingwitha bowlcontainingtea-leaves
andan addedolive, over whichOldChuanpouredboilingwaterforthe newcomer.
"Thisisa guaranteedcure!Not likeother things!" declaredtheheavy-jowledman."Just think, broughtback warm,and eatenwarm!"
"Yes indeed,we couldn'thave manageditwithoutUncleKang'shelp." Theoldwomanthankedhim verywarmly.
"A guaranteedcure!Eatenwarm likethis. A rolldippedinhumanbloodlikethis cancureanyconsumption!"
Theoldwomanseemedalittledisconcertedbythe word "consumption,"andturneda shadepaler; however, she forcedasmileagain
at onceandfound somepretext to leave. Meanwhilethemaninbrownwas indiscreetenoughtogoon talkingat the top of his voice
untilthe childinthe innerroom was wokenand started coughing.
"So you've had a greatstroke of luckfor your LittleChuan! Of coursehissicknesswillbecuredcompletely.No wonderOldChuan
keepssmiling."As he spoke, the greybeardwalkedup to the manin brown,and loweredhisvoiceto ask:
"Mr. Kang, I heard the criminalexecutedtodaycamefrom theHsiafamily. Who was it? And why washe executed?"
"Who? Son of Widow Hsia,of course!Young rascal!"
Seeinghowthey all hungon hiswords, Mr. Kang's spiritsrose even higher.Hisjowlsquivered, and hemadehis voiceas loudas he
could.
"Theroguedidn'twant to live, simplydidn'twant to! Therewasnothinginit for methis time.Even the clothesstrippedfrom him were
taken by Red-eye, the jailer.Our OldChuanwasluckiest,andafter him ThirdUncleHsia.Hepocketedthewholereward—twenty-five
taels of bright silver—anddidn't have to spenda cent!"
Little Chuanwalkedslowlyout of the innerroom,his handsto his chest, coughingrepeatedly.Hewent to the kitchen,filleda bowlwith
coldrice,addedhotwater to it, and sittingdown started to eat. Hismother,hovering over him,askedsoftly:
"Do you feelbetter, son?Still as hungryas ever?"
"A guaranteedcure!"Kangglancedatthe child,thenturnedbackto address the company."ThirdUncleHsiaisreallysmart. If he
hadn't informed,even hisfamilywouldhave been executed,andtheirproperty confiscated.Butinstead?Silver! Thatyoung roguewas
a realscoundrel!Heeven tried to incitethejailerto revolt!"
"No! Theideaof it!" A manin histwenties, sitting in the backrow, expressedindignation.
"You know, Red-eye wentto soundhim out, but he started chattingwithhim.He saidthe greatChingempirebelongstous. Just think:
is that kind of talk rational?Red-eye knewhe hadonly anold motherat home,but hadnever imaginedhewasso poor. He couldn't
squeeze anything out of him;he was alreadygoodandangry, andthen the young fool would'scratchthetiger's head,' so he gave him
a coupleofslaps."
"Red-eye is a goodboxer. Thoseslapsmusthave hurt!" Thehunchbackinthecornerby the wallexulted.
"Therotter was not afraidof beingbeaten. Heeven saidhow sorry he was."
"Nothingto be sorry about inbeatinga wretchlike that," saidGreybeard.
Kanglookedat him superciliouslyandsaiddisdainfully:"You misunderstood.Thewayhesaid it, he was sorry for Red-eye."
His listeners'eyes took on a glazed look,and no onespoke. Little Chuanhadfinishedhisriceandwas perspiringprofusely, his head
steaming.
"Sorry for Red-eye—crazy! Hemust have beencrazy!" said Greybeard,as if suddenlyhe sawlight.
"He musthave beencrazy!" echoedthemaninhis twenties.
Oncemorethecustomersbegantoshowanimation,andconversationwasresumed.Undercoverof the noise,the childwasseized by
a paroxysm of coughing.Kangwentupto him,clappedhim ontheshoulder,andsaid:
8. "A guaranteedcure!Don'tcoughlikethat, Little Chuan!A guaranteedcure!"
"Crazy!" agreedthe hunchback,noddinghishead.
