Mendelian genetics describes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that demonstrated inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. Through experiments crossing pea plants with different traits, such as seed shape and flower color, Mendel discovered the laws of inheritance including dominance, segregation and independent assortment. He found that traits are determined by discrete units (now known as genes) that are passed from parents to offspring. His work established the foundation of classical/Mendelian genetics and the principles of heredity.
This document discusses the genetic concept of pleiotropy. Pleiotropy occurs when a single gene has effects on multiple phenotypic traits. Mutation of a pleiotropic gene can impact some or all traits under its control. Examples given include the genetic disorder phenylketonuria, which is caused by mutation of a gene affecting the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, resulting in both mental retardation and physical symptoms. Another example is Marfan syndrome, where mutation of the FBN1 gene leads to seemingly unrelated symptoms all tracing back to effects on connective tissue. Pleiotropy demonstrates how one gene can influence multiple characteristics through its effects on shared metabolic pathways and proteins.
This document discusses Gregor Mendel's laws of inheritance based on his experiments breeding pea plants. It defines key genetic terms and describes Mendel's three laws: 1) The Law of Dominance states that one allele is dominant over the recessive allele. 2) The Law of Segregation states that alleles segregate and pass to offspring independently during gamete formation. 3) The Law of Independent Assortment states that different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation. Mendel's laws established basic principles of heredity and laid the foundation for genetics.
Dear students, in this ppt you will able to understand about the Incomplete dominance. Incomplete dominance is an allelic interaction. In incomplete dominance, both alleles of a character express their character in the F1 generation.
1. Mendel conducted breeding experiments with pea plants over seven years to test his particulate hypothesis of inheritance. He found that traits are passed from parents to offspring as distinct factors, now called genes.
2. Mendel discovered that traits can be dominant or recessive, and that alleles segregate independently during gamete formation according to his laws of inheritance.
3. Mendel's work established the foundations of classical genetics and showed that heredity follows predictable statistical patterns. His principles help explain the inheritance of human traits and disorders like cystic fibrosis.
This document discusses multiple allelism, which refers to more than two alternative allelic forms of a gene occupying the same locus. It provides examples of multiple allelism in eye color in Drosophila, with 14 alleles producing different shades from white to red, and in human blood groups with the A, B, and O alleles. The characteristics of multiple alleles are described, including that only two alleles are present per individual. Multiple allelism in inheritance of blood groups and determining blood group combinations in offspring are also covered.
Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to develop his laws of heredity. Through crosses involving one or two traits, he discovered that traits are passed to offspring through discrete units (now known as genes and alleles) and that alleles segregate and assort independently. His laws of segregation and independent assortment explained inheritance patterns through generations and the ratios of traits in offspring. Mendel's work established genetics as a science and his principles remain fundamental to inheritance.
Modification of Normal Mendelian ratios with Lethal gene effcets and EpistasisAashish Patel
This document discusses Mendelian genetics and how ratios from monohybrid and dihybrid crosses can be modified. It explains different types of gene interactions including incomplete dominance, codominance, lethal genes, and epistasis. Epistasis refers to interaction between alleles at different loci that modifies phenotypic ratios. Several examples are given to illustrate different types of epistatic interactions like recessive epistasis, dominant epistasis, and duplicate gene interactions. The document also provides tables comparing standard Mendelian ratios to ratios resulting from these various genetic modifications.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments breeding pea plants starting in 1854. He discovered that traits are inherited as discrete units (now called genes) that are passed unchanged from parents to offspring. Through his experiments with monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, Mendel deduced his two laws of inheritance: 1) The Law of Segregation states that alleles segregate and sort independently into gametes, and 2) The Law of Independent Assortment states that genes assort independently of one another when gametes are formed.
