Chemistry Investigatory Project - CBSE Class 12NandanRamesh2
This document describes an investigatory chemistry project analyzing the oxalate ion content in guava at different stages of ripening. The student measures the oxalate ion concentration in fresh guava, 1-day old guava, 3-day old guava, and 1-week old guava by titrating guava pulp solutions against a potassium permanganate solution. The results show that the oxalate ion content increases as the guava ripens, with the highest concentration measured in 1-week old guava. Through this project, the student determines that guava fruit contains high amounts of oxalate ions and that the percentage increases with ripening.
This document summarizes a series of experiments to analyze an unknown salt sample. Preliminary tests on the salt indicate it is likely a metal salt based on color changes. Further tests are used to identify the anion as nitrate (NO3-) based on gas evolution reactions. Additional confirmatory tests confirm the presence of nitrate ions. Cation analysis indicates the presence of ammonium (NH4+) based on gas evolution and confirmatory tests. In summary, the salt is identified as ammonium nitrate based on a series of qualitative chemical analyses to identify the constituent ions.
This document summarizes a chemistry investigatory project analyzing two brands of honey - Dabur and Alshifa. Tests were conducted to check for the presence of minerals like potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron, as well as carbohydrates. Both brands tested positive for potassium and iron but negative for calcium and magnesium. Additionally, both showed the presence of reducing sugars and carbohydrates via Fehling's and Tollen's tests. The project was conducted by a class 11 student at Choithram School under the guidance of teachers Mrs. Varsha and Mr. Snehdeep.
The document provides instructions for writing a laboratory report for a chemistry experiment. It discusses the key components of a report such as the title, aim, materials, safety precautions, theory, procedure, observations, calculations, results and references. It emphasizes that the report should be a systematic representation of the experiment that was conducted to understand the science, communicate findings, and develop writing skills. Sample calculations and an observation table are included for the titration of hydrochloric acid with sodium carbonate. The summary highlights the purpose and structure of a lab report.
This document describes an experiment to measure the solubility of sodium chloride (NaCl), magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), and sucrose (C12H22O11) in water. The experimental procedure involves making saturated solutions of each solute in water and measuring how much can be dissolved. Observations show that solubility increases with temperature for all substances. NaCl has the highest solubility due to its small ion size, while sucrose has the lowest solubility due to its large molecular size. The results agree with theories about how solubility is affected by solute-solvent interactions and temperature.
V. Shri Rajalaksmi prepared a project report on the preparation of ink under the guidance of her chemistry teacher. The report describes the history of ink dating back 4000 years to ancient Egypt and China. It explains how ink was prepared in ancient times using plant and animal materials. The report also discusses the classification, uses, and effects of ink. The aim was to prepare ink in the laboratory. Procedures are provided for preparing ink using tannic acid, gallic acid, ferrous sulphate, and other materials. Observations are made on the optical and structural properties and drying characteristics of ink.
Physics investigatory project on RECTIFIERNaveen R
This document describes a student's physics investigatory project to construct a full wave bridge rectifier. The aim is to show that an alternating current (AC) is rectified into a direct current (DC). The materials, circuit diagram, procedure, and working of the rectifier are explained. When tested, the rectifier output 12V of direct current, demonstrating that the AC input was successfully rectified. Common uses of rectifiers are also listed.
Chemistry Investigatory Project - CBSE Class 12NandanRamesh2
This document describes an investigatory chemistry project analyzing the oxalate ion content in guava at different stages of ripening. The student measures the oxalate ion concentration in fresh guava, 1-day old guava, 3-day old guava, and 1-week old guava by titrating guava pulp solutions against a potassium permanganate solution. The results show that the oxalate ion content increases as the guava ripens, with the highest concentration measured in 1-week old guava. Through this project, the student determines that guava fruit contains high amounts of oxalate ions and that the percentage increases with ripening.
This document summarizes a series of experiments to analyze an unknown salt sample. Preliminary tests on the salt indicate it is likely a metal salt based on color changes. Further tests are used to identify the anion as nitrate (NO3-) based on gas evolution reactions. Additional confirmatory tests confirm the presence of nitrate ions. Cation analysis indicates the presence of ammonium (NH4+) based on gas evolution and confirmatory tests. In summary, the salt is identified as ammonium nitrate based on a series of qualitative chemical analyses to identify the constituent ions.
This document summarizes a chemistry investigatory project analyzing two brands of honey - Dabur and Alshifa. Tests were conducted to check for the presence of minerals like potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron, as well as carbohydrates. Both brands tested positive for potassium and iron but negative for calcium and magnesium. Additionally, both showed the presence of reducing sugars and carbohydrates via Fehling's and Tollen's tests. The project was conducted by a class 11 student at Choithram School under the guidance of teachers Mrs. Varsha and Mr. Snehdeep.
The document provides instructions for writing a laboratory report for a chemistry experiment. It discusses the key components of a report such as the title, aim, materials, safety precautions, theory, procedure, observations, calculations, results and references. It emphasizes that the report should be a systematic representation of the experiment that was conducted to understand the science, communicate findings, and develop writing skills. Sample calculations and an observation table are included for the titration of hydrochloric acid with sodium carbonate. The summary highlights the purpose and structure of a lab report.
