Petroleum is formed from the decomposition of ancient organic matter like plankton and algae. Over millions of years, this organic matter was buried deep underground where it underwent biological and thermal transformations. This formed kerogen, which then cracked through catagenesis into hydrocarbon chains and ultimately petroleum and natural gas. A complete petroleum system requires an organic-rich source rock, migration pathways, and a trap to contain the hydrocarbons. The world's most productive basins include Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Alaska, Texas-Louisiana Gulf Coast, Iraq, Iran, Mexico, and Venezuela.
Petroleum geology is the study of origin, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the specific set of geological disciplines that are applied to the search for hydrocarbons (oil exploration).
This presentation was prepared by Jacob Jok and Joshua Malidzo. It gives the general conception of the origin of oil formations, extraction and its environmental impacts.
3rd Year students at the University of Nairobi, Kenya.
Petroleum geology is the study of origin, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the specific set of geological disciplines that are applied to the search for hydrocarbons (oil exploration).
This presentation was prepared by Jacob Jok and Joshua Malidzo. It gives the general conception of the origin of oil formations, extraction and its environmental impacts.
3rd Year students at the University of Nairobi, Kenya.
Contains a short description of source rock and it is classified whilst making due diligence to relate it to its importance to geologist (or economic importance in general)
This is a survey on the history of oil presented as a timeline which includes major social, business and technological events related to the development of the oil industry.
Contains a short description of source rock and it is classified whilst making due diligence to relate it to its importance to geologist (or economic importance in general)
This is a survey on the history of oil presented as a timeline which includes major social, business and technological events related to the development of the oil industry.
The material presented in this parts is extracted from open source published material. This is for understanding to graduate students in easy way only.
Petroleum (or crude oil) is a naturally occurring liquid mixture of hydrocarbons, but containing some compounds of oxygen, nitrogen and Sulphur. It is an oily, thick,
flammable, usually dark-colored liquid ,commonly obtained by drilling, used in a natural or refined state as a fuel
and separated by fractional distillation into gasoline, naphtha ,benzene ,kerosene ,paraffin etc.
It is often referred to as the “black gold.This name itself is an indication of its importance to humans. Crude oil is considered to be the “mother of all commodities” as it is used to manufacture various products such as pharmaceuticals, plastics, gasoline, synthetic fabrics, etc. Petroleum or oil has also been the world’s leading source of energy since the 1950s.
Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found beneath the earth’s surface that can be refined into fuel. Petroleum is a fossil fuel, meaning that it has been created by the decomposition of organic matter over millions of years. Petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms–primarily zooplankton and algae–underneath sedimentary rock are subjected to intense heat and pressure.
The word petroleum means “rock oil.” It is derived from the Greek word “petra” (means rock) and the Latin word “oleum” (means oil). When it is drilled from the ground in the liquid form, it is called crude oil. Humans have known about its existence for 4000 years. However, the first time crude oil was pumped from the ground was 2500 years ago in China and the world’s first crude oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania, USA only in the year 1859.
Where is petroleum found?
Today petroleum is found in vast underground reservoirs where there were ancient seas. Petroleum reserves can be located beneath the land, or under the ocean. Their crude oil is extracted with giant drilling machines.
How do you know where to find oil?
Geologists are the masters of locating oil. Often called oil exploration, geologists will look for an area that ticks all the boxes of finding an oil trap aka striking (black) gold.
Oil is often found in the vast underground reservoirs where ancient seas were once located. This can either be beneath land or out in the ocean below the seabed.
During the earlier years of oil mining, the geologists would study the soil, surface rock, and other surface features to determine if oil may be lying below.
Later came satellite imagery, along with more technological advances such as gravity meters, means to test the Earth’s magnetic field, and ‘sniffers’ that detect the smell of hydrocarbons.
The most common way used today is to generate shock waves that pass through the rock layers and reflect back to the surface where they can be interpreted for signs of oil traps. This is done with seismic source devices such as a compressed-air gun, a thumper truck, or explosives .
Where does crude oil come from?
