1. Nutrition is now recognized as an important subspecialty, as proper nutrition can improve patient outcomes like muscle strength, immune function, and wound healing. 2. Malnutrition is common in hospitalized patients, with 1/3 at risk, and even small amounts of weight loss are associated with worse outcomes. Nutritional support teams provide care for complex cases requiring enteral or parenteral nutrition. 3. Indications for nutritional support include a BMI <19, unintentional weight loss, and inability to meet nutritional needs enterally. Tube feeding is used when oral intake is inadequate, and parenteral nutrition is for intestinal failure when the gut cannot be used.

1. Nutrition: an introduction
From Clin Med; RCP-London 2013
:Prepared by
.Dr.Mohamed Al-Shekhani
.MBChB-CABM-FRCP-London

2. :Introduction
• Now nutrition is a subspecialty in its own right.
• Provision of good nutrition is important to all specialties.
• Nutritional care is an independent subspecialty practised
by a wide range of physicians &now been incorporated
into gastroenterological training.

3. :Introduction
• Malnutrition is common in hospital inpatients.
• 1/3 are at risk.
• Evidence for improved outcomes of better nourished
patients, BZ of:
• Enhanced muscle strength
• Better immune function
• Better wound healing.
• Reduced Hospital stay

4. :The spectrum of nutritional support
• Nutritional meals &assistance with eating if required.
• Oral supplement feeds.
• Enteral tube feeding.
• Parenteral nutrition (PN) in intestinal failure.

6. : Hosp Nutritional support teams
• Able to provide direct care to the most complex cases
requiring enteral feeding & PN.
• All clinicians have to develop a basic understanding of
good nutritional care.

7. : Nutritional Assessment
• In practice, assessment, to identify specific
nutrient deficiencies, should be based on a
pragmatic approach using a combination of:
• History
• BMI
• Biochemistry.

8. Assessment &indications of Nut support :1.BMI
• (BMI): imperfect way of assessment but a useful guide.
• BMI < 19 could be at risk of malnutrition, but normal or
even raised BMI may be nutritionally deplete if they have
lost excessive weight or are lacking in vitamins/ or trace
elements.
• Historical weight loss can be a better marker of impaired
nutrition.
• Even 5% hospital weight loss associated with worse clinical
outcome.
• Weight change during nutritional support (not due to fluid
overload) in hospitalised patients can be a useful marker of
the effectiveness of the intervention

9. Assessment &indications of Nut support :1.BMI
• BMI& reported weight loss are the current favoured
method& integral to nutritional screening .
• BMI: imperfect way of assessment but a useful guide.
• BMI < 19 could be at risk of malnutrition, but normal or
even raised BMI may be nutritionally deplete if they have
lost excessive weight or are lacking in vitamins/ or trace
elements.
• Historical weight loss can be a better marker of impaired
nutrition.
• Even 5% hospital weight loss associated with worse clinical
outcome.
• Weight change during nut support (not due to fluid
overload) in hospitalised patients can be a useful marker of
the effectiveness of the intervention.
• Malnutrition Universal Screening Tool (MUST), endorsed
by many government agencies & professional bodies.

10. Assessment &indications of Nut support :2.BIOCHEM
• No reliable biochemical markers of malnutrition identified.
• A. Serum albumin is often referred to as a proxy for nutritional
status, but not totally accurate as changes in serum albumin
usually relate to:
• Extravascular shifts in inflammatory states
• Altered synthetic function of the liver
• Normal plasma albumin are seen in patients with profound
anorexia nervosa.
• B. Measurement of water& fat-soluble vitamins can demonstrate
deficiency, particularly in malabsorptive states, for example after
bariatric surgery, but are often normal in individuals with poor
nutritional status.
• Patients with severe malnutrition can have low levels of
intracellular ions (including phosphate, magnesium,potassium)
often becoming manifest only when nutritional support is
commenced.