This document describes an experiment to measure the solubility of sodium chloride (NaCl), magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), and sucrose (C12H22O11) in water. The experimental procedure involves making saturated solutions of each solute in water and measuring how much can be dissolved. Observations show that solubility increases with temperature for all substances. NaCl has the highest solubility due to its small ion size, while sucrose has the lowest solubility due to its large molecular size. The results agree with theories about how solubility is affected by solute-solvent interactions and temperature.
V. Shri Rajalaksmi prepared a project report on the preparation of ink under the guidance of her chemistry teacher. The report describes the history of ink dating back 4000 years to ancient Egypt and China. It explains how ink was prepared in ancient times using plant and animal materials. The report also discusses the classification, uses, and effects of ink. The aim was to prepare ink in the laboratory. Procedures are provided for preparing ink using tannic acid, gallic acid, ferrous sulphate, and other materials. Observations are made on the optical and structural properties and drying characteristics of ink.
Physics investigatory project on RECTIFIERNaveen R
This document describes a student's physics investigatory project to construct a full wave bridge rectifier. The aim is to show that an alternating current (AC) is rectified into a direct current (DC). The materials, circuit diagram, procedure, and working of the rectifier are explained. When tested, the rectifier output 12V of direct current, demonstrating that the AC input was successfully rectified. Common uses of rectifiers are also listed.
Chemistry Investigatory on Cold Drink contentsAmitaRanjan2
This document describes a chemistry investigatory project comparing different brands of cold drinks. The project determined the pH, presence of carbon dioxide, and other contents like glucose and alcohol in drinks like Coca Cola, Limca, Sprite and Fanta. Testing found all drinks contained carbon dioxide that made them acidic. Coca Cola had the lowest pH while Limca had the highest. Sprite had the most carbon dioxide while Fanta had the least. The conclusion discussed both advantages and disadvantages of consuming cold drinks.
A Project file on Study of Diffusion of solids in liquids.
Useful for class 12th investigatory project of chemistry.
All the reading are actually performed,
Class 12th Chemistry Project: Measuring solubility of Saturated SolutionsPridhumn Gaur
This document describes an experiment to measure the solubility of sodium chloride (table salt), magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt), and sucrose (table sugar) in water. The procedure involves adding measured amounts of each solute to 100mL of water until saturation is reached, where no more solute will dissolve. The amounts of each solute dissolved are recorded. Observations show that NaCl has the highest solubility, followed by MgSO4, with sucrose having the lowest solubility. This result aligns with the theory that ionic compounds and smaller molecules dissolve more readily than larger, polar molecules. Heating the solutions increased the solubility of all three substances.
This document appears to be a student's chemistry project report on studying the digestion of starch by salivary amylase and the effects of temperature and pH on this process. It includes sections on objectives, introduction, materials, procedures, observations, and conclusions for 3 experiments. The first experiment examines the digestion of starch by saliva over time. The second analyzes the impact of temperature. The third evaluates the impact of pH. The report was guided by a teacher and examines the student's investigation on how salivary amylase breaks down starch at different temperatures and pH levels.
This document outlines an experiment to measure the amount of acetic acid in different types of vinegar using titration. Vinegar contains acetic acid, which can be titrated with a sodium hydroxide solution of known concentration. Phenolphthalein indicator is used to detect the endpoint when the solution turns pink. Three experiments are performed to titrate samples of household vinegar, wine vinegar, and fruit vinegar. The amount of sodium hydroxide used indicates the acetic acid content. Precautions are noted such as carefully transferring and measuring solutions to obtain accurate results.
The document discusses the preparation and use of beetroot as a pH indicator. It describes how beetroot juice was prepared and its color change observed between pH 10.8-11.2, indicating its pH range. Various acid-base titrations were conducted using this indicator, finding it worked well for strong acid-strong base and weak acid-strong base titrations using 0.1M NaOH, but not for other titration types or more dilute bases. However, beetroot is not ideal for lab use due to needing preparation and having limited storage life.
Chemistry investigatory project for everyoneApil Meena
This document is a research project report on analyzing the contents of different cold drink brands. It includes an introduction describing the motivation for the project. It then outlines the various experiments conducted to test the cold drinks for properties like pH, carbon dioxide, glucose, and alcohol. The results found that all drinks contained these components. Coca Cola had the lowest pH and highest acidity while Sprite had the most carbon dioxide. The conclusion states that while the drinks contain these ingredients, their frequent consumption can be harmful in large amounts.
Chemistry investigatory project adultration in food stuffsBlessin Siby
This document is a student's investigatory project on studying adulterants in foodstuffs. It includes sections for a certificate, acknowledgements, introduction, experiments, observations, results, adulterants and diseases, precautions, and conclusion. The student conducted the project under the guidance of their chemistry teacher to fulfill a chemistry practical examination requirement.
(1) A student conducted an experiment to test for the presence of oxalate ions in raw, semi-ripe, and ripe guava samples.
(2) Oxalate ions were extracted from crushed guava pulp and titrated against a potassium permanganate solution.
