The document provides information about the Earth's structure and composition. It describes the four main layers from outermost to innermost - the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is composed of either continental or oceanic crust depending on its location. Beneath the crust is the mantle, which extends to a depth of 2,900 km. The outer core is made mostly of iron and nickel and the inner core has very high temperature and pressure.

1. GEOGRAPHY
7th Class
1

2. 2
CHAPTER -1
ENVIRONMENT
• ENVIRONMENT : Place, people, things and nature that surround
any living organism.
• It is a combination of natural and human made phenomena.

3. 3
NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT
• Land, water, air, plants
and animals comprise
the natural
environment.
• Lithosphere,
Hydrosphere,
Atmosphere, Biosphere
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
• Human beings interact
with the environment
and modify it according
to their need.
• Early humans adapted
themselves to the
natural surroundings

4. 4
CHAPTER -2
INSIDE OUR EARTH
Earth is made up of several concentric layers
• Uppermost layer is crust.
• Beneath the crust is Mantle.
• Innermost layer is Core.

5. 5CRUST
• Thinnest of all the layers.
• It is about 35 km on the continental masses & 5 km on the ocean floors.
• continental mass mainly consists of silica & alumina. It is thus called sial (si-silica & al-alumina).
• Oceanic crust mainly consists of silica & magnesium; it is thus called sima (si-silica & ma-magnesium)
MANTLE
• Beneath the crust
• Extends up to a depth of 2900 km below the crust.
CORE
• Radius of about 3500 km.
• Mainly made up of nickel and iron.
• Called nife (ni – nickel and fe – ferrous i.e. iron).
• The central core has very high temperature and pressure.

6. 6
ROCKS AND MINERALS
• Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust is called a rock.
• There are 3 major types of rocks:
• Igneous rocks
• Sedimentary rocks
• Metamorphic rocks.
IGNEOUS ROCKS:
• Molten magma cools & becomes solid Igneous rocks.
• Called primary rocks
• There are 2 types of igneous rocks: intrusive rocks and extrusive rocks.
1) EXTRUSIVE ROCKS
• Molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid.
• Very fine grained structure.
• Example :Basalt, The Deccan plateau is made up of basalt rocks.
2) INTRUSIVE ROCKS
• Molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust.
• Since they cool down slowly they form large grains.
• Example: Granite

7. 7SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Rocks roll down, crack, and hit each other & are broken down into small fragments called sediments.
• They are transported and deposited by wind, water, etc. & compressed and hardened to form layers of
sedimentary rocks.
• Example : Sandstone is made from grains of sand.
• May also contain fossils.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic
rocks under great heat and pressure
• Example: clay changes into slate and limestone into marble

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ROCK CYCLE
Magma cools down &
forms Igneous rocks
Roll down, crack, and hit each
other and are broken
compressed and hardened
under great
heat and
pressure
under Extreme heat
and pressure
Note: DiagrammaticalRepresentation of theoryof
above slides

9. 9
MINERALS
• Rocks are made up of different minerals.
• Naturally occurring substances
• Have certain physical properties and definite chemical composition.
• Minerals are very important to humankind.
• Some are used as fuels.
• Example: coal, natural gas and petroleum.

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CHAPTER -3
OUR CHANGING EARTH
• Lithospheric plates move around very slowly – just a few millimeters
each year.
• This is because of the movement of the molten magma inside the
earth.
• The movement of these plates causes changes on the surface of the
earth

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Note:Veryimportantslide****

12. 12The earth movements are divided on the basis of the forces which cause them.
• Forces which act in the interior of the earth are called as Endogenic forces
• Forces that work on the surface of the earth are called as Exogenic forces
EARTHQUAKES
• Lithospheric plates move, the surface of the earth vibrates.
• They can travel all round the earth. These vibrations are called
earthquakes.
• Focus : Place in the crust where the movement starts .
• Epicentre :Place on the surface above the focus.
• Vibrations travel outwards from the epicentre as waves.
• Greatest damage is usually closest to the epicentre
• Strength of the earthquake decreases away from the centre.
• Example: A massive earthquake measuring 6.9 on Richter scale hit
Bhuj Town on 26th January 2001.

