Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood

1. PRESENTED BY GHULAM ABASS JAMALI
TOPIC COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
ASSIGNED BY DR. IFTIKHAR HUSSAN JAFFERI
ROLL NO. M/EDU/2K16/09
FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF SINDH ELSA
KAZI CAMPUS HYDERABAD

2. Cognitive developmentCognitive development
Cognitive development is the construction of thought
processes, including remembering, problem solving, and
decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to
adulthood.
Twentieth-century American poet Marianne Moore said
that the mind is “an enchanting thing.” How this enchanting
thing develops has intrigued many psychologists. First, we
explore increasing interest in the development of the brain
and then turn to two major cognitive theories—Piaget’s and
Vygotsky’s.

3. How Does the Brain Develop?How Does the Brain Develop?

4. Everything we do, feel and say fromEverything we do, feel and say from
infancy to the end of life reflect theinfancy to the end of life reflect the
functioning of our brainfunctioning of our brain
How is the brain organized?How is the brain organized?

5. The NeuronThe Neuron
The neuron is the basic building block of the
nervous system
They are often grouped in bundles called
nerves.
There are billions and billions of neurons
throughout the body

7. 4 parts of the neuron4 parts of the neuron
1. Dendrites are specialized to receive
signals from neighboring neurons and
carry them back to the cell body
Thin, bushy-like structures that receive
information from outside the neuron
Relays the information into the cell body

8. The NeuronThe Neuron
2. The Cell body
contains the cell
nucleus
The cell body
relays the
information
down to the axon

9. The structure of a neuronThe structure of a neuron
3. Axon: A thin, long structure that transmits
signals from the cell body to the terminal
buttons.
‐ The axon is wrapped in myelin, a fatty sheath
that allows it to transmit information more
rapidly.

10. ..
Once the information hits theOnce the information hits the
Terminal buttonTerminal button, it is transmitted, it is transmitted
outside the cell byoutside the cell by
neurotransmittersneurotransmitters, which reside in, which reside in
the axon terminalthe axon terminal

12. The NeuronThe Neuron

13. Synaptic transmissionSynaptic transmission
The neurons don’t actually touch each other, there
is a gap between one neuron and the next called
Synapses.
The space between neurons
Information must be transmitted across the synapse
to other neurons via the neurotransmitters.

14. Presynaptic Neuron
Postsynaptic Neuron

15. NeurotransmittersNeurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemical substances
that reside in the axon terminals
They communicate to other neurons by
binding to receptors on neighboring neurons

16. What observations can you makeWhat observations can you make
about the brain?about the brain?

17. BrainBrain
DevelopmentDevelopment
The wrinkled outer area
of the brain is called the
Cerebral Cortex-
The cortex regulates
many of our functions
that we think of
distinctly human.
Your personality,
ability to carry out
plans, certain types of
thinking, memory,
sensory activity.

18. Looking at the BrainLooking at the Brain
The exterior covering (cortex) of the brain is
wrinkled which increases the surface area of
the brain
The brain is divided into 2 hemispheres
‐ Right and left hemispheres

19. TheThe Corpus CallosumCorpus Callosum connectsconnects
these hemispheres and allowsthese hemispheres and allows
communication from one sidecommunication from one side
of the brain to the other.of the brain to the other.

20. Corpus CallosumCorpus Callosum

21. PIAGET’S THEORYPIAGET’S THEORY
 Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th century‘s most influential
researchers in the area of developmental psychology.
 He originally trained in the areas of biology and philosophy and
considered himself a ―genetic epistemologist. (genetic= development,‖
epistemology = study of knowledge)
 Piaget wanted to know how children learned through their development
in the study of knowledge.
 He administered Binet‘s IQ test in Paris and observed that children‘s
answers were qualitatively different.
 Piaget‘s theory is based on the idea that the developing child builds
cognitive structures (schemes used to understand and respond to physical
environment).
 He believed the child‘s cognitive structure increased with development.
 Piaget‘s theories of infant development were based on his observations
of his own three children.