(3) The results showed that the concentration of oxalate ions increased with the ripening of the guava, from 0.58 g/L in raw guava to 0.61 g/L in ripe guava.
CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT ON -
AIM:-
COMPARATIVE STUDY AND QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT BRANDS OF COLD DRINKS AVAILABLE IN MARKET
PURPOSE:-
In recent days, soft drink brands were put into various questions regarding their purity. News flashed that they Contain harmful pesticide, which arouses many interests in knowing its contents because I have been drinking them for years I wanted to confirm that whether the charge imposed on these brands are true or not.
Another fact which inspired me to do this project is that I am in touch with qualitative analysis whose knowledge of other factors helped me to do so.
The document is a chemistry project report submitted by Prashant Shukla analyzing the components of honey. It describes testing honey for the presence of minerals (potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron) and carbohydrates. The results found potassium and iron present, but calcium and magnesium absent. Testing also showed the presence of reducing sugars and reducing carbohydrates in honey. The project was completed under the guidance of Mr. M.P. Goswami at Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya school.
identification of cations and anions present in toothpasteM Sai Sankharan
The document describes an experiment to identify the cations and anions present in toothpaste. Key findings include:
- Tests were conducted on samples of toothpaste using chemical reagents. Precipitates formed indicating the presence of calcium, magnesium, phosphate, carbonate, and iodide ions.
- Additional components found in toothpaste include abrasives like silica, fluoride compounds, and surfactants. Other common ingredients are antibacterial agents, flavorings, and remineralizers.
- Toothpaste aims to promote oral hygiene through abrasion of plaque, delivery of fluoride, and foaming which helps distribute the paste. While not intended for swallowing, small amounts accidentally ingested are generally
Ayush Kumar Suman of class 12 at Kendriya Vidyalaya Bina submitted an investigatory project on the phenomenon of diffraction of light under the supervision of teacher Pooja Patel. The project included sections on diffraction, diffraction patterns from single slits, double slits, and diffraction gratings. It explained how diffraction occurs when light passes through an opening and interferes to create characteristic patterns depending on the characteristics of the opening. The principal certified that Ayush completed the project with effort to fulfill the physics practical exam requirements.
CBSE Investigatory Project For Class 11 Of Chemistry Subject.
Topic- To Study The Forming Capacity Of The Various Samples Of Soap.
.
Disclaimer- The Direct Downloading Of The File and Printing Without any Changes Is Violation Of the Copyright Issues Published On This File. Kindly Use It For Informative Purposes Only.
Thank You
You Can Also Download Complete File Via link-
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1xiJ4OeGgvMzd7kUjSxM2SZuTv2eBPUTS/view?usp=sharing
This document outlines a chemistry experiment to study the presence of oxalate ions in guava fruit at different stages of ripening. The experiment involves extracting oxalate ions from guava pulp samples using dilute sulfuric acid, then titrating the solutions against potassium permanganate. Observations are recorded and calculations are shown to determine the normality and strength of oxalate ions in fresh, semi-ripe, and ripe guava samples. The results indicate that the content of oxalate ions increases with the ripening of the guava fruit.
This document is a 22 page physics project file submitted by a student on the topic of a light dependent resistor (LDR). It includes an acknowledgement, aim, introduction, theory, apparatus required, procedure, observations, conclusions, and precautions. The project demonstrates how an LDR can be used to create a simple intruder alarm system that triggers a buzzer when a light beam is interrupted. Various applications of LDRs are discussed such as in street lamps, elevators, and light intensity meters.
Physics Investigatory Project(Water Level Indicating System)Piyush Gaur
The document describes a water level indicator circuit project. It includes an acknowledgment thanking those who supported the project. It then provides details on the need for a water level indicator to prevent overflow and waste. The circuit uses 4 probes at different levels, 4 transistors, LEDs, a buzzer and battery. It works by detecting 4 different water levels - empty, intermediate, full, and overflow. The circuit and working are illustrated. Applications include storage tanks, reservoirs, and automating pumps. Benefits are monitoring remotely, conserving water and power, and preventing overflow damage. Images show the circuit diagram and unit at different water levels.
This document outlines the procedures and observations for analyzing an unknown salt sample. It describes preliminary examinations to identify possible cations present. It then details systematic analysis of anions using acid and base tests. Specific anions like carbonates, chlorides, acetates and others are tested for. The document concludes by describing analysis of cation groups through precipitation reactions and tests, identifying possibilities like ammonium, lead, copper, aluminum, zinc, barium/strontium/calcium, and magnesium. The goal is to determine the identities of the anions and cations present in the unknown salt.
Class 12 Chemistry Investigatory Project Work, Practical- Determination of Ca...Kendriya Vidyalaya
Class 12 Chemistry Investigatory Project Work, Practical- Determination of Caffeine in Tea Samples
Just edit the name in first and second page of this project and the project is all yours.
Watch my video for further explaination
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1IoOGG_SBzw&lc=z22ju3nxqvrvzrghz04t1aokgmmjnqr0ld5exqhxchswrk0h00410
1. The student Omm Puri Das conducted experiments to study the digestion of starch by salivary amylase and the effect of pH and temperature on this process.
2. In the first experiment, starch solution was reacted with saliva over time and tested with iodine, showing decreasing blue color intensity, indicating starch hydrolysis.