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The landscape is being continuously worn away by two processes.
• Weathering : Breaking up of the rocks on the earth’s surface.
• Erosion : Wearing away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind and ice.
WORK OF A RIVER:
• The running water in the river erodes the landscape.
• Waterfall : River tumbles at steep angle over very hard rocks or down a steep valley side
• Meanders : River enters the plain, twists and turns forming largebends.
• Ox-bow lake : Due to continuous erosion and deposition the meander loop
cuts off from the river and forms a cut-off lake.
• Floodplain : Flat fertile land.
• Levees : Raised banks
• As the river approaches the sea, the speed of water decreases and river
begins to break up into a number of streams called distributaries.
• Each distributary forms its own mouth.
• Delta : collection of sediments from all the mouths

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WORK OF SEA WAVES:
• The erosion and deposition gives rise to coastal landforms.
• Sea caves : Waves continuously strike rocks (Cracks develop), Hollow caves are formed on the rocks.
• Sea arches : Cavities become bigger ,only the roof of the caves remain.
• Stacks : Erosion breaks the roof and only walls are left.
• Sea cliff : Steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above sea water.
• Beaches : Sea waves deposit sediments along the shores
WORK OF ICE
• Glaciers carve out deep hollows.
• Glacial moraines : Material carried by glacier such as rocks big and small, sand and silt gets deposited.
WORK OF WIND
• In deserts you can see rocks in the shape of a mushroom, commonly called mushroom rocks.
• Winds erode the lower section of the rock more than the upper part.
• Loess : Very fine and light grains of sand is carried by wind over very long distances. Such sand is deposited in
large areas.
• Large deposits of loess is in China.

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CHAPTER -4
AIR
• Plants need nitrogen for their survival.
• They can not take nitrogen directly from the
air.
• Bacteria, that live in the soil and roots of some
plants, take nitrogen from the air and change
its form so that plants can use it.

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TROPORSPHERE:
• Most important layer of the atmosphere.
• Its average height is 13 km.
• The air we breathe exists here.
• Weather phenomena like rainfall, fog and hailstorm occur in this layer.
STRATOSPHERE
• It extends up to a height of 50 km.
• Almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon
• Ideal for flying aeroplanes.
• Contains a layer of ozone gas.
MESOSPHERE
• It extends up to the height of 80 km.
• Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from the space.
THERMOSPHERE
• Temperature rises very rapidly with increasing height.
• Ionosphere is a part of this
• It extends between 80-400 km.
• Helps in radio transmission.
• Radio waves transmitted from earth are reflected back by this layer.
EXOSPHERE:
• Very thin air.
• Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the space from here.
STRUCTURE OF THE
ATMOSPHERE

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TEMPERATURE
• An important factor that influences the distribution of temperature is INSOLATION.
• Insolation is the incoming solar energy intercepted by the earth.
• The amount of insolation decreases from the equator towards the poles.
• The standard unit of measuring temperature is degree Celsius.
• It was invented by Anders Celsius.
AIR PRESSURE
• Highest at sea level and decreases with height.
• Horizontally influenced by temperature of air at a given place.
• High Temperature Air gets heated & rises low-pressure area
• Low pressure is associated with cloudy skies and wet weather.
• Lower temperature Air is cold &heavy High pressure area.
• High pressure is associated with clear and sunny skies.
• Air always moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.

19. 19WIND : Movement of air from high pressure area to low pressure areas
Winds can be broadly divided into three types.
1. Permanent winds
• The trade winds, westerlies and easterlies
• Blow constantly throughout the year in a particular direction.
2. Seasonal winds
• These winds change their direction in different seasons.
• Example :
• Monsoons in India.
3. Local winds
• Blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area.
• Example :
• Land & sea breeze.
• Hot and dry local wind of northern planes of India. It is called loo.