This document discusses the genetic concept of pleiotropy. Pleiotropy occurs when a single gene has effects on multiple phenotypic traits. Mutation of a pleiotropic gene can impact some or all traits under its control. Examples given include the genetic disorder phenylketonuria, which is caused by mutation of a gene affecting the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, resulting in both mental retardation and physical symptoms. Another example is Marfan syndrome, where mutation of the FBN1 gene leads to seemingly unrelated symptoms all tracing back to effects on connective tissue. Pleiotropy demonstrates how one gene can influence multiple characteristics through its effects on shared metabolic pathways and proteins.
This document discusses Gregor Mendel's laws of inheritance based on his experiments breeding pea plants. It defines key genetic terms and describes Mendel's three laws: 1) The Law of Dominance states that one allele is dominant over the recessive allele. 2) The Law of Segregation states that alleles segregate and pass to offspring independently during gamete formation. 3) The Law of Independent Assortment states that different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation. Mendel's laws established basic principles of heredity and laid the foundation for genetics.
Dear students, in this ppt you will able to understand about the Incomplete dominance. Incomplete dominance is an allelic interaction. In incomplete dominance, both alleles of a character express their character in the F1 generation.
1. Mendel conducted breeding experiments with pea plants over seven years to test his particulate hypothesis of inheritance. He found that traits are passed from parents to offspring as distinct factors, now called genes.
2. Mendel discovered that traits can be dominant or recessive, and that alleles segregate independently during gamete formation according to his laws of inheritance.
3. Mendel's work established the foundations of classical genetics and showed that heredity follows predictable statistical patterns. His principles help explain the inheritance of human traits and disorders like cystic fibrosis.
This document discusses multiple allelism, which refers to more than two alternative allelic forms of a gene occupying the same locus. It provides examples of multiple allelism in eye color in Drosophila, with 14 alleles producing different shades from white to red, and in human blood groups with the A, B, and O alleles. The characteristics of multiple alleles are described, including that only two alleles are present per individual. Multiple allelism in inheritance of blood groups and determining blood group combinations in offspring are also covered.
Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to develop his laws of heredity. Through crosses involving one or two traits, he discovered that traits are passed to offspring through discrete units (now known as genes and alleles) and that alleles segregate and assort independently. His laws of segregation and independent assortment explained inheritance patterns through generations and the ratios of traits in offspring. Mendel's work established genetics as a science and his principles remain fundamental to inheritance.
Modification of Normal Mendelian ratios with Lethal gene effcets and EpistasisAashish Patel
This document discusses Mendelian genetics and how ratios from monohybrid and dihybrid crosses can be modified. It explains different types of gene interactions including incomplete dominance, codominance, lethal genes, and epistasis. Epistasis refers to interaction between alleles at different loci that modifies phenotypic ratios. Several examples are given to illustrate different types of epistatic interactions like recessive epistasis, dominant epistasis, and duplicate gene interactions. The document also provides tables comparing standard Mendelian ratios to ratios resulting from these various genetic modifications.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments breeding pea plants starting in 1854. He discovered that traits are inherited as discrete units (now called genes) that are passed unchanged from parents to offspring. Through his experiments with monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, Mendel deduced his two laws of inheritance: 1) The Law of Segregation states that alleles segregate and sort independently into gametes, and 2) The Law of Independent Assortment states that genes assort independently of one another when gametes are formed.
- Gregor Mendel, an Augustinian monk in the late 1800s, is considered the founder of genetics for his experiments breeding pea plants. He studied traits like flower color, seed texture, and pod shape.
- Mendel discovered that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units called genes, located on chromosomes. Genes come in different forms called alleles that give rise to different traits.
- Through experiments breeding thousands of pea plants, Mendel determined that alleles segregate and assort independently during reproduction according to his laws of inheritance. This laid the foundation for modern genetics.