22. KEY CONCEPTS OF PIAGET’S THEORYKEY CONCEPTS OF PIAGET’S THEORY
 Schemas
 Assimilation and accommodation
 Organization
 Equilibration

23. SCHEMASSCHEMAS
Schemas an internal representation of the world. A schema describes both the
mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are
mental or cognitive structures which enables a person to adapt and to organise the
environment. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and
understand the world. Piaget called the schema the basic building block of
intelligent behaviour – a way of organizing knowledge (includes both a category
of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge). Indeed, it is useful to
think of schemas as ―units of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the‖
world, including objects, actions and abstract (i.e. theoretical) concepts. As
experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change
previously existing schemas.
For example, at birth the schema of a baby is reflexive in nature such as sucking
and grasping. The sucking reflex is a schema and the infant will suck on whatever
is put in its mouth such as a nipple or a finger The infant is unable to differentiate
because it has only a single sucking schema. Slowly, the infant learns to
differentiate where milk-producing objects are accepted while non-milk objects
are rejected. At this point, the infant has two sucking schemas, one for milk-
producing objects and one for non-milk producing objects

24. Assimilation and accommodationAssimilation and accommodation
Assimilation is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schema is
known as assimilation.
Accommodation is another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our
existing schemas in light of new information, a process known as
accommodation. Accommodation involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as
a result of new information or new experience. New schemas may also be
developed during this process.
EXAMPLE;
Consider an 8-year-old girl who is given a hammer and nail to hang a picture on
the wall. She has never used a hammer, but from observing others do this she
realizes that a hammer is an object to be held, that it is swung by the handle to hit
the nail, and that it usually is swung a number of times. Recognizing each of these
things, she fits her behaviour into this schema she already has (assimilation). But
the hammer is heavy, so she holds it near the top. She swings too hard and the
nail bends, so she adjusts the pressure of her strikes. These adjustments reflect her
ability to slightly alter her conception of the world (accommodation).

25. ORGANIZATIONORGANIZATION
To make sense out of their world, said Piaget,
children cognitively organize their experiences.
Organization in Piaget’s theory is the grouping of
isolated behaviours and thoughts into a higher-order
system. Continual refinement of this organization is
an inherent part of development. A boy with only a
vague idea about how to use a hammer also may
have a vague idea about how to use other tools.
After learning how to use each one, he relates these
uses, organizing his knowledge.

26. EQUILIBRATIONEQUILIBRATION
Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but
rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibrium is occurs when a child’s schemas can deal
with most new information through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of
disequilibrium occur when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas
(assimilation).
Equilibration is a balance between assimilation and accommodation as children
progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain
a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing
behaviour to account new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps
explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought into the next.
EXAMPLE;
if a child believes that the amount of a liquid changes simply because the liquid is
poured into a container with a different shape—for instance, from a container that
is short and wide into a container that is tall and narrow—she might be puzzled
by such issues as where the “extra” liquid came from and whether there is
actually more liquid to drink. The child will eventually resolve these puzzles as
her thought becomes more advanced. In the everyday world, the child is
constantly faced with such counterexamples and inconsistencies.

27. STAGES OF PIAGET’S THEORYSTAGES OF PIAGET’S THEORY
1. Sensorimotor Stage
2. Preoperational Stage
3. Concrete Operational Stage
4. Formal Operational Stage

28. Sensorimotor StageSensorimotor Stage
From birth to 2 year age.
The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages in cognitive
development which "extends from birth to the acquisition of language. In
this stage, infants progressively construct knowledge and understanding
of the world by coordinating experiences (such as vision and hearing)
with physical interactions with objects (such as grasping, sucking, and
stepping). Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions
they perform within it they progress from reflexive, instinctual action at
birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.
Children learn that they are separate from the environment. They can
think about aspects of the environment, even though these may be outside
the reach of the child's senses. In this stage, according to Piaget, the
development of object permanence is one of the most important
accomplishments. Object permanence is a child's understanding that
objects continue to exist even though he or she cannot see or hear them.
Peek-a-boo is a good test for that. By the end of the sensorimotor period,
children develop a permanent sense of self and object.

