On hemolytic anemia (sorry the spelling of hemolytic is wrong everywhere), its classification, and esp in the inherited forms where there is defect in membrane cytoskeleton
In this presentation I've tried to summarize classification of hemolytic anemia and in depth review of rbc membrane disorders like hereditary spherocytosis, hereditary elliptocytosis, enzymopathies of hemolytic anemia like g6pd disorder, pyruvate kinase disorders, hemoglobinopathies related to hemolytic anemia like thalassemia, sickle cell anemia and especially pathophysiology and mechanism of hemolysis either extravascular or intravascular. Hope it helps you understand the entity better.
Anemia is a condition where blood lacks healthy red blood cells (RBC), decreasing the competence of blood to carry oxygen to tissues.
In clinical medicine, it refers to decrease in the normal concentration of Haemoglobin (Hb). Anemia is caused by either – 1. A decrease in the production of RBCs (decreased erythropoiesis) or haemoglobin.
2. An increase in loss of blood.
3. Destruction of red blood cells (haemolytic anaemia).
Hemolytic anemia is decreased level of Erythrocytes in circulating blood (anemia) caused because of their accelerated destruction (haemolysis) extravascularly or intravascularly either due to intrinsic or extrinsic factors.
Haemolysis indicates that there is shortening of the normal red cell lifespan of 120 days. There are many causes.
To compensate, the bone marrow may increase its output of red cells six- to eightfold by increasing the proportion of red cells produced, expanding the volume of active marrow, and releasing reticulocytes prematurely. Anaemia occurs only if the rate of destruction exceeds this increased production rate.
Hello everyone!!
This is a presentation regarding Hemolytic anaemia. I hope you get enough information according to your needs from the same. This will be helpful for students or people in the field of medical. Students can take this as reference for their mini projects or presentations.
I hope this will be beneficial for many people.
Thank You!
This Presentation of Hemolytic Anemia try to cover important Hemato-pathological aspects of Red cell membrane disorders ( Hereditary Spherocytosis, others ) , Enzymopathies ( G6PD deficieny, others ) and Hemoglobinopathies ( Thallasemia, SCA) and their differentiation. References includes Robbins pathology, Wintrobes atlas and text, and others
In this presentation I've tried to summarize classification of hemolytic anemia and in depth review of rbc membrane disorders like hereditary spherocytosis, hereditary elliptocytosis, enzymopathies of hemolytic anemia like g6pd disorder, pyruvate kinase disorders, hemoglobinopathies related to hemolytic anemia like thalassemia, sickle cell anemia and especially pathophysiology and mechanism of hemolysis either extravascular or intravascular. Hope it helps you understand the entity better.
Anemia is a condition where blood lacks healthy red blood cells (RBC), decreasing the competence of blood to carry oxygen to tissues.
In clinical medicine, it refers to decrease in the normal concentration of Haemoglobin (Hb). Anemia is caused by either – 1. A decrease in the production of RBCs (decreased erythropoiesis) or haemoglobin.
2. An increase in loss of blood.
3. Destruction of red blood cells (haemolytic anaemia).
Hemolytic anemia is decreased level of Erythrocytes in circulating blood (anemia) caused because of their accelerated destruction (haemolysis) extravascularly or intravascularly either due to intrinsic or extrinsic factors.
Haemolysis indicates that there is shortening of the normal red cell lifespan of 120 days. There are many causes.
To compensate, the bone marrow may increase its output of red cells six- to eightfold by increasing the proportion of red cells produced, expanding the volume of active marrow, and releasing reticulocytes prematurely. Anaemia occurs only if the rate of destruction exceeds this increased production rate.
Hello everyone!!
This is a presentation regarding Hemolytic anaemia. I hope you get enough information according to your needs from the same. This will be helpful for students or people in the field of medical. Students can take this as reference for their mini projects or presentations.
I hope this will be beneficial for many people.
Thank You!
This Presentation of Hemolytic Anemia try to cover important Hemato-pathological aspects of Red cell membrane disorders ( Hereditary Spherocytosis, others ) , Enzymopathies ( G6PD deficieny, others ) and Hemoglobinopathies ( Thallasemia, SCA) and their differentiation. References includes Robbins pathology, Wintrobes atlas and text, and others
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
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Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
4. NORMALLY….
1) In the bone marrow – HSC give rise to erythroblasts, which undergoes a sequence of events with
gradual accumulation of haemoglobin and loss of cellular organelles, and biosynthetic abilities.
2) This leaves behind (in a mature RBC ) –
a) membrane-cytoskeleton complex
b) Haemoglobin
c) metabolic machinery
3) Because of which, if any protein deteriorates - it cannot be replaced .
4) With age, red cells undergoes “degenerative” changes such as –
a) Decline in enzyme activity
b) Clustering of membrane protein which bind to C3 - get opsonized by RE system. (esp. spleen)
5. About 10% undergoes intravascular haemolysis….
1) In haemolytic disorder – shortened
RBC life span.
2) If Destruction >> Formation, the
disorder manifests as – Haemolytic
anaemia.
3) Anaemia Hypoxia EPO
Erythroid hyperplasia and marrow
expansion reticulocyte and
nucleated RBCs rise in circulation.