This Power Point Presentation is designed to explain Mendel's experiment on hybridization and dihybrid cross which considers inheritance of two traits at a time and to know whether they are inherited independently or are influenced by each other and also about Law of Independent assortment
Multiple alleles occur when there are more than two allelic forms of a given gene in a species. Examples include blood groups in humans and coat color in mice. The ABO blood group gene in humans has three alleles - IA, IB, and i - which determine blood types A, B, AB, and O. Coat color in mice is also determined by multiple alleles at a single gene locus, with alleles for black, brown, agouti, gray, and albino hair colors exhibiting a dominance hierarchy. Multiple alleles always influence the same trait and occupy the same locus on chromosomes, with no crossing over between member alleles of a multiple allelic series.
This document provides an introduction to Mendelian genetics. It discusses Gregor Mendel's pioneering work in the field in the 1800s, which laid the foundations for genetics but was not recognized until 1900. It defines key genetic terminology such as alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes. It also describes Mendel's experiments breeding pea plants and his conclusions, including the laws of dominance, segregation, and independent assortment. Mendel demonstrated that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units of inheritance now known as genes.
1) Mendel conducted breeding experiments with pea plants over 10 years to study inheritance of traits from parents to offspring.
2) He found that some traits are dominant and others recessive, with dominant traits masking recessive traits in the first filial generation.
3) Mendel also discovered that traits are inherited independently according to his Law of Independent Assortment.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1860s to study inheritance of traits. He discovered three principles of heredity:
1) The law of dominance states that if one allele is dominant and the other recessive, the dominant allele will mask the recessive allele's effects and determine the organism's appearance.
2) The law of segregation explains that during gamete formation, each offspring receives one of two alleles for each trait at random from each parent.
3) The law of independent assortment shows that two or more genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation. Mendel's discoveries formed the foundation of classical genetics.
1. The document discusses principles of genetics including concepts like heredity, variation, Mendelian genetics, and branches of genetics like cytogenetics and molecular genetics.
2. It summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants from 1856-1863 which led to his principles of segregation, independent assortment, and dominance and the rediscovery of his work in 1900.
3. Key genetics terminology is defined including genes, alleles, genotype and phenotype, and symbols and concepts used in pedigrees like dominant/recessive alleles and Punnett squares are explained.
This document discusses several examples of traits that are controlled by multiple alleles rather than just two alleles. It describes human blood types which are controlled by the A, B, and O alleles. Coat color in rabbits is another example, with agouti, chinchilla, himalayan, and albino colors each denoting specific alleles. Sex-linked traits like hemophilia and color blindness are discussed along with examples of inheritance patterns and genetic crosses. Baldness is presented as a sex-influenced trait where the bald allele behaves dominantly in males due to higher testosterone levels.
This document discusses Mendelian genetics and inheritance patterns. It covers Mendel's experiments with pea plants and his principles of inheritance, including dominance, segregation, independent assortment, and probability. It introduces modern genetic terminology and genetic crosses such as monohybrid, dihybrid, and test crosses. It also discusses how Mendel's principles apply to human pedigrees and inheritance of traits, including examples of autosomal recessive and dominant traits like familial hypercholesterolemia.
This PPT consists of 24 slides explaining Polygenic Inheritance . Some traits are controlled by two or more genes. These traits differ from Mendelian traits and donot show discrete alternative or contrasting forms and show continuous ranges. Examples of such traits are wheat seed colour, plant height, Human skin colour controlled by at least three genes showing many shades of dark and fare, human height, human eye colour etc
This document discusses polygenic inheritance, which is when multiple genes cumulatively control a phenotypic trait, rather than a single gene following Mendelian ratios. It provides skin color in humans as an example of polygenic inheritance controlled by multiple genes. The document outlines the ratios expected from two or three controlling genes, and shows how skin color ranges from light to dark depending on the number of dominant alleles present, with the most dominant alleles resulting in darker skin.
This document summarizes key concepts in population genetics and Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. It defines population genetics as the study of gene and genotype frequencies in populations. The Hardy-Weinberg law states that allele and genotype frequencies remain constant from generation to generation in random mating populations of infinite size with no evolutionary influences. Factors like selection, mutation, migration, and genetic drift can disrupt Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium over time.