16. :Indications of enteral tube feeding
• Enteral tube feeding is reserved for patients unable to swallow
food safely or if their energy intake remains inadequate.
• On occasion, tube feeding can be used to supplement oral intake
in patients with high metabolic demands, for instance in patients
with cystic fibrosis who are often unable to meet these demands
with oral intake.
• ‘if the gut works, use it’ otherwise PN.

17. Tube feeding : NGT
• For short-term feeding (<6 weeks), NGT or NJT feeding usually
suffice.
• Nasal tubes can be tolerated for a longer time, it is usually
preferable to place a direct gastrostomy or jejunostomy tube in
suitable patients who do not tolerate nasal tubes, or require a
longer period of enteral feeding.
• Postpyloric feeding, either via an endoscopically or surgically
placed tube, may help for patients intolerant of intragastric feed
(eg diabetic gastroparesis) or at high risk of aspirating stomach
contents (eg post-stroke), although its benefit in improving
outcomes remains contentious.

18. Tube feeding : Gastrostomy tubes
• Endoscopically using a ‘pull through’ technique (PEG).
• Under fluoroscopic guidance (RIG) using a gastropexy technique.
• PEG placement is generally quicker& easier.
• RIG has the advantage of not requiring sedation or gastroscopy.
• Enteral feeding is not beneficial in Dementia for improving
quality or duration of life.

19. Parenteral nutrition : indications
• Intestinal failure.
• Expensive & with side-effects.
• Via central or peripheral venous access BZ Peripherally delivered
PN cause thrombophlebitis& requires the use of PN of low
osmolality, so larger volumes can be needed to meet energy
requirements.
• The preferred central route for those requiring PN for weeks is
via peripherally inserted central catheter lines,while tunnelled
lines (eg Broviac or Hickman) are the optimum lines for longterm
(>3 months) use.

20. :Risks of nutritional support
• Related to biochemical excursions or fluid balance problems.
• Related to the methods of delivering the artificial nutrition.

21. Risks of nutritional support: biochemical or fluid excursions
A.Re-feeding syndrome:
• Precipitous drops in plasma phosphate, potassium &magnesium,
in individuals who with inadequate oral intake for > five days.
• Cautious gradual increases in calorific intake should be employed
after appropriate restitution of electrolyte deficiencies.
• Overenthusiastic feeding of the malnourished patient orally,
enterally or parenterally can lead to an insulin surge with large
intracellular shifts of potassium, phosphate and magnesium,
leading to low plasma levels of these ions.
• Daily measurement of these levels is therefore mandatory.
• Increased thiamine use by cells during refeeding can provoke
Wernicke’s encephalopathy, so thiamine replacement should
always be administered before feeding is started in patients at risk

22. Risks of nutritional support: biochemical or fluid excursions
B. Fluid and electrolytes :
• PN use can lead to derangements in fluid/electrolyte balance.
• Blood and strict fluid balance monitoring is required until the
patient is stabilized on PN.

23. Risks of nutritional support: Line &tube - related
complications
– Risk of aspiration, particularly in those with decreased
conscious levels.
– Postpyloric feeding may help in high-risk individuals.
– Nasal tube complications usually relate to incorrect placement.
– All individuals placing &assessing tube position should be
aware of current guidelines regarding checking tube position
using pH testing, with chest X-ray where uncertainty remains.
– Gastrostomy tubes have many more complications, including
bleeding or perforation at the time of placement, and infection
after placement, often be averted by good aftercare.

24. Risks of nutritional support: Catheter-related sepsis
– Catheter-related sepsis (CRS) can cause morbidity or even
mortality.
– Careful technique when handling these lines can obviate these
complications.
– If CRS is suspected (eg fever or rigors on feeding), PN should
be discontinued& simultaneous line & peripheral cultures
taken.
– If line sepsis is confirmed, short-term temporary feeding
linesshould be removed while longer-term tunnelled lines may
be salvaged with antibiotic therapy.

25. Risks of nutritional support: VTE
– Long-term feeding catheters can also provoke venous
thrombosis necessitating long-term anticoagulation.