Assignment Details Open Date Apr   2, 2018 12:05 AM Graded? Yes Points Possible 100.0 Resubmissions Allowed? No Attachments checked for originality? Yes Top of Form Assignment Instructions In a five paragraph essay (600 minimum words)  using your favorite theorist, apply that theory to brain development as it was discussed in our readings. You may also include the impact of culture, early physical growth, and similar factors that impact the overall development of the child.  See attached rubric for grading details. Supporting Materials · 308 Assignment 3. Rubric.doc (50 KB) Bottom of Form The Physical Development of the Young Child Take a moment and think about a newborn infant--at birth, human infants are, essentially, completely vulnerable and helpless. Unlike many animals, they cannot walk, consume solid food, or manage even the most basic tasks for their own survival. This is the price we pay for our brains--we are born far less developed than many creatures. Over the course of a very short time, around two years, that helpless newborn learns to walk and talk, to manipulate objects, to engage and participate in the world around her. This transition from a helpless newborn to a toddler or preschooler requires massive amounts of learning , fueled by rapid brain growth, sensorimotor development, and physical growth. The infant, from birth, uses his ability to perceive to learn and develop an understanding of the world around him. TOPICS COVERED WILL INCLUDE: Brain development during infancy and toddlerhood at the larger      level of the cerebral cortex. Learning through classical conditioning, operant conditioning,      habituation and recovery, and imitation. Dynamic Systems theory of motor development, highlighting cultural      variations in motor development. Gibsons’ Differentiation Theory of perceptual development. The Development of the Brain Brain development in the first two years of life is fascinating and awe-inspiring. Most of the physical growth of the brain occurs during the first two years of life. Neuroscience has shed light on the development of neurons and the cerebral cortex in particular. At birth, infants have approximately one hundred billion neurons. Relatively few neurons will be produced after birth. The newborn’s neurons are connected only tentatively. In the first years, essential connections between neurons form. Combined with understanding sensitive periods and the role of the environment, we have a much clearer picture of what is happening in the infant and toddler brain today than ever before. Note the lobes of the brain Development of Neurons Neurons firing in the brain Neurons are nerve cells in the brain that store and transmit information. In total, the human brain has between 100 to 200 billion of these neurons. ‹ 1/4 › · Neurons send messages from one to another through tiny gaps, called synapses . These messages travel on chemicals called neur ...

1. Assignment Details
Open Date
Apr 2, 2018 12:05 AM
Graded?
Yes
Points Possible
100.0
Resubmissions Allowed?
No
Attachments checked for originality?

2. Yes
Top of Form
Assignment Instructions
In a five paragraph essay (600 minimum words) using your
favorite theorist, apply that theory to brain development as it
was discussed in our readings. You may also include the impact
of culture, early physical growth, and similar factors that impact
the overall development of the child.
See attached rubric for grading details.
Supporting Materials
·
308 Assignment 3. Rubric.doc
(50 KB)
Bottom of Form
The Physical Development of the Young Child
Take a moment and think about a newborn infant--at birth,
human infants are, essentially, completely vulnerable and
helpless. Unlike many animals, they cannot walk, consume solid
food, or manage even the most basic tasks for their own
survival. This is the price we pay for our brains--we are born far
less developed than many creatures. Over the course of a very
short time, around two years, that helpless newborn learns to

3. walk and talk, to manipulate objects, to engage and participate
in the world around her.
This transition from a helpless newborn to a toddler or
preschooler requires massive amounts of
learning
, fueled by rapid brain growth, sensorimotor development, and
physical growth. The infant, from birth, uses his ability to
perceive to learn and develop an understanding of the world
around him.
TOPICS COVERED WILL INCLUDE:
Brain development during infancy and toddlerhood at the larger
level of the cerebral cortex.
Learning through classical conditioning, operant conditioning,
habituation and recovery, and imitation.
Dynamic Systems theory of motor development, highlighting
cultural variations in motor development.
Gibsons’ Differentiation Theory of perceptual development.
The Development of the Brain
Brain development in the first two years of life is fascinating
and awe-inspiring. Most of the physical growth of the brain
occurs during the first two years of life. Neuroscience has shed
light on the development of
neurons
and the
cerebral cortex
in particular. At birth, infants have approximately one hundred