Backcrossing involves crossing a hybrid with one of its parents to produce offspring that are genetically more similar to the parent. It is used in plant and animal breeding to transfer desired traits from a hybrid back into a parent's genetic background. A backcross can be described as BC1, BC2, etc depending on how many times the hybrid has been backcrossed. Backcrossing with the dominant parent will result in all dominant phenotype offspring, while backcrossing with the recessive parent will result in a 1:1 phenotypic ratio.
The document discusses gene mapping and linkage mapping. It provides details on:
1) The history of gene mapping beginning with Mendel's work in 1866 and the first linkage map constructed by Sturtevant in 1913.
2) The three main types of gene maps - linkage maps, cytogenetic maps, and physical maps. Linkage maps show the relative order and distance between genes.
3) How linkage mapping is used to determine the order and distance between genes on a chromosome based on recombination frequencies observed during meiosis. Distance is measured in centimorgans where 1 cM equals 1% recombination.
4) The processes involved in constructing a linkage map, including determining linkage groups,
MENDELE'S EXPERIMNENT AND TERMINOLOGY, BY MR. DINABANDHU BARAD, MSC TUTOR, DEPARTMENT OF PEDIATRIC, SUM NURSING COLLEGE, SIKSHA 'O' ANUSANDHAN DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY
GENETICS - Dr. P. Saranraj, Assistant Professor, Department of Microbiology, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Tirupattur, Vellore District, Tamil Nadu, India
Epistasis refers to the phenomenon where the effect of one gene is dependent on the presence of other genes. There are different types of epistatic interactions: dominant epistasis occurs when a dominant allele of one gene masks the effect of alleles at another gene locus; recessive epistasis occurs when a recessive allele of one gene hides the effects of alleles at another locus; and duplicate recessive genes, or complementary genes, produce the same phenotype only when both genes have homozygous recessive alleles. Epistasis can modify expected Mendelian ratios from crosses.
This document discusses lethal alleles, which are alleles that cause death in an organism. It defines lethal alleles and provides a brief history of their discovery through early studies of coat color inheritance in mice. The document outlines four types of lethal alleles: early onset alleles that cause death early in life, late onset alleles that cause death late in life, conditional alleles that only cause death under certain environmental conditions, and semi-lethal alleles that only kill some individuals, not all. It provides the example of the Y gene in mice, which causes a yellow coat color but is lethal when present in the homozygous dominant state (YY), though not in the heterozygous or recessive states.
Chromosomal aberrations arise from structural changes or alterations in chromosome number. There are two main types of chromosomal aberrations: structural aberrations which involve changes in chromosome structure, and numerical aberrations which involve changes in chromosome number. Common types of structural aberrations discussed in the document include deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. Deletions involve the loss of a chromosome segment, duplications the addition of an extra segment, inversions reverse the orientation of a segment, and translocations involve segments moving to new chromosomes. These structural changes can have varying genetic effects depending on the location and size of the alteration.
1) Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants between 1856-1863 and established the fundamental laws of inheritance.
2) Through his experiments, he discovered that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units now known as genes, and that dominant genes mask recessive genes.
3) Mendel's work demonstrated that when a tall pea plant is crossed with a dwarf pea plant, the F1 offspring are all tall, with the tall trait dominating, but in the F2 generation both tall and dwarf traits reappear in a 3:1 ratio.
Genetics- Chapter 5 - Principles of inheritance and variation.docxAjay Kumar Gautam
Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms. Though heredity had been observed for millennia, Gregor Mendel, Moravian scientist and Augustinian friar working in the 19th century in Brno, was the first to study genetics scientifically. Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring over time. He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene.
- Gregor Mendel, an Augustinian monk in the late 1800s, is considered the founder of genetics for his experiments breeding pea plants. He studied traits like flower color, seed texture, and pod shape.
- Mendel discovered that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units called genes, located on chromosomes. Genes come in different forms called alleles that give rise to different traits.
