1) Early models of the universe ranged from geocentric to heliocentric, with Copernicus and Kepler improving on them by establishing orders of planets and describing elliptical orbits.
2) Kepler deduced three laws of planetary motion based on observations of Mars. Newton later explained these laws through his universal law of gravitation.
3) Cavendish calculated the gravitational constant by measuring the tiny torque caused by the gravitational attraction of lead spheres, allowing for calculations of planetary masses and properties.