4. billion neurons. Relatively few neurons will be produced after
birth. The newborn’s neurons are connected only tentatively. In
the first years, essential connections between neurons form.
Combined with understanding sensitive periods and the role of
the environment, we have a much clearer picture of what is
happening in the infant and toddler brain today than ever
before.
Note the lobes of the brain
Development of Neurons
Neurons firing in the brain
Neurons are nerve cells in the brain that store and transmit
information. In total, the human brain has between 100 to 200
billion of these neurons.
‹
1/4
›
· Neurons send messages from one to another through tiny gaps,
called
synapses
. These messages travel on chemicals called neurotransmitters.
Development of the Cerebral Cortex
The cerebral cortex is the portion of the brain we think of when
we hear the word brain. The other parts of the brain are the
cerebellum and the brain stem. These parts of the brain are
responsible for a number of physical functions, but not for
thought, learning and memory. It accounts for approximately 85
percent of the total weight of the brain. In appearance, it looks
like a wrinkled half walnut. The cerebral cortex is the last part

5. of the brain to stop growing and it is significantly more
sensitive to environmental conditions than other parts of the
brain.
The cerebral cortex is divided into four parts, called
lobes
. Each of the brain’s lobes is associated with particular
functions.
·
Frontal lobe
·
Parietal lobe
·
Temporal lobe
·
Occipital lobe
LATERALIZATION
RIGHT VERSUS LEFT BRAIN
TWO HEMISPHERES
Sensitive Periods in Brain Development
Brain development in children is often quite sensitive to a
variety of factors. In some cases, trauma, lack of care or the
absence of appropriate support may limit the child’s abilities to
grow and develop properly. While scientific studies on children
pose a number of ethical questions, animal studies and
observation of children have confirmed the existence of periods
of increased sensitivity for proper brain development. During

6. these periods, the physical, cognitive and social or emotional
development of children can be slowed or damaged.
‹
1/6
›
· A lack of adequate environmental stimulation is the most
likely cause of damage in these situations. Inadequate
environmental stimulation stalls the proper development of the
prefrontal cortex. This will reduce the child’s impulse control,
cognition and emotional control, both positive and negative. In
today’s world, these situations are often associated with abusive
or neglectful parenting, or, in some cases, with orphanage care.
Physical Aspects of Brain Development
· PHYSICAL ASPECTS
·
SLEEP-WAKE CYCLE
·
NUTRITION
Brain development is not just a social and cognitive process, but
also a physical one. This is evidenced in a number of ways,
including the changing states of arousal, or sleep-wake cycle,
associated with infancy and toddlerhood.
Infant Learning
Evidence of learning is present from the moment of birth. The
built-in capacities of learning through conditioning, interest in
that which is novel and unusual, and
imitation

7. are particularly powerful. Our increasing understanding of
mirror neurons
is particularly exciting for better understanding learning in
infancy.
Learning is a word you’re already familiar with--can you define
it? Infant learning is defined as changes in behavior as a result
of experience. Babies are born with the ability to learn, as well
as with some innate
reflexes
.
Infants take an interest in the world in many different ways
Reflexes
REFLEXES
Rooting reflex
Sucking reflex
Moro (Startle) reflex
Tonic neck reflex
Grasping reflex
Babinski reflex
Step reflex
Classical conditioning builds upon the infant’s innate reflex, or
spontaneous and inborn behavioral patterns. Human infants are

8. born with seven different reflexes. At birth, these are the
primary driving forces for the infant’s behavior and movement.
Conscious control of the body is not present at birth.
For instance, if you put a nipple or finger in a newborn’s mouth,
the baby will suckle; however, over the first few weeks, the
baby will improve his ability to suckle, feeding more
effectively. This is one of the earliest examples of learning.
Classical Conditioning
Infants learn, in the earliest stages of their development,
through classical conditioning. Classical conditioning suggests
that when you pair a stimulus and the reflex or natural,
unconscious response it induces with a neutral stimulus,
eventually, the neutral stimulus will be associated with the
response. This is process of neural development.
INFANT CONNECTS TWO STIMULI
APPLICATION TO BEDTIME ROUTINES
ENHANCED BY REGULAR AND RELATED TO SURVIVAL
Operant Conditioning
Infants also learn through operant conditioning, or instrumental
conditioning. Operant conditioning links behavior to reward or
punishment. Operant conditioning is linked to the work of B.F.
Skinner and is a form of behaviorism. Positive reinforcement is
the introduction of a positive consequence to behavior. Negative
reinforcement is the removal of an unwanted consequence.
Punishment can also be positive or negative. A positive
punishment introduces an unwelcome or unpleasant
consequence. A negative punishment removes a positive
consequence.