4) Consequences of haemolytic anaemia –
a) GALLSTONES
b) HYPERSPLEENISM thrombocytopenia
and neutropenia
c) 2⁰ HAEMACHROMATOSIS
d) HAEMOGLOBINURIA IRON LOSS
5) COMPENSATED VS.
UNCOMPENSATED HAEMOLYSIS.
a) No Anaemia – If compensated
b) Decompensation under precipitating
factors such as –
infection,
drugs
renal failure
pregnancy
folate or Vitamin B12 deficiency
6. ONSET – ACUTE or CHRONIC
PALLOR
JAUNDICE
DARK URINE
SPLENOMEGALY +/- HEPATOMEGALY
LEG ULCERS
SKELETAL DEFECTS
MEGALOBLASTIC CRISIS OR APLASTIC CRISIS
Haemolytic facies ( Chipmunk facies )
LABORATORY FEATURES
INCREASED
DESTRUCTION
Hb/ Hct
BILIRUBIN
Urobilinogen increased.
Reduced haptoglobulin
Reduced hemopexin
Hemoglobinemia
Hemoglobinuria.
LDH and AST
Red cell survival studies-
Cr – labelled RBCs
ERYTHROPOEITIC
RESPONSE
RETICULOCYTOSIS
POLYCHROMASIA
RED BLOOD INDICES –
raised MCV, MCH and
MCHC
BONE MARROW –
ERYTHROID
HYPERPLASIA.
7. MINKOWSKI–CHAUFFARD SYNDROME It is a genetically determined haemolytic disease secondary to a defect in the structural protein
(spectrin) of red cell membrane.
It is a genetically heterogeneous condition resulting in a broad clinical spectrum of varying severity.
8.
9. 1) WIDE CLINICAL SPECTRUM – ASYMPTOMATIC TO SEVERE ANAEMIA
2) ONSET – at infancy (as severe anaemia with neonatal jaundice), in childhood or in adulthood.
3) ICTERUS
4) SPLENOMEGALY
5) APLASTIC CRISIS – PARVOVIRUS B 19
6) HAEMOLYTIC CRISIS- intercurrent infection such as Infectious mononucleosis.
7) GALLSTONES – highly suggestive if it occurs at young age.
8) FAMILY HISTORY – May be negative.
10. HAEMOGLOBIN
RETICULOCYTE COUNT
RED BLOOD INDICES – MCH and MCHC raised
BILIRUBIN
PERIPHERAL SMEAR -
RED CELL OSMOTIC FRAGILITY
RED CELL SURVIVAL STUDY –
Using radiolabelled chromium
AUTOHAEMOLYSIS TEST – Auto-
haemolysis increased and decreases upon
addition of glucose
11. SPLENECTOMY – a) ONLY after 5 years of age.
b) Avoid in mild cases.
b) Anti-pneumococcal vaccine before splenectomy
c) Post – splenectomy penicillin prophylaxis (??)
Before 5 years of age – Folic acid supplementation
In case of neonatal jaundice – exchange transfusion
In case of aplastic crisis – Blood transfusion.
Cholecystectomy – if clinically indicated.
12. Genetically determined haemolytic anaemia characterized by spectrin deficiency and elliptocytes
on peripheral smear.
Autosomal dominant mode of inheritance.
Clinical picture can range from mild or asymptomatic haemolytic disorder to severe haemolysis.
Other clinical feature same as hereditary spherocytosis.
A rare but severe form of hereditary elliptocytosis – called Hereditary pyropoikilocytosis.
Treatment – SPLENECTOMY (for severe cases)
14. I. Glucose – 6 – phosphate dehydrogenase is an enzyme responsible for catalysing redox
reactions in all aerobic cells and red cells.
II. It is the only source of NADPH in red cells unlike other cells of the body.
GENETICS
I. It is an X- linked disorder characterized by mutations resulting in reduced stability of the
enzyme or , less commonly, decreased production.
II. Genetic mosaicism is seen in females because of lyonization resulting in varying clinical
severity seen in female populace.
15. I. Commonly see in tropical and sub
tropical countries.
II. Different variants of G6PD is
across the globe.
These are – G6PD mediterreanean
G6PD A (Africa,
Southeast
Europe)
G6PD canton (China)
G6PD mahidol and
G6PD
vianchan in S-E Asia
G6PD union
(worldwide).
III. Confers relative resistance against
Plasmodium falciparum.
16. Many remain asymptomatic.
However, they are at an increased for developing neonatal jaundice and Acute Haemolytic
Anaemia (AHA) when exposed to oxidative stress.
AHA is triggered by 3 factors viz. INFECTIONS, DRUGS and FAVA BEANS
Signs and Symptoms of AHA –
a) Malaise, abdominal or lumbar pain
b) within hours to 2-3 days – pallor, dark urine and icterus develops
c) ARF
Chronic non - spherocytic haemolytic anaemia (CNSHA)- subset of G6PD deficiency characterized
by anaemia, jaundice, splenomegaly and gallstones. Above triggers can precipitate haemolytic
anaemia.
19. STOP THE OFFENDING DRUG.
MAINTAIN HIGH URINE OUTPUT, if required HAEMODIALYSIS.
In case of severe anaemia – Blood transfusion.
In case of CNSHA – FA supplementation.
In case of severe neonatal jaundice, phototherapy or exchange transfusion