Composition of petroleum
Uses
Extraction of petroleum
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
2. Introduction
World’s most productive sedimentary basins
Uses of petroleum
Origin of petroleum
Biogenesis
Transformation of organic matter to hydrocarbon
Petroleum system
2
OUTLINE
3. Petroleum is defined as natural occurring hydrocarbons with some
quantity of S, O, N of containing compound and some metals that
can be recovered from a drill pipe.
Petroleum or ‘Rock oil,' is a general term for crude oil and natural gas.
High Sulphur (Poor Quality) – Mostly in Middle East countries
Less Sulphur (High Quality) – USA, Japan, Europe countries
3
INTRODUCTION
4. The term petroleum includes both oil , hydrocarbon gas and oil sand.
The density of liquid petroleum oil is commonly less than that of water and the oil is
naturally buoyant.
4
Cont’d
5. Saudi Arabia
Kuwait
Alaska – north slope
Texas – Louisiana Gulf Coast
Iraq and Iran
Mexico
Venezuela
5
WORLD’S MOST PRODUCTIVE
SEDIMENTARY BASINS
6. S 01 Constituent of oil uses
1 Petroleum gas in liquid form
(LPG)
Fuel for home and industry
2 Petrol Motor fuel, aviation fuel, solvent for dry
cleaning
3 Kerosene Fuel for stoves, lamps and for jet air crafts
4 Diesel Fuel for heavy motor vehicles, electric
generators
5 Lubricating oil Lubrication
6 Paraffin wax Candles, Vaseline etc.
7 Bitumen Paints, road surfacing
6
USES OF PETROLEUM
Table no 1: various constituents of petroleum and their uses
9. Abiogenesis
Oldest theory
Suggest that petroleum comes from the underneath part of mental very long time
ago before the existence of life on earth.
Biogenesis
Currently most acceptable theory
Suggest that petroleum is formed from biological maters which subjected high
temperature under the absences of oxygen.
9
Cont'd
10. Biogenetic origin of petroleum (Hydrocarbons)
Suggests that petroleum come from a long time decaying of died organisms such as planktons,
zooplankton and other form of biological species
Under a subjection of high temperature.
According to that hypothesis, very long time ago, the organisms (marine living things,
terrestrial) died and buried and covered by silt in a sedimentary basin where they undergo a
very slow and very long lasting physical and chemical transformation which involves processes
such as diagenesis and kerogen formation.
10
BIOGENESIS
11. These transformations occur in organic matter while buried in the ground, usually as part of
an organic-rich mud rock or marl. The organic-rich rocks are commonly referred to as
"source rocks".
The three stages represent combinations of temperature, pressure, and time that yield
different types of hydrocarbons;
Diagenesis
Metagenesis
Catagenesis
11
TRANSFORMATION OF ORGANIC MATTER
TO HYDROCARBON
12. Diagenesis is a process of compaction under mild conditions of temperature
and pressure.
When organic aquatic sediments (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates) are
deposited, they are very saturated with water and rich in minerals.
Through chemical reaction, compaction, and microbial action during burial,
water is forced out and proteins and carbohydrates break down to form new
structures that comprise a waxy material known as “kerogen” and a black
tar like substance called “bitumen”.
All of this occurs within the first several hundred meters of burial.
12
Step 1: DIAGENESIS FORMS KEROGEN
13. TYPES OF KEROGEN
13
Kerogen type I:
Algal (Oil prone) sapropelic
Kerogen type II:
Mixed
Kerogen type III:
Woody (gas prone) humic
Algae = Hydrogen rich = oil prone
Wood = Hydrogen poor = gas prone
14. As temperatures and pressures increase (deeper burial) the process of catagenesis
begins, which is the thermal degradation of kerogen to form hydrocarbon chains.
The process of catagenesis is catalyzed by the minerals that are deposited and
persist through marine diagenesis.
The conditions of catagenesis determine the product, such that higher temperature
and pressure lead to more complete “cracking” of the kerogen and progressively
lighter and smaller hydrocarbons.
14
Step 2: CATAGENESIS (OR “CRACKING”) TURNS
KEROGEN INTO PETROLEUM AND NATURAL
GAS
15. Petroleum formation, then, requires a specific window of conditions; too hot and the
product will favor natural gas (small hydrocarbons), but too cold and the plankton
will remain trapped as kerogen.
15
Cont'd