3. Subsequent experiments showed starch hydrolysis occurred most efficiently at a neutral pH of 7 and at temperatures of 30-31°C, the normal human body temperature range.
This document describes 4 methods for performing a limit test for heavy metals according to the Indian Pharmacopoeia. Method A uses hydrogen sulfide to form metal sulfides from heavy metals in an acidic solution. Method B also uses hydrogen sulfide but first chars and digests the sample. Method C uses sodium sulfide to form metal sulfides in an alkaline solution. Method D uses thioacetamide to react with heavy metals in an acidic buffer solution. For each method, the color produced by the test solution is compared to a standard solution and must not be more intense to pass the limit test.
Chemistry Investigatory on Cold Drink contentsAmitaRanjan2
This document describes a chemistry investigatory project comparing different brands of cold drinks. The project determined the pH, presence of carbon dioxide, and other contents like glucose and alcohol in drinks like Coca Cola, Limca, Sprite and Fanta. Testing found all drinks contained carbon dioxide that made them acidic. Coca Cola had the lowest pH while Limca had the highest. Sprite had the most carbon dioxide while Fanta had the least. The conclusion discussed both advantages and disadvantages of consuming cold drinks.
A Project file on Study of Diffusion of solids in liquids.
Useful for class 12th investigatory project of chemistry.
All the reading are actually performed,
Class 12th Chemistry Project: Measuring solubility of Saturated SolutionsPridhumn Gaur
This document describes an experiment to measure the solubility of sodium chloride (table salt), magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt), and sucrose (table sugar) in water. The procedure involves adding measured amounts of each solute to 100mL of water until saturation is reached, where no more solute will dissolve. The amounts of each solute dissolved are recorded. Observations show that NaCl has the highest solubility, followed by MgSO4, with sucrose having the lowest solubility. This result aligns with the theory that ionic compounds and smaller molecules dissolve more readily than larger, polar molecules. Heating the solutions increased the solubility of all three substances.
This document appears to be a student's chemistry project report on studying the digestion of starch by salivary amylase and the effects of temperature and pH on this process. It includes sections on objectives, introduction, materials, procedures, observations, and conclusions for 3 experiments. The first experiment examines the digestion of starch by saliva over time. The second analyzes the impact of temperature. The third evaluates the impact of pH. The report was guided by a teacher and examines the student's investigation on how salivary amylase breaks down starch at different temperatures and pH levels.
This document outlines an experiment to measure the amount of acetic acid in different types of vinegar using titration. Vinegar contains acetic acid, which can be titrated with a sodium hydroxide solution of known concentration. Phenolphthalein indicator is used to detect the endpoint when the solution turns pink. Three experiments are performed to titrate samples of household vinegar, wine vinegar, and fruit vinegar. The amount of sodium hydroxide used indicates the acetic acid content. Precautions are noted such as carefully transferring and measuring solutions to obtain accurate results.
The document discusses the preparation and use of beetroot as a pH indicator. It describes how beetroot juice was prepared and its color change observed between pH 10.8-11.2, indicating its pH range. Various acid-base titrations were conducted using this indicator, finding it worked well for strong acid-strong base and weak acid-strong base titrations using 0.1M NaOH, but not for other titration types or more dilute bases. However, beetroot is not ideal for lab use due to needing preparation and having limited storage life.
Chemistry investigatory project for everyoneApil Meena
This document is a research project report on analyzing the contents of different cold drink brands. It includes an introduction describing the motivation for the project. It then outlines the various experiments conducted to test the cold drinks for properties like pH, carbon dioxide, glucose, and alcohol. The results found that all drinks contained these components. Coca Cola had the lowest pH and highest acidity while Sprite had the most carbon dioxide. The conclusion states that while the drinks contain these ingredients, their frequent consumption can be harmful in large amounts.
Chemistry investigatory project adultration in food stuffsBlessin Siby
This document is a student's investigatory project on studying adulterants in foodstuffs. It includes sections for a certificate, acknowledgements, introduction, experiments, observations, results, adulterants and diseases, precautions, and conclusion. The student conducted the project under the guidance of their chemistry teacher to fulfill a chemistry practical examination requirement.
(1) A student conducted an experiment to test for the presence of oxalate ions in raw, semi-ripe, and ripe guava samples.
(2) Oxalate ions were extracted from crushed guava pulp and titrated against a potassium permanganate solution.
(3) The results showed that the concentration of oxalate ions increased with the ripening of the guava, from 0.58 g/L in raw guava to 0.61 g/L in ripe guava.
CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT ON -
AIM:-
COMPARATIVE STUDY AND QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT BRANDS OF COLD DRINKS AVAILABLE IN MARKET
PURPOSE:-
In recent days, soft drink brands were put into various questions regarding their purity. News flashed that they Contain harmful pesticide, which arouses many interests in knowing its contents because I have been drinking them for years I wanted to confirm that whether the charge imposed on these brands are true or not.
Another fact which inspired me to do this project is that I am in touch with qualitative analysis whose knowledge of other factors helped me to do so.