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MOISTURE
• Moisture in the air at any time, is known as humidity.
• When the air is full of water vapour we call it a humid day.
• As the air gets warmer, its capacity to hold the water vapour increases
and so it becomes more and more humid.
• Precipitation that comes down to the earth in liquid form is called rain.
On the basis of mechanism, there are 3 types of rainfall:
Convectional rainfall
Orographic rainfall
Cyclonic rainfall

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CHAPTER -5
WATER
• Earth is like a terrarium.
• Terrarium: It is an artificial enclosure for keeping
small house plants.

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WATER CYCLE
DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
BODIES
Note:Veryimportantslide****

23. 23OCEAN CIRCULATION
Movements that occur in oceans can be categorized as: waves, tides and currents.
WAVES
• Water on the surface of the ocean rises and falls alternately
• During a storm, the winds blowing at very high speed form huge waves.
• An earthquake, a volcanic eruption or underwater landslides can shift large amounts of ocean water.
• As a result a huge tidal wave called tsunami, that may be as high as 15m, is formed.
• Largest tsunami was 150m high. These waves travel at a speed of more than 700 kmph.
• Indira point in the Andaman and Nicobar islands got submerged after the tsunami on 26th Dec,2004.
OCEAN CURRENTS
• Streams of water flowing constantly on the ocean surface in definite
directions.
• May be warm or cold
• Influence the temperature conditions of the area

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• Warm ocean currents originate near the equator & move towards the poles.
• Warm currents bring about warm temperature over land surface.
• Example : Gulf Stream
• Cold currents carry water from polar (higher latitudes) to tropical (lower latitudes).
• Example : Labrador Ocean current
NOTE:
• Areas where the warm and cold currents meet provide the best fishing grounds of the world.
• These are foggy , making it difficult for navigation
• Example : Seas around Japan and the eastern coast of North America
TIDES
• Rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice in a day.
• High tide : Water cover much of the shore by rising to its highest level.
• Low tide : Water falls to its lowest level and recedes from the shore.
• Strong gravitational pull exerted by SUN & MOON on the earth’s surface causes tides.

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Spring tides
• During the full moon and new moon days.
• Sun, Moon & Earth are in same line and tides are highest.
• Help in navigation & fishing(due to high tides) .
• Helps the ships to arrive at the harbour more easily
Neap tides
• Moon is in its first and last quarter
• Ocean waters get drawn in diagonally opposite directions by the
gravitational pull of sun and earth resulting in low tides.
• Help in electricity generation.
Water of the earth closer to the moon gets pulled under the influence of the moon’s
gravitational force and causes high tide.

26. 26
CHAPTER -6
NATURAL VEGETAION &
WILDLIFE
• Growth of vegetation depends on temperature and moisture.
• It also depends on factors like slope and thickness of soil.

27. 27Natural vegetation is generally classified in to 3 broad categories as follows:
Forests:
• Grow where temperature and rainfall are plentiful .
Grasslands:
• Grow in the region of moderate rain.
Shrubs:
• Thorny shrubs and scrubs grow in the dry region
FORESTS
TROPICAL RAIN FOREST
• Occur in the areas which receive heavy rainfall.
• Highly dense that sunlight doesn’t reach the ground.
• Many species of trees are found in these forests, which shed their leaves at different times of the year.
• Therefore, they always appear green and are called evergreen forest .
• Important trees found in these forests are mahogany, ebony and rosewood.
• Occur in the regions near the equator and close to the tropics.