- Through experiments breeding thousands of pea plants, Mendel determined that alleles segregate and assort independently during reproduction according to his laws of inheritance. This laid the foundation for modern genetics.
This Power Point Presentation is designed to explain Mendel's experiment on hybridization and dihybrid cross which considers inheritance of two traits at a time and to know whether they are inherited independently or are influenced by each other and also about Law of Independent assortment
Multiple alleles occur when there are more than two allelic forms of a given gene in a species. Examples include blood groups in humans and coat color in mice. The ABO blood group gene in humans has three alleles - IA, IB, and i - which determine blood types A, B, AB, and O. Coat color in mice is also determined by multiple alleles at a single gene locus, with alleles for black, brown, agouti, gray, and albino hair colors exhibiting a dominance hierarchy. Multiple alleles always influence the same trait and occupy the same locus on chromosomes, with no crossing over between member alleles of a multiple allelic series.
This document provides an introduction to Mendelian genetics. It discusses Gregor Mendel's pioneering work in the field in the 1800s, which laid the foundations for genetics but was not recognized until 1900. It defines key genetic terminology such as alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes. It also describes Mendel's experiments breeding pea plants and his conclusions, including the laws of dominance, segregation, and independent assortment. Mendel demonstrated that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units of inheritance now known as genes.
1) Mendel conducted breeding experiments with pea plants over 10 years to study inheritance of traits from parents to offspring.
2) He found that some traits are dominant and others recessive, with dominant traits masking recessive traits in the first filial generation.
3) Mendel also discovered that traits are inherited independently according to his Law of Independent Assortment.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1860s to study inheritance of traits. He discovered three principles of heredity:
1) The law of dominance states that if one allele is dominant and the other recessive, the dominant allele will mask the recessive allele's effects and determine the organism's appearance.
2) The law of segregation explains that during gamete formation, each offspring receives one of two alleles for each trait at random from each parent.
3) The law of independent assortment shows that two or more genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation. Mendel's discoveries formed the foundation of classical genetics.
1. The document discusses principles of genetics including concepts like heredity, variation, Mendelian genetics, and branches of genetics like cytogenetics and molecular genetics.
2. It summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants from 1856-1863 which led to his principles of segregation, independent assortment, and dominance and the rediscovery of his work in 1900.
3. Key genetics terminology is defined including genes, alleles, genotype and phenotype, and symbols and concepts used in pedigrees like dominant/recessive alleles and Punnett squares are explained.
This document discusses several examples of traits that are controlled by multiple alleles rather than just two alleles. It describes human blood types which are controlled by the A, B, and O alleles. Coat color in rabbits is another example, with agouti, chinchilla, himalayan, and albino colors each denoting specific alleles. Sex-linked traits like hemophilia and color blindness are discussed along with examples of inheritance patterns and genetic crosses. Baldness is presented as a sex-influenced trait where the bald allele behaves dominantly in males due to higher testosterone levels.
This document discusses Mendelian genetics and inheritance patterns. It covers Mendel's experiments with pea plants and his principles of inheritance, including dominance, segregation, independent assortment, and probability. It introduces modern genetic terminology and genetic crosses such as monohybrid, dihybrid, and test crosses. It also discusses how Mendel's principles apply to human pedigrees and inheritance of traits, including examples of autosomal recessive and dominant traits like familial hypercholesterolemia.
This PPT consists of 24 slides explaining Polygenic Inheritance . Some traits are controlled by two or more genes. These traits differ from Mendelian traits and donot show discrete alternative or contrasting forms and show continuous ranges. Examples of such traits are wheat seed colour, plant height, Human skin colour controlled by at least three genes showing many shades of dark and fare, human height, human eye colour etc
This document discusses polygenic inheritance, which is when multiple genes cumulatively control a phenotypic trait, rather than a single gene following Mendelian ratios. It provides skin color in humans as an example of polygenic inheritance controlled by multiple genes. The document outlines the ratios expected from two or three controlling genes, and shows how skin color ranges from light to dark depending on the number of dominant alleles present, with the most dominant alleles resulting in darker skin.