The document is a chemistry project report submitted by Prashant Shukla analyzing the components of honey. It describes testing honey for the presence of minerals (potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron) and carbohydrates. The results found potassium and iron present, but calcium and magnesium absent. Testing also showed the presence of reducing sugars and reducing carbohydrates in honey. The project was completed under the guidance of Mr. M.P. Goswami at Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya school.
identification of cations and anions present in toothpasteM Sai Sankharan
The document describes an experiment to identify the cations and anions present in toothpaste. Key findings include:
- Tests were conducted on samples of toothpaste using chemical reagents. Precipitates formed indicating the presence of calcium, magnesium, phosphate, carbonate, and iodide ions.
- Additional components found in toothpaste include abrasives like silica, fluoride compounds, and surfactants. Other common ingredients are antibacterial agents, flavorings, and remineralizers.
- Toothpaste aims to promote oral hygiene through abrasion of plaque, delivery of fluoride, and foaming which helps distribute the paste. While not intended for swallowing, small amounts accidentally ingested are generally
Ayush Kumar Suman of class 12 at Kendriya Vidyalaya Bina submitted an investigatory project on the phenomenon of diffraction of light under the supervision of teacher Pooja Patel. The project included sections on diffraction, diffraction patterns from single slits, double slits, and diffraction gratings. It explained how diffraction occurs when light passes through an opening and interferes to create characteristic patterns depending on the characteristics of the opening. The principal certified that Ayush completed the project with effort to fulfill the physics practical exam requirements.
CBSE Investigatory Project For Class 11 Of Chemistry Subject.
Topic- To Study The Forming Capacity Of The Various Samples Of Soap.
.
Disclaimer- The Direct Downloading Of The File and Printing Without any Changes Is Violation Of the Copyright Issues Published On This File. Kindly Use It For Informative Purposes Only.
Thank You
You Can Also Download Complete File Via link-
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1xiJ4OeGgvMzd7kUjSxM2SZuTv2eBPUTS/view?usp=sharing
This document outlines a chemistry experiment to study the presence of oxalate ions in guava fruit at different stages of ripening. The experiment involves extracting oxalate ions from guava pulp samples using dilute sulfuric acid, then titrating the solutions against potassium permanganate. Observations are recorded and calculations are shown to determine the normality and strength of oxalate ions in fresh, semi-ripe, and ripe guava samples. The results indicate that the content of oxalate ions increases with the ripening of the guava fruit.
This document is a 22 page physics project file submitted by a student on the topic of a light dependent resistor (LDR). It includes an acknowledgement, aim, introduction, theory, apparatus required, procedure, observations, conclusions, and precautions. The project demonstrates how an LDR can be used to create a simple intruder alarm system that triggers a buzzer when a light beam is interrupted. Various applications of LDRs are discussed such as in street lamps, elevators, and light intensity meters.
Physics Investigatory Project(Water Level Indicating System)Piyush Gaur
The document describes a water level indicator circuit project. It includes an acknowledgment thanking those who supported the project. It then provides details on the need for a water level indicator to prevent overflow and waste. The circuit uses 4 probes at different levels, 4 transistors, LEDs, a buzzer and battery. It works by detecting 4 different water levels - empty, intermediate, full, and overflow. The circuit and working are illustrated. Applications include storage tanks, reservoirs, and automating pumps. Benefits are monitoring remotely, conserving water and power, and preventing overflow damage. Images show the circuit diagram and unit at different water levels.
This document outlines the procedures and observations for analyzing an unknown salt sample. It describes preliminary examinations to identify possible cations present. It then details systematic analysis of anions using acid and base tests. Specific anions like carbonates, chlorides, acetates and others are tested for. The document concludes by describing analysis of cation groups through precipitation reactions and tests, identifying possibilities like ammonium, lead, copper, aluminum, zinc, barium/strontium/calcium, and magnesium. The goal is to determine the identities of the anions and cations present in the unknown salt.
Class 12 Chemistry Investigatory Project Work, Practical- Determination of Ca...Kendriya Vidyalaya
Class 12 Chemistry Investigatory Project Work, Practical- Determination of Caffeine in Tea Samples
Just edit the name in first and second page of this project and the project is all yours.
Watch my video for further explaination
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1IoOGG_SBzw&lc=z22ju3nxqvrvzrghz04t1aokgmmjnqr0ld5exqhxchswrk0h00410
1. The student Omm Puri Das conducted experiments to study the digestion of starch by salivary amylase and the effect of pH and temperature on this process.
2. In the first experiment, starch solution was reacted with saliva over time and tested with iodine, showing decreasing blue color intensity, indicating starch hydrolysis.
3. Subsequent experiments showed starch hydrolysis occurred most efficiently at a neutral pH of 7 and at temperatures of 30-31°C, the normal human body temperature range.
This document describes 4 methods for performing a limit test for heavy metals according to the Indian Pharmacopoeia. Method A uses hydrogen sulfide to form metal sulfides from heavy metals in an acidic solution. Method B also uses hydrogen sulfide but first chars and digests the sample. Method C uses sodium sulfide to form metal sulfides in an alkaline solution. Method D uses thioacetamide to react with heavy metals in an acidic buffer solution. For each method, the color produced by the test solution is compared to a standard solution and must not be more intense to pass the limit test.