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TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FORESTS
• Also called monsoon forests.
• They are less dense.
• They shed their leaves at dry Season to conserve water.
• Important trees of these forests are sal, teak, peepal, neem and shisham.
• Tigers, lions, elephants, langoors and monkeys are commonly found animals.
• They are found in parts of India, northern Australia and in central America
TEMPERATE EVERGREEN FORESTS
• Located in the mid latitudinal coastal region & eastern margin of the continents.
• In south east USA, South China and in South East Brazil.
• They comprise both hard and soft wood trees like oak,pine, eucalyptus, etc.
TEMPERATE DECIDOUS FORESTS
• Higher latitudes,
• Found in north eastern part of USA, China, New Zealand, Chile and also in coastal regions of Western Europe.
• They shed their leaves in the dry season.
• The common trees are oak, ash, beech, etc.
• Animals like Deer, foxes, wolves & Birds like pheasants, monals are commonly found.

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MEDITERRANEAN VEGETATION
• West and south west margins of the continents
• Found in areas around the Mediterranean sea in Europe, Africa and Asia
• Marked for hot dry summers and mild rainy winters.
• Citrus fruits such as oranges, figs, olives and grapes are commonly
• There isn’t much wildlife here.
CONIFEROUS FORESTS
• Higher latitudes (50° – 70°) of Northern hemisphere
• Also called as Taiga.
• Seen in the higher altitudes.
• They are tall, softwood evergreen trees.
• The woods of these trees are very useful for making pulp.
• Chir, pine, cedar are the important variety of trees in these forests.
• Silver fox, mink, polar bear are the common animals found here.

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GRASSLANDS
TROPICAL GRASSLANDS
• Occur on either side of the equator and extend till the tropics
• Grows in the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall.
• Grass can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 m height.
• Example : Savannah grasslands of Africa
• Elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards are commonly found
TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
• Found in mid latitudinal zones and in interior part of the continents.
• Grass here is short and nutritious.
• Wild buffaloes, bisons, antilopes are commonly found.
THORNY BUSHES
• Found in dry desert like regions, generally western margins of continents.
• Vegetation cover is scarce here because of scanty rain and scorching heat.
TUNDRA VEGETATION
• Found in the polar areas of Europe, Asia and North America.
• Only mosses, lichens and very small shrubs are found here during the very short summer
• Seal,walruses, musk-oxen, Arctic owl, Polar bear and snow foxes are commonly found

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CHAPTER -7
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT-
SETTLEMENT, TRANSPORT,
COMMUNICATION
• SETTLEMENTS are places where people build their homes.
• TEMPORARY SETTLEMENTS : Settlements for a short time
• People living in deep forests, hot & cold deserts and mountains
• They practice hunting, gathering and transhumance.
• PERMANENT SETTLEMENTS : Settlements for a long time

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RURAL SETTLEMENTS
• Villages
• People engage in activities like agriculture, fishing, forestry, crafts work & trading etc.
• Rural settlements can be compact or scattered.
• A compact settlement is a closely built area of dwellings, wherever flat land is available
• A scattered settlement dwellings are spaced over an extensive area.
• Mostly found in hilly tracts, thick forests, and regions of extreme climate
URBAN SETTLEMENTS
• Towns and cities
• People engage in manufacturing,trading, and services.
TRANSPORT
India- Donkeys, mules, bullocks and camels
Andes Mountains of South America- llamas
Tibet- Yaks
In olden days

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ROADWAYS
• Especially for short distances are roads.
• They can be metalled (pucca) and unmetalled (kutcha)
• Plains have a dense network of roads.
• Manali-Leh highway in Himlayan Mountains is one of highest roadways in world.
RAILWAYS
• Carry heavy goods and people over long distances quickly and cheaply.
• Invention of Steam engine and Industrial Revolution helped in speedy development of rail transport.
• Indian railway network is largest in Asia.
WATERWAYS
• cheapest for carrying heavy and bulky goods over long distances.
• Mainly of two types – inland waterways and sea routes.
Navigable rivers and lakes used for transporting merchandise and goods from one country to another.
Routes are connected with the ports.
AIRWAYS
• Fastest way of transport developed in the early twentieth century

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35. 35
Note:
Notveryimportant

36. 36
CHAPTER -8
TROPICAL AND SUB TROPICAL
REGION
• Tropical region lies very close to the equator; between 10°N and 10°S.
• It is referred to as the equatorial region.
• The river Amazon flows through this region.
• It flows from mountains to west and reaches Atlantic Ocean to east.
• River basin drains portions of Brazil, parts of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador,
Columbia and a small part of Venezuela.