29. Preoperational StagePreoperational Stage
From 2 year to 7 year age.
Piaget's second stage, the pre-operational stage, starts when the child begins to
learn to speak at age two and lasts up until the age of seven. During the Pre-
operational Stage of cognitive development, Piaget noted that children do not yet
understand concrete logic and cannot mentally manipulate information.Children's
increase in playing and pretending takes place in this stage. However, the child
still has trouble seeing things from different points of view. The children's play is
mainly categorized by symbolic play and manipulating symbols. Such play is
demonstrated by the idea of checkers being snacks, pieces of paper being plates,
and a box being a table. Their observations of symbols exemplifies the idea of
play with the absence of the actual objects involved. By observing sequences of
play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that, towards the end of the second year, a
qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs, known as the Pre-
operational Stage.
The pre-operational stage is sparse and logically inadequate in regard to mental
operations. The child is able to form stable concepts as well as magical beliefs.
The child, however, is still not able to perform operations, which are tasks that the
child can do mentally, rather than physically. Thinking in this stage is
still egocentric, meaning the child has difficulty seeing the viewpoint of others.

30. The Pre-operational Stage is split into two sub stages:
The symbolic function sub stage (2---4 years)
The symbolic function sub stage is when children are able to understand,
represent, remember, and picture objects in their mind without having the
object in front of them
Intuitive thought sub stage. (4----7 years)
The intuitive thought sub stage is when children tend to propose the
questions of "why?" and "how come?" This stage is when children want
the knowledge of knowing everything

31. Concrete Operational StageConcrete Operational Stage
Concrete Operational Stage(7 to 12 yrs of age)
The Concrete Operational stage is characterized by the appropriate use of logic.Important
processes during this stage are:
1. Seriation: the ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape or any other
characteristic. Eg.: if given different-shaded objects, they may make a colour gradient.
2. Transitivity: the ability to recognize logical relationships among elements in a serial order.
Eg.: if A is taller than B and B is taller than C, then A must be taller than C.
3. Classification: the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance,
size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another
4. Decentering: where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it.
For example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to
contain less than a normally-wide, taller cup.
5. Reversibility: the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned
to their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4+4 = t,
t−4 will equal 4, the original quantity.
6. Conservation: understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the
arrangement or appearance of the object or items.
7. Elimination of Egocentrism: the ability to view things from anothers perspective.
However, in this stage child can solve problems that apply to actual (concrete) objects or
events only, and not abstract concepts or hypothetical tasks.

32. Formal Operational StagesFormal Operational Stages
The final stage is known as the formal operational stage (12 years to adulthood).
Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract
concepts. This form of thought includes "assumptions that have no necessary
relation to reality. At this point, the person is capable of hypothetical and
deductive reasoning. During this time, people develop the ability to think about
abstract concepts.
Piaget stated that "hypothetico-deductive reasoning" becomes important during
the formal operational stage. This type of thinking involves hypothetical "what-if"
situations that are not always rooted in reality, i.e. counterfactual thinking. It is
often required in science and mathematics.
Abstract thought emerges during the formal operational stage. Children tend to
think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, and begin to consider
possible outcomes and consequences of actions.

33. Metacognition; the capacity for "thinking about thinking" that allows adolescents
and adults to reason about their thought processes and monitor them.
Problem-solving is demonstrated when children use trial-and-error to solve
problems. The ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and
methodical way emerges.
While children in primary school years mostly used inductive reasoning, drawing
general conclusions from personal experiences and specific facts, adolescents
become capable of deductive reasoning, in which they draw specific conclusions
from abstract concepts using logic. This capability results from their capacity to
think hypothetically.
"However, research has shown that not all persons in all cultures reach formal
operations, and most people do not use formal operations in all aspects of their
lives".

34. Vygostky’s Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentVygostky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Lev Vygotsky made some of the most significant contributions to theories
of child development, especially in the area of cognitive development.
Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who was born on November 17,
1896 in Orsha.
Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development centered on the ideas that
social interaction and imaginative play are large contributors to the
process of cognitive development in children. He believed that the social
interactions that children engaged in helped them to both discover and
create meaning from the things that they discover. Specifically, he
believed that some of the most important learning a child could
experience was in the social interactions they had with a skilled tutor that
is often an adult, such as a parent or teacher.