Sterlization of water using bleaching powder Gaurav Sharma
The document describes an experiment to determine the dosage of bleaching powder required to sterilize different water samples. It includes a certificate of authenticity, acknowledgements, introduction on water purification techniques, theory on bleaching powder preparation, experimental procedure, observations, calculations and results. The key findings are that 0.215gm, 1.077gm and 1.231gm of bleaching powder are required to sterilize 1 liter of Bisleri water, rain water and borewell water respectively.
This document describes several common tests used to identify the presence of carbohydrates, including Molisch's test, Fehling's test, Benedict's test, Tollen's test, and the iodine test. It provides the procedures for performing each test, as well as the expected observations and chemical reactions involved in each test. The tests are then used to determine whether a given sample contains glucose, lactose, sucrose, or starch.
A surfactant free thermo-chromic hydrogel is a "Smart Hydrogel" which changes its color according to the surrounding acidity or basicity. The material used for the synthesis of the hydrogel is PVA-Borax gel network, and the pH sensitive dyes like phenolphthalein, Bromothymol Blue etc. are responsible for the color change behavior.
The document summarizes an experiment to measure the alkalinity of various water samples. Four samples were tested - tap water, bottled water, and two unknown solutions. Titration was performed using phenolphthalein and bromocresol green indicators to determine the phenolphthalein alkalinity and total alkalinity. The unknown samples had higher alkalinity levels than the tap and bottled water. Alkalinity is important to understand the buffering capacity of water and its ability to neutralize acids. The titration process and indicators help identify the presence of carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide ions and determine the sample's alkalinity in mg/L CaCO3 units
Different methods of phosphorus determination in plantsNamitaPradhan6
The document describes different methods for determining phosphorus content in plants, including colorimetry and ICP methods. The colorimetry method involves digesting a plant sample with acids, then adding reagents to produce a yellow color whose intensity is measured spectrophotometrically to determine phosphorus levels. The ICP method uses inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry to determine phosphorus after complete digestion of a plant sample with acid mixtures. Several digestion techniques are outlined, including dry ashing and wet mineralization with nitric acid, hydrogen peroxide, and perchloric acid. References on phosphorus determination methods are also provided.
Heat stabilizer for copper and other metal mono phthalocyanines as well as fo...Benjamin Lukas
Simple method for preparation of heat stabilizer for copper phthalocyanine pigments for colouration of plastic and rubber is described. The method can be used for heat stabilizer for other mono metal phthalocyanine used in industry as well as for other pigments such as quinocridones.
This document provides information about staining microorganisms. It begins by defining what a stain is and explaining that different stains can differentiate between organism types or parts. It then discusses the history of stains and the structures and mechanisms of various dyes used in staining. The remainder of the document outlines different staining techniques such as simple stains, differential stains like Gram staining, and special stains for specific structures. It provides details on reagents, principles, and methods for common staining procedures.
This document is a chemistry project report on studying the rates of fermentation in apple juice and carrot juice. It includes an introduction to fermentation, the objective of comparing fermentation rates, details of two experiments conducted with apple juice and carrot juice, results showing apple juice fermented faster in under 40 minutes while carrot juice took over 50 minutes, and a bibliography citing sources. The project was completed by Ayan Bhattacharjee for their class under the guidance of their chemistry teacher Mrs. Mayuri Panchamia.
The document describes 5 qualitative tests used to detect phenols:
1. Litmus test detects phenol's acidity by changing blue litmus to red.
2. Ferric chloride test produces different colored complexes with different phenols.
3. Liebermann's test produces a yellow compound then blue or red colors.
4. Bromine water test causes bromine color to disappear and a white precipitate to form.
5. Phthalein dye test produces different colored compounds with phenols and bases.
DEFINITION: Pigment is a substrate in a particulate form which is insoluble in water but which can be dispersed in this medium to modify its color and light scattering properties. They are organic or inorganic coloring materials. They have no affinity to textile materials. They are fixed on the textile material with the help of binding agent in form a thin invisible coating.
The document describes procedures to isolate and identify polysaccharides from potato and chicken liver tissue. The objectives are to isolate polysaccharides from plant and animal tissues and identify the isolated polysaccharides. Procedures are described to isolate polysaccharides from potato and liver through filtration and testing of the isolates. Tests conducted include the Molisch test, iodine test, and hydrolysis followed by iodine testing to identify the polysaccharides. The results identified starch in the potato polysaccharide and another polysaccharide in the liver tissue. The Benedict's test for sugars was not successfully completed due to time constraints and procedural issues.
This document describes a procedure for testing sugars using Fehling's solution. It contains the following key points:
1) Fehling's solution can be used to distinguish between reducing and non-reducing sugars. When a reducing sugar is added to the solution and heated, it will reduce the copper ions, turning the blue solution green or red.
2) The procedure involves adding different sugars (glucose, sucrose, lactose, maltose, starch) to labeled test tubes with Fehling's solution and heating to observe any color changes.