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RAINFORESTS
• Rains heavily in this region, thick forests grow
• Leaves and branches does not allow the sunlight to reach ground.
• Orchids, bromeliads grow as plant parasites.
• The rainforest is rich in fauna.
• Animals like monkeys, sloth and ant-eating tapirs are found here
• Various species of reptiles and snakes also thrive in these jungles. Crocodiles,
Anaconda and boa constrictor are some of the species.
• Besides, the basin is home to thousands of species of insects.
• Several species of fishes including flesh eating Piranha fish is also found in the
river.
• Birds such as toucans, humming birds, bird of paradise with their brilliantly
coloured plumage, oversized bills for eating make them different from birds we
commonly see in India.
• Birds also make loud sounds in the forests.

38. 38
PEOPLE OF THE RAINFORESTS
• People grow most of their food in small areas after clearing some trees in the forest.
• They mainly grow tapioca, pineapple and sweet potato.
• They practice “slash and burn agriculture”.
• The staple food is manioc, also known as cassava that grows under the ground.
• They also eat queen ants and egg sacs.
• Cash crops like coffee, maize and cocoa are also grown.
• The rainforests provide a lot of wood for the houses.
• Some families live in thatched houses shaped like beehives.
• There are other large apartment-like houses called “Maloca” with steeply slanting roof.
• In the older days the heart of the forest, could be reached only by navigating the river.
• In 1970 the Trans Amazon highway made all parts of the rainforest accessible.
CLIMATE
• Hot and wet climate throughout the year.
• Both day and nights are almost equally hot and humid.
• It rains almost everyday.
• Day temperatures are high with very high humidity.
• Night temperature are low but the humidity remains high.

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LIFE IN THE GANGA-BRAHMAPUTRA BASIN
• Basin lies in sub-tropical region that is situated between 10°N to 30°N latitudes.
• Tributaries of River Ganga (Ghaghra, Son, Chambal, Gandak, Kosi) & tributaries of
Brahmaputra drain it
• Area is dominated by monsoon climate (Rains from mid-June to mid-September).
• Summers are hot and winters cool.
• varied topography.
• Density of population of plains is very high & Mountains is low.
• Main crop - paddy
• Wheat, maize, sorghum, gram and millets are other crops that are grown.
• Cash crops - sugarcane and jute .
• Banana plantations are seen in some areas of the plain.
• West Bengal and Assam - TEA.
• Bihar and Assam - Silk.
• In mountains and hills they have step Farming.

40. 40
• Plain tropical deciduous trees grow, along with teak, sal and peepal.
• Brahmaputra plain - Thick bamboo groves
• Delta area -Mangrove forests.
• Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh -coniferous trees like pine, deodar and fir can be seen
because the climate is cool and the slopes are steep.
• Elephants, tigers, deer and monkeys are common.
• Brahmaputra plain -one-horned rhinoceros.
• Delta area - Bengal tiger, crocodiles and alligator are found.
• Varieties of the fish are the rohu, catla and hilsa.
• Fish and rice is the staple diet of the people living in the area.
NOTE : Thischapterhaslotof info,memorizeasmuchasyou can

41. 41
CHAPTER -9
TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
GRASSLANDS
Region where grasses form the dominant type of plant life.
• Types of plants that grow here depend on climate and soil
• Based on climate world’s grasslands are divided into 2 broad categories:
• Those that occur in the temperate region
• Those that occur in the tropical regions.