9. ‹
1/3
›
· Take a moment to think about toys for infants. Many of them
have lights, sounds or other interactive features. When the baby
hits or grabs the toy, the sound plays or the toy lights up. This
acts as positive reinforcement for the baby’s actions, so he
repeats the action to hear the sound again. This is an example of
operant conditioning.
Habituation
· HABITUATION
·
RECOVERY
·
HABITUATION BEHAVIORS
The human brain is naturally programmed to prefer novel or
new experiences. New sights and sounds often entertain and
engage infants. Over time,
habituation
occurs. Habituation is gradual decline in strength of response
with repeated stimulation denoting loss of interest in the
stimulus over time. Habituation is measured by a decrease in
time spent looking or interacting, as well as reduced heart beat
and respiration.
Imitation
Infants are born with a primitive ability to mimic or imitate the
actions of those around them, including head and hand motions.

10. Some of these motions, or gesture, appear in many different
cultures around the world.
IMITATION
MIRROR NEURONS
ABILITY TO IMITATE INCREASES OVER TIME
The Dynamic Systems Theory of Motor Development
The development of motor skills is a remarkable undertaking
which child developmentalists now know is interrelated and
dynamic. Rather than singular and isolated, motor skills develop
within a system which is highly influenced by the environment
and by the child’s culture.
Infants gain motor skills at remarkably different rates
‹
1/7
›
·
Dynamic Systems Theory of Motor Development
is a theory that attempts to explain motor development in
infants and children, developed in the 20th century by Esther
Thelen. The Dynamic Systems theory is the broadest and most
all-encompassing of all developmental theories. The most
significant impact of Dynamic Systems theory has been in our
understanding of early sensorimotor development, including
both gross motor and fine motor skills.
Systems Theory
Motor Skills

11. Motor skills are the product of four factors. These four factors
develop with age.
Central nervous system development
Body’s movement capacities
Goals of child
Environmental support
DEVELOPING A SKILL
GROWING PROFICIENCY
INFLUENCE OF CULTURE
WHEN CULTURE VALUES SAFETY
WHEN CULTURE VALUES STRENGTH
Perceptual Development
· SENSORY INPUT
·
PERCEPTION
·
HEARING
·
HEARING AND SPEECH

12. Perceptual development is an essential aspect of the child’s
ability to interpret, understand, and apply sensory input. There
are several major areas of perceptual development and the
young child has an extraordinary ability to bring all this
together through
intermodal perception
and differentiation to promote learning and relationships with
others.
Vision
Vision is not well-developed at birth; however, it rapidly
develops over the first few months of life. In the earliest weeks,
the infant can only see detail that is very near and shows a
preference for human faces.
‹
1/4
›
The development of vision is supported by changes in the eye,
as well as the cerebral cortex. As vision develops, the baby uses
visual scanning to enhance perception and their interest in
perception enhances scanning. As vision develops, so does
depth perception. The ability to judge depth or distance is
necessary for motor activity. The infant’s ability to perceive
depth was confirmed by the visual cliff study designed by
Eleanor Gibson. When infants were placed on a plexiglass
surface, they crawled when it was over a shallow depth, but
stopped moving when the depth was greater.
Gibson’s Differentiation Theory
Eleanor and James Gibson were psychologists who specialized
in the study of infant perception; however, Eleanor Gibson’s