3) Starch is first hydrolyzed using hydrochloric acid to break it down into its glucose units before testing with Fehling's
The document describes the Kjeldahl method for determining nitrogen content in organic and inorganic substances. It was developed in 1883 and involves three main steps: digestion using sulfuric acid to convert organic nitrogen to ammonium ions, distillation to separate ammonia from the digestion mixture, and titration to quantify the ammonia content. The Kjeldahl method is widely used to analyze samples like wastewater, soils, foods and fuels to determine their nitrogen, protein or nutrient content. While it remains the standard, it is not suitable for all types of nitrogen compounds and accuracy can be affected by factors like digestion time and non-protein nitrogen content.
3.0 EXPERIMENT ON DETERMINATION OF BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMANDFaith Brown
This document provides instructions for determining biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in a water sample according to IS: 3025 (Part 44) - Reaffirmed 2003. BOD is a measure of the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms to break down organic matter in water. The procedure involves incubating a diluted sample for 5 days, then titrating it to determine the dissolved oxygen levels before and after incubation. The difference in oxygen levels indicates the BOD of the sample. Reagents including dilution water, manganese sulfate, and alkali-iodide-azide are prepared, then the sample is titrated with sodium thiosulphate solution using a starch indicator to calculate the BOD.
The document discusses several chemical tests used to identify different types of carbohydrates, including the Molisch test, Benedict's test, Barfoed's test, and the Seliwanoff test. It explains the principles, procedures, and interpretations of each test. The document also covers the osazone test, iodine reaction test, and hydrolysis test for sucrose to distinguish between different carbohydrates like glucose, fructose, and disaccharides.
The document describes experiments conducted to qualitatively analyze an unknown organic sample. Through solubility tests, the sample was found to be insoluble in water and NaOH, but soluble in HCl and ether, indicating it is an amine. Elemental analysis detected nitrogen but no sulfur or halogens. Tests for functional groups confirmed the presence of an aromatic primary amine. The conclusion is that the unknown sample is aniline.
Dye is a coloured substance that chemically bonds to the substrate to which it is being applied. This distinguishes dyes from pigments which do not chemically bind to the material they colour. Dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution, and may require aftertreatment to improve the fastness of the dye on the fibre.
Dyes are usually soluble in water whereas pigments are insoluble. Dyes selection is very important when dyeing different types of textile fibre. Types of chemical dyes are Direct, Reactive, Vat, Sulphur dyes etc. All dyes required different chemical auxiliaries and different after treatment process. Each dyes possess different light, washing & rubbing fastness and having different characteristics also.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
1. CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that HIRDAY GUPTA of class XII-C has worked
under my guidance and supervision on the project.
To prepare poster paints and pigments by various
chemical reactions.
All the assistance and help received during the course of study
has been fully acknowledged by him.
PRINCIPAL
MRS JENIFER TYTLER
J.D. TYTLER SCHOOL
NEW RAJINDER NAGAR
SUPERVISOR
DR. AZHAR ASLAM KHAN
DEPARTMENT OF CEMISTRY
J.D. TYTLER SCHOOL
2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, I would like to thank CBSE board and our school for giving me such a wonderful
opportunity of entering the world of science.
I am also grateful to HONOURABLE MADAM PRICIPAL for providing us the laboratory and
the appropriate apparatus.
I gratefully acknowledge the effective guidance and constant encouragement received from
our chemistry teacher and mentor DR. AZHAR ASLAM KHAN who has been a great
source of inspiration. His constant motivation and guidance has helped me to complete
this project.
Also I would like to thank MR. BANS BAHADUR (Lab Assistant) for his utmost co-operation
and support.
Last but not the least I thank my parents for always being so supportive.
The immense support and thorough supervision of my mentors have constantly been my
guiding source which has made me cross all the hurdles while working on this project
.Time and again , I thank them and feel obliged to work under their guidance.
HIRDAY GUPTA
XII-C
2017 - 2018
6. INTRODUCTION
PIGMENTS : A pigment is a finely divided material , which contributes to optical and
other properties of paints.
Pigments can be classified to their competition:
1.)organic pigments
2.)Inorganic pigments
ORGANIC PIGMENTS : These include various kinds of photosynthesis pigments.
Seven types of chlorophyll are known , viz a, b, c, d, e bacteriochlorophyll and
all these chlorophyll molecules contains magnesium porphyrin head which is
hydrophillic and a long hydrocarbon tail attached to the pophyrin head is
lilophilic. Relatively minor variations in the kinds and grouping of other atoms
joined to this head and tail skeleton account for the difference among different
types of chlorophyll a and b are the most abundant one found in all autotrophic
plants , except photosynthesis bacteria. Chlorophyll a posses a methyl(-CH3)
whereas chlorophyll b possess an aldehyde (-CHO) group .
INORGANIC PIGMENTS : Most of the inorganic pigment are complexes formed by
transition elements. A large number of complexes formed by transition elements
are coloured , both in solid state and aqueous solution. However, the most
common and useful classification is by colour .
7. Using simple chemical reactions and techniques ,we can make pigments.
Poster Paints are made by grinding a pigment or a mixture of pigments to a
very fine powder and then suspending the powder in a suitable liquid so as to
give a very fine and uniform suspension.
For preparing poster paints the pigments are thoroughly mixed with the
medium.