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PRAIRIES
• Temperate grasslands of North America
• It is a region of flat, gently sloping or hilly land.
• For the most part, prairies are treeless
• But, near the low lying plains, woodlands can be found.
• Tall grass, up to 2m high.
• Bound by Rocky Mountains in West and Great Lakes in East.
• Prairies cover parts of United States of America and Canada.
• In USA, drained by tributaries of Mississippi
• In Canada, drained by tributaries of Saskatchewan Rivers.
CLIMATE
• Continental type with extreme temperatures.
• Summers are warm with temperatures of around 20°C,
• Winter -20°C has been recorded in Winnipeg, Canada.
• The annual rainfall is moderate and is ideal for the growth of grass.
• Due to the absence of the north-south barrier, a local wind “Chinook” blows here.

43. 43
FLORA AND FAUNA
• Where water is available, trees such as willows, alders and poplars grow.
• Places that receive rainfall of over 50 cm, are suitable for farming as the soil is fertile.
• Major crop of this area is maize, other crops including potatoes, soybean, cotton and alfa-alfa is also grown.
• Areas where rainfall is very little or unreliable, grasses are short and sparse.
• These areas are suitable for cattle rearing.
• Large cattle farms called ranches are looked after by sturdy men called cowboys
• Bison or American buffalo is the most important animal of this region
• It nearly got extinct due to its indiscriminate hunting and is now a protected species.
• The other animals found in this region are rabbits, coyotes, gophers and Prairie dog.
PEOPLE
• People of this region are very hardworking.
• Scientific methods of cultivation and use of tractors, harvesters and combines
• Prairies are also known as the “Granaries of the world,”
• Dairy farming is another major industry.
• Dairy belt extends from Great Lakes to Atlantic Coast in east.
• Large mineral deposits particularly coal and iron.
• Good network of roads, railways and canals have made it the most industrialised region in the world.

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VELDS
• Temperate grasslands of South Africa
• Rolling plateaus with varying heights ranging from 600 m to 1100 m.
• Bound by Drakensburg Mountains on east & Kalahari desert on west
• Northeastern part, “high velds” are located (height of more than 1600 m).
• The tributaries of rivers Orange and Limpopo drain the region.
• Lie in Southern hemisphere.
CLIMATE
• Mild climate due to the influence of the Indian Ocean.
• Winters are cold and dry & Summers are short and warm.
• Temperatures vary between 5°C and 10°C
• July is the coldest month.
• Johannesburg records about 20°C temperature in the summer
• Receive rainfall mainly in the summer months from November to February.
• Because of the warm ocean currents that wash the shores of the velds.
• If the rainfall is scanty in the winter months from June till August, drought may occur.

45. 45
FLORA AND FAUNA
• Vegetation cover is sparse.
• Red grass grows in bush velds.
• In the high velds - acacia and maroola .
• Animals of the velds are primarily lions, leopards, cheetah and kudu
PEOPLE
• Cattle rearing and mining.
• Soils are not very fertile in the velds
• Main crops are maize, wheat, barley, oats and potato.
• Cash crops -tobacco, sugarcane and cotton
• Sheep rearing is the most important occupation of the people. Merino sheep is a popular species
• Dairy farming is the next important occupation.
• Have rich reserve of minerals.
• Iron and steel industry has developed where coal and iron are present.
• Gold and diamond mining are major occupations.
• Johannesburg is known for being the gold capital of the world*****.
• Kimberley is famous for its diamond mines******
• Mining of diamond and gold in South Africa led to the establishment of trade ties with Britain and gradually South
Africa became a British Colony.
• This mineral rich area has a well-developed network of transport.

46. 46
CHAPTER -10
LIFE IN DESERTS
• Characterised by low rainfall, scanty vegetation and extreme
temperatures.
• Depending on the temperatures
• Hot deserts
• Cold deserts.