13. work on infant perception was more in-depth and thorough than
her husband’s. Eleanor Gibson was the first to recognize that
infants were born fully capable of perception, and that
perception drove the process of learning. There was no need for
the infant to learn to perceive; at birth, she could see and hear,
touch and feel, and discern many things about her environment.
Gibson sought, in her work, to answer two basic questions:
“What is learned and what is the function? What instigates
learning and what terminates the process?” Gibson relied on a
comparative systems approach. She looked at the individual,
whether an animal or human child, in its entire environment, or
system. She compared this individual to others to assess the
process of perception and learning.
Eleanor Gibson giving the keynote address at the 1993
Association for Psychological Science Convention
INVARIANT FEATURES
DIFFERENTIATION
ACTION POSSIBILITIES
TODDLER EXAMPLE
Exploration Drives Learning
· EXPLORATION
·
AGENCY
·
FLEXIBILITY
Exploration drives learning. Even before babies are capable of

14. crawling or walking, they can see things in their environment
and wish to explore those things. Once they can move to the
things they see, they want to look, touch, and taste what they
see--to perceive and learn all they can about the things.
Multimodal exploration is the norm for infants and young
children.These exploratory activities have three distinct parts: a
perceptual aspect, a motor aspect, and a knowledge-gathering
aspect. The child perceives a thing, locomotes to explore the
thing, and uses his senses to perceive information and gain
knowledge about the thing.
Knowledge Check
1
Question 1
Which of the following may support mother-infant bonding?
Differentiation theory of perception
The Moro reflex
Pattern recognition
Dynamic Systems theory
I don't know

15. One attempt
Submit answer
You answered 0 out of 0 correctly. Asking up to 2.
Lesson Overview
The first two to three years of life are a time of rapid growth
and development for human children. These years provide the
basis for future learning, and physical or emotional harm during
this time can cause lifelong issues with cognition, emotional
control, impulse control, and even motor skills. The
development of the cerebral cortex occurs during the first two
to three years of life and is dependent upon both genetics and
environmental factors.
Children make leaps in physical, emotional and cognitive
development in these years. Behaviorism, including classical
and operant conditioning explains some amount of infant
learning. In addition, the human interest in novelty supports
learning through the process of habituation and recovery.
Children also learn through the process of imitation of adults
and others in their environment.
A number of theories attempt to explain how children develop
new skills as infants and toddlers.The Dynamic Systems theory
of motor development suggests that the development of motor
skills is highly individual and related to cultural values about
child development. Children may develop skills in a different
order, and may develop different skills depending upon their
culture and parenting styles. Finally, Gibson’s Differentiation
Theory of perception attempts to explain how children perceive
the world and convert these perceptions into knowledge about
the world.

16. Key Terms
CEREBRAL CORTEX
DIFFERENTIATION THEORY OF PERCEPTION
DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
EXPERIENCE-DEPENDENT BRAIN GROWTH
EXPERIENCE-EXPECTANT BRAIN GROWTH
HABITUATION
IMITATION
INTERMODAL PERCEPTION
INVARIANT FEATURES
LATERALIZATION
LEARNING
LOBES
MIRROR NEURONS
MYELINATION
NEURONS
PERCEPTION
PRUNING

17. RECOVERY
REFLEXES
SYNAPSES
Sources
Adolph, Karen E. & Kretch, Kari S. (n.d.).
Gibson’s Theory of Perceptual Learning
. Retrieved from
http://www.psych.nyu.edu/adolph/publications/AdolphKretch-
inpress-GibsonTheory.pdf.
Fine by Nine. (n.d.).
Learning Begins at Birth
. Retrieved from
http://www.finebynine.org/uploaded/file/Briefing%20Paper%20
1.pdf.
Gerhardstein, Peter et. al. (2006) Using Operant Techniques
with Human Infants. Retrieved from
https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-170113005/using-
operant-techniques-w ith-humans-infants.
Kinser, Patricia Ann. (2000)
Brain Structures and their Functions
. Retrieved from
http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/kinser/Structure1.html.
Learning Theories. (n.d.).
Classical and Operant Conditioning
. Retrieved from
http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/kinser/Structure1.html.

18. Psysc613. (n.d.).
Dynamic Systems Theory
. Retrieved from
https://psysc613.wikispaces.com/Dynamic+Systems+Theoryrant
-conditioning.
Zero to Three. (n.d.).
Brain Development
. Retrieved from
https://www.zerotothree.org/resources/series/frequently-asked-
questions-about-brain-development.
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