Paints are made of inorganic pigments , which sometimes get hardening ;
adding a little amount of warm water can soften them but if the pigments are
organic in nature , then an organic solvent is required to soften it.
MEDIUM : The pigments thus formed from the various chemical reactions are
added to a medium to get the required poster paints .
The medium provides a stable base for the unstable pigments where the
pigments comes in the reaction with the medium such as shampoo , gum for
the desired outcome of poster paint.
Medium can be easily prepared by glue , shampoo and water. All we have to do
is mix some glue with shampoo in water. Finally dissolve the precipitates in
the medium and the poster paints are ready.
Preparation of poster colours
8. PREPRATION OF MEDIUM
Dissolve 10 g of water in 30g of transparent glue and
few drops of detergent to make due medium and finally
add due precipitate to get the required paint.
9. CHEMICALS REQUIRED :-
1. 10g of Anhydrous Sodium Carbonate
2. 30g of Lead Nitrate
REACTIONS INVOLVED :-
Pb(NO3)2 + Na2CO3 PbCO3 + 2NaNO3
PbCO3 + H2O (PbCO3)2.Pb(OH)2 + CO2
10.
11. PROCEDURE
1. Dissolve the 10 g of anhydrous sodium carbonate in 100 ml
water.
2. Cool the solution to the room temperature.
3. To this solution of 30 g of Lead Nitrate dissolve in 150 ml of hot
boiling water.
4. Lead Nitrate solution is added to previous solution slowly while
stirring.
5. The precipitate thus formed is the required pigment.
6. The pigment is filtered using a funnel , which is then added to
the medium to get the required paint.
12. CHEMICALS REQUIRED:-
1. 5g of Hydrated iron (III) chloride
2.10g of Potassium ferrocyanide
REACTIONS INVOLVED:-
3K4[Fe(CN)6] + 4FeCl3 Fe4[Fe(CN)6] + 12KCl
13.
14. PROCEDURE
1. Dissolve 5g of Hydrated iron(III) chloride in 50 ml of
water.
2. Dissolve the 10g of potassium ferrocyanide in 75 ml of
water.
3. Mix the two solutions with constant stirring.
4. This pigment is then filtered by using a funnel , which is
then added to the medium to get the required paint.
15. CHEMICALS REQUIRED:-
1. 7g of Potassium chromate
2. 10g of Lead nitrate
REACTION INVOLVED:-
k2CrO4 + Pb(NO3)2 PbCrO4 + 2KNO3
16.
17. PROCEDURE
1. Dissolve the 7 g of potassium chromate in 50ml water.
2. Dissolve the 10 gm of lead nitrate in 100ml of water.
3. Heat the solution to complete the dissolution of two
components.
4. Cool the above solution.
5. Add the chromate solution into lead nitrate
6. The precipitate thus formed is the required pigments.
7. This pigment is filtered by using a funnel , which is then
added to the required medium.
18. Chemicals required :-
1. 15g of sodium bicarbonate
2. 15g of copper sulphate
REACTIONS INVOLVED:-
CuSO4 + NaHCO3 CuCO3 + NaHSO4
NaHCO3 + NaHSO4 Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
19.
20. PROCEDURE
1. Dissolve the 5g of Sodium Bicarbonate in 500 ml water.
2. Dissolve the 15g of copper sulphate in 100 ml of slightly
acidic water.
3. Slowly add Sodium Bicarbonate solution to Copper
Sulphate solution with constant stirring.
4. Carbon dioxide is formed with the formation of sea green
pigment.
5. This pigment is then filtered using a funnel , which is then
added to a medium to get the required paint .
21. CHEMICALS REQUIRED:-
1. Fehling’s solution A
2. Fehling’s solution B
3. 10 g powdered glucose.
REACTIONS INVOLVED:-
2Cu(OH)2 + C6H12O6 Cu2O + Oxidation products
22.
23. PROCEDURE
1. Mix the Fehling’s solution A and B in a beaker and heat in
water bath to a temperature about 70ºC .
2. To this solution add 10 g of powdered glucose with stirring.
3. Heat the solution strongly over the wire gauze to obtain
the red precipitate.
4. Constantly transfer the solution to the other beaker and
keep heating to obtain the red precipitate.
5. This pigment is then filtered by using a funnel , which is
then added to the medium to get the required paint.
24. CHEMICALS REQUIRED:-
1. 5g of Cobalt Nitrate
2. 10 g of Sodium Bicarbonate
REACTIONS INVOLVED:-
2NaHCO3 + Co(NO3)2 2NaNO3 + Co(HCO3)2
PURPLISH PINK
25.
26. PROCEDURE
1. Dissolve the 5gm of Sodium Bicarbonate in 50 ml of
water.
2. Dissolve the 10 g of Cobalt Nitrate in 100ml water.
warm the solution to complete the dissolution of two
components.
3. Cool the above solution. Add the bicarbonate into
Cobalt Nitrate solution with constant stirring.
4. The precipitate thus formed is the required pigment.
5. This pigment is then filtered using a funnel ,which is
then added to the medium to get the required paint.
27. CHEMISTRY BOOK (N.C.E.R.T)
icbse.com
Britannica Encyclopedia
Modern Chemistry