47. 47
HOT DESERT – SAHARA
• World’s largest desert.
• Area =8.54 million sq. km.
• Touches eleven countries. These are Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia and
Western Sahara.
• Besides the vast stretches of sands, that Sahara desert is covered with, gravel plains and elevated plateaus with bare
rocky surface.
• These rocky surfaces may be more than 2500m high at some places
Climate
• scorching hot and parch dry.
• Has a short rainy season.
• Sky is cloudless and clear.
• Moisture evaporates faster than it accumulates.
• Temperatures during the day may soar as high as 50°C, heating up
the sand and the bare rocks, which in turn radiates heat making
everything around hot.
• The nights may be freezing cold with temperatures nearing zero
degrees.

48. 48
Flora and Fauna
• Vegetation -cactus, date palms and acacia.
• There are oasis – green islands with date palms surrounding them.
• Camels, hyenas, jackals, foxes, scorpions, many varieties of snakes and lizards are prominent animals
People
• Bedouins and Tuaregs. These groups are nomadic tribes rearing livestock
• These animals provide them with milk, hides.
• They wear heavy robes as protection against dust storms and hot winds.
• Oasis in the Sahara and Nile Valley in Egypt supports settled population. Since water is
available, the people grow date palms.
• Crops such as rice, wheat, barley and beans are also grown.
• Egyptian cotton, famous worldwide is grown in Egypt*****
• The discovery of oil – a product in great demand throughout the world, in Algeria, Libya
and Egypt is constantly transforming the Sahara desert******
• Other minerals of importance that are found in the area include iron, phosphorus,
manganese and uranium.
• Tuaregs are seen acting as guides to foreign tourists.

49. 49
COLD DESERT - LADAKH
• Ladakh is a cold desert lying in the Great Himalayas, on the eastern side of J &K.
• Karakoram Range in the north and the Zanskar mountains in the south enclose it.
• Several rivers flow, Indus being the most important. Rivers form deep valleys and gorges.
• Several glaciers are found in Ladakh,
• Example : Gangri glacier.
• Altitude in Ladakh varies from about 3000m in Kargil to more than 8,000m in Karakoram.
CLIMATE
• Due to its high altitude, the climate is extremely cold and dry.
• Air at this altitude is so thin that the heat of the sun can be felt intensely.
• Day temperatures in summer are just above zero degree
• Night temperatures well below –30°C.
• As it lies in the rain shadow of the Himalayas, there is little rainfall, as low as 10 cm every year.

50. 50
Flora and Fauna
• Due to high aridity, the vegetation is sparse.
• Groves of willows and poplars are seen in the valleys.
• During the summers, fruit trees such as apples, apricots and walnuts bloom.
• Birds in Ladakh. Robins, redstarts, Tibetan snowcock, raven and hoopoe.
• Some are migratory birds
• Animals of Ladakh are wild goats, wild sheep, yak and special kinds of dogs.
• Animals are reared to provide for the milk, meat and hides.
• Yak’s milk is used to make cheese and butter.
• Hair of sheep and goat is used to make woollens.
People
• Ladakh and the inhabitants of Tibet and Central Asia resemble each other***
• The people here are either Muslims or Buddhists.
• In fact several Buddhists monasteries dot the Ladakhi landscape with their traditional ‘gompas’.
• Some famous monasteries are Hemis, Thiksey, Shey and Lamayuru.
• In summer season the people are busy cultivating barley, potatoes, peas, beans and turnip.
• Climate in winter months is so harsh that people keep themselves engaged in festivities and ceremonies.
• Leh, the capital of Ladakh .
• National Highway 1A connects Leh to Kashmir Valley through the Zoji la Pass******

51. 51
NOTE:
LAST 3 CHAPTERS HAVE A HUGE DATA WHICH
NEEDS TO BE MEMORIZED
MEMORIZE AS MUCH AS YOU CAN