IV
Originally,the landadjacenttothe city walloutsidethe West Gatehad beenpublic land.Thezigzagpath runningacrossit, troddenout
by passers-byseekinga short cut, hadbecomeanaturalboundaryline. Left of the pathwere buriedexecutedcriminalsorthosewho
haddied of neglectinprison.Right of the path werepaupers'graves. Theserriedranksof grave moundsonboth sideslookedlikethe
rollslaidout for a richman'sbirthday.
TheChingMingFestivalthat year was unusuallycold.Willowswere onlyjust beginningtoput forth shoots no largerthan grains.
Shortly after daybreak, OldChuan's wifebrought four dishesanda bowlof riceto set before a newgrave inthe right section,and
wailedbeforeit. Whenshe had burnedpapermoneyshe sat on the groundina stupor as if waitingfor something;butfor what, she
herselfdid not know. A breeze sprangup and stirredher short hair, whichwascertainlywhiterthan the previous year.
Another womancamedownthepath, grey-hairedandin rags. Carrying an old,round, red-lacqueredbasketwitha string of paper
moneyhangingfrom it, she walkedhaltingly.When she sawOldChuan's wifesitting on the groundwatchingher,shehesitated, anda
flush of shamespreadover herpaleface. However, she summonedupcouragetocrossover to a grave in the left section.whereshe
set down herbasket.
Thatgrave was directlyoppositeLittle Chuan's,separatedonlyby the path. As OldChuan'swife watchedtheother womanset Outfour
dishesof foodand a bowlof rice,then stand up to wailandburn papermoney, she thought:"It mustbe her sonin that grave too." The
olderwomantooka few aimlesssteps andstared vacantlyaround, thensuddenlyshe beganto trembleandstaggerbackwards,as
thoughgiddy.
Fearingsorrowmightsendher out of her mind,OldChuan'swifegot upand steppedacrossthe path, to say quietly: "Don't grieve, let's
go home."
Theothernodded,but she wasstill staringfixedly, and shemuttered: "Look! What's that?"
Lookingwhereshepointed, OldChuan'swifesaw that the grave in front had not yet beenovergrown with grass. Uglypatchesof soil
still showed.But whenshe lookedcarefully,she was surprisedto see at the top of the moundawreath of red andwhite flowers.
Both of them sufferedfrom failingeyesight, yet they couldseethesered andwhite flowersclearly. Therewerenotmany, but they were
placedina circle;andalthoughnotvery fresh, wereneatly set out. LittleChuan'smotherlookedroundand foundher ownson's grave,
likemost of the rest, dotted with onlya few little, paleflowers shiveringin the cold.Suddenlyshe had a senseof futility andstopped
feelingcuriousaboutthewreath.
In the meantimetheoldwomanhadgoneup to the grave to lookmoreclosely."Theyhave no roots," shesaid to herself. "They can't
have grown here.Who couldhave beenhere? Childrendon'tcomehereto play, andnoneof ourrelatives ever come.What couldhave
happened?"Shepuzzled over it, until suddenlyher tears beganto fall, andshe criedaloud:
"Son, they all wrongedyou, and you donot forget. Is your grief still so great that today you workedthis wonderto let meknow?"
She lookedallaround,but couldseeonlya crowperchedona leaflessbough."I know," she continued."Theymurderedyou.But a day
of reckoningwillcome,Heavenwillsee to it. Closeyour eyes in peace.. . . If you are reallyhere, andcanhear me,makethat crowfly
on to your grave as a sign."
Thebreezehad longsincedropped,andthe dry grassstood stiff and straightas copperwires.A faint, tremuloussoundvibratedin the
air, then fadedand diedaway. All aroundwas deathlystill. Theystood in the dry grass, lookingupat the crow;andthe crow,on the
rigidboughof the tree, its headdrawnin, perchedimmobileasiron.
Timepassed.Morepeople,youngand old,cameto visit the graves.
OldChuan'swife felt somehowasif a loadhadbeenlifted from her mindand,wantingto leave, she urgedthe other:
"Let's go."
Theoldwomansighed,andlistlesslypickedupthe riceanddishes. After a moment'shesitationshestarted off slowly, still mutteringto
herself:
"What doesit mean?"
Theyhad not gonethirty paceswhenthey hearda loudcawbehindthem.Startled, they lookedroundandsaw the crowstretchits
wings,braceitself to take off, thenfly likean arrowtowards the far horizon.