35. The child will observe the behaviors of the tutor as well as follow the verbal
instructions the tutor provides. The child will then emulate what they observe in
their tutor.
The child tries to understand what they observe and the instructions they receive
by copying and internalizing, while learning to apply them to their own lives.
Vygotsky called this collaborative or cooperative dialogue. He called the teacher
or tutor in this role the “more knowledgeable other.” While this role typically
involves adults, as pointed out above, such as teachers, parents, or coaches, it can
also involve social interactions with other children. The important part of the role
is that it is fulfilled by someone from which the child can learn, a more
knowledgeable other.

36. Zone of Proximal Development and ScaffoldingZone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding
Vygotsky also proposed something called the “zone of proximal
development” and the idea of “scaffolding” in a child’s development. The
way this works is by recognizing that there are some things a child cannot
do independently, but they would be able to do with the assistance of
someone else. For example, a child may be developing the ability to make
different sounds, but cannot yet talk. With assistance, or scaffolding,
from an adult who begins showing them pictures and repeating the names
of the pictures, the child will soon begin to develop words and start
communicating independently without help. The scaffolding helped them
to develop the skills necessary to communicate on their own.

37. Language DevelopmentLanguage Development
Vygotsky was particularly interested in the role of language in cognitive
development. Given that language is vital to human interactions, he believed that
language was the most important tool that human could utilize. Language,
especially in the realm of collaborative dialogue, is the way the more
knowledgeable other communications important information to a child. Vygotsky
believed that there are three forms of language, as outlined below. .
Social Speech – This is what Vygotsky referred to as the external communication
that people use to talk with other people, and he believed that this form of
language was typical in children from the age of two.
Private Speech – This is what Vykotsky referred to as the internal
communication that a person directs to themselves. It serves an intellectual
function, and it is typical in children from the age of three.

38. Silent Inner Speech – Vygotsky believed that this is what happens when private
speech diminishes in its audibility until it become a self-regulating function. He
believed this was typical in children from the age of seven.
Vygotsky’s focus on language as a part of cognitive development was based on
the idea that at the beginning of a child’s life, language and thought begin as
separate systems within a child’s brain. He believed that these two systems would
merge in the child at around the age of three, and the two systems would become
interdependent. As the two systems become interdependent, a child’s
communication can be internalized to become private speech to the self, and this
internalization of language is an important component to a child’s cognitive
development.

39. For Vygotsky, private speech was an important mile marker in a child’s
cognitive development because it’s the moment in a child’s development
where thoughts become connected with words, and a child begins
exhibiting verbal thinking. Whereas social interaction is an important part
of cognitive development as a child learns from a more knowledgeable
other, private speech allows a child to begin the collaborative process of
learning with themselves

40. Piaget theory vs Vygotsky theoryPiaget theory vs Vygotsky theory
Piaget’s theory states that cognitive development essentially is influenced
by social transmission, which describes learning from people around. On
the other hand, Vygotsky’s theory states that cognitive development is
influenced by social interaction; meaning that when an individual is
engaged in social activity, his language and cognition are developing.
Piaget’s theory claims that the development of thinking and language in
an individual can be traced back to the actions, perceptions and imitations
by little children. Vygotsky’s theory, on the other hand, postulates that
there is a strong connection between learning language and the
development of thinking

41. Piaget and Vygotsky approach learning in different ways. Piaget
observed in detail how children’s learning works, but he didn’t highlight
the role of a mentor or a teacher. Vygotsky’s theory, on the other hand,
doesn’t observe the actual mental development, but rather discusses
general acquisition of a new concept or skill. Both Piaget and Vygotsky
thought that there is always a certain range of tasks outside of students’
understanding. Vygotsky, however, believed that with assistance from a
mentor, these tasks could be performed. Piaget, on the other hand, didn’t
suggest anything regarding the matter.
Vygotsky’s theory is well applied to teaching strategies. Piaget’s theory,
on the other hand, shows a preference for discovering and learning done
by individuals themselves.