This document summarizes key concepts in population genetics and Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. It defines population genetics as the study of gene and genotype frequencies in populations. The Hardy-Weinberg law states that allele and genotype frequencies remain constant from generation to generation in random mating populations of infinite size with no evolutionary influences. Factors like selection, mutation, migration, and genetic drift can disrupt Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium over time.
Backcrossing involves crossing a hybrid with one of its parents to produce offspring that are genetically more similar to the parent. It is used in plant and animal breeding to transfer desired traits from a hybrid back into a parent's genetic background. A backcross can be described as BC1, BC2, etc depending on how many times the hybrid has been backcrossed. Backcrossing with the dominant parent will result in all dominant phenotype offspring, while backcrossing with the recessive parent will result in a 1:1 phenotypic ratio.
The document discusses gene mapping and linkage mapping. It provides details on:
1) The history of gene mapping beginning with Mendel's work in 1866 and the first linkage map constructed by Sturtevant in 1913.
2) The three main types of gene maps - linkage maps, cytogenetic maps, and physical maps. Linkage maps show the relative order and distance between genes.
3) How linkage mapping is used to determine the order and distance between genes on a chromosome based on recombination frequencies observed during meiosis. Distance is measured in centimorgans where 1 cM equals 1% recombination.
4) The processes involved in constructing a linkage map, including determining linkage groups,
MENDELE'S EXPERIMNENT AND TERMINOLOGY, BY MR. DINABANDHU BARAD, MSC TUTOR, DEPARTMENT OF PEDIATRIC, SUM NURSING COLLEGE, SIKSHA 'O' ANUSANDHAN DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY
GENETICS - Dr. P. Saranraj, Assistant Professor, Department of Microbiology, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Tirupattur, Vellore District, Tamil Nadu, India
Epistasis refers to the phenomenon where the effect of one gene is dependent on the presence of other genes. There are different types of epistatic interactions: dominant epistasis occurs when a dominant allele of one gene masks the effect of alleles at another gene locus; recessive epistasis occurs when a recessive allele of one gene hides the effects of alleles at another locus; and duplicate recessive genes, or complementary genes, produce the same phenotype only when both genes have homozygous recessive alleles. Epistasis can modify expected Mendelian ratios from crosses.
This document discusses lethal alleles, which are alleles that cause death in an organism. It defines lethal alleles and provides a brief history of their discovery through early studies of coat color inheritance in mice. The document outlines four types of lethal alleles: early onset alleles that cause death early in life, late onset alleles that cause death late in life, conditional alleles that only cause death under certain environmental conditions, and semi-lethal alleles that only kill some individuals, not all. It provides the example of the Y gene in mice, which causes a yellow coat color but is lethal when present in the homozygous dominant state (YY), though not in the heterozygous or recessive states.
Chromosomal aberrations arise from structural changes or alterations in chromosome number. There are two main types of chromosomal aberrations: structural aberrations which involve changes in chromosome structure, and numerical aberrations which involve changes in chromosome number. Common types of structural aberrations discussed in the document include deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. Deletions involve the loss of a chromosome segment, duplications the addition of an extra segment, inversions reverse the orientation of a segment, and translocations involve segments moving to new chromosomes. These structural changes can have varying genetic effects depending on the location and size of the alteration.
1) Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants between 1856-1863 and established the fundamental laws of inheritance.
2) Through his experiments, he discovered that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units now known as genes, and that dominant genes mask recessive genes.
3) Mendel's work demonstrated that when a tall pea plant is crossed with a dwarf pea plant, the F1 offspring are all tall, with the tall trait dominating, but in the F2 generation both tall and dwarf traits reappear in a 3:1 ratio.
Genetics- Chapter 5 - Principles of inheritance and variation.docxAjay Kumar Gautam
Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms. Though heredity had been observed for millennia, Gregor Mendel, Moravian scientist and Augustinian friar working in the 19th century in Brno, was the first to study genetics scientifically. Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring over time. He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene.
This document summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of genetics. It describes how Mendel conducted breeding experiments with pea plants examining seven different traits. He found that traits were passed to offspring in predictable ratios, either appearing dominant or recessive. His work established the laws of inheritance including dominance, segregation and independent assortment. The document provides examples of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses and explains how Mendel's findings laid the foundation of classical genetics.
This document provides an overview of genetics concepts including classical genetics, molecular genetics, and evolutionary genetics. It discusses Mendel's laws of inheritance including dominance, segregation, and independent assortment. It defines key genetics terms like genotype, phenotype, homozygous, heterozygous, alleles, and genes. It also covers exceptions to Mendel's laws including incomplete dominance, codominance, and lethal alleles. Finally, it discusses linkage and crossing over between genes located on the same chromosome.
Discuss the methods Mendel utilized in his research that led to his success in understanding the process of inheritance
The science community ignored the paper, possibly because it was ahead of the ideas of heredity and variation accepted at the time. In the early 1900s, 3 plant biologists finally acknowledged Mendel’s work. Unfortunately, Mendel was not around to receive the recognition as he had died in 1884.
1. The document defines various genetic terminology used in Mendelian genetics such as haploid, diploid, gamete, zygote, chromosome, and gene.
2. It describes Mendel's experiments with pea plants, noting the seven traits he studied and why pea plants were a good experimental organism.
3. Mendel's laws of inheritance derived from his experiments are summarized, including the law of dominance, law of segregation, and law of independent assortment.
4. Key genetic crosses like monohybrid, dihybrid, backcross, and test cross are defined and examples are given using Mendel's pea plant experiments.
Codominance is when both alleles of a gene are fully expressed in a heterozygote. For example, individuals with one curly hair allele and one straight hair allele have wavy hair, which is a blend of both traits. Codominance results in a third phenotype that expresses both parental traits together. Mendel's law of independent assortment states that alleles of different genes assort independently during gamete formation such that all combinations of alleles are possible.
This pdf comprises of Basic of Genetics: Purpose: To convey that “Genetics is to biology what Newton’s
laws are to Physical Sciences”. Mendel’s laws, Concept of segregation and
independent assortment. Concept of allele. Gene mapping, Gene
interaction, Epistasis. Meiosis and Mitosis be taught as a part of
genetics. Emphasis to be give not to the mechanics of cell division nor the
phases but how genetic material passes from parent to offspring. Concepts
of recessiveness and dominance. Concept of mapping of phenotype to
genes. Discuss about the single gene disorders in humans. Discuss the
concept of complementation using human genetics.
Genetics is the study of heredity and genes. Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1800s that formed the basis of genetics. Through his work, he discovered the principles of inheritance, including that traits are determined by units now called genes, genes occur in different forms called alleles, dominant alleles mask recessive alleles, and alleles assort independently during gamete formation. Mendel's principles can be used to predict the results of genetic crosses and the inheritance of traits.
1. Gregor Mendel discovered genetics through experiments with pea plants. He found that traits separated and assorted independently during reproduction according to his laws of inheritance.
2. Genes determine traits and exist in different alleles that are passed from parents to offspring. Dominant alleles will be expressed over recessive alleles.
3. Mendel's experiments showed monohybrid and dihybrid inheritance followed predictable ratios through the generations. His work formed the foundations of classical genetics.
Mendel conducted experiments on garden peas to study inheritance of traits. He found that traits are controlled by discrete factors (now known as genes) which segregate during gamete formation according to his laws of inheritance. Some key findings were that dominant traits mask recessive traits in offspring (F1) but both reappear in the F2 generation in a 3:1 ratio. This supported that inheritance factors behave as discrete paired units rather than blending together. Later, chromosomes were found to be the structures that carry genes and segregate during meiosis according to Mendel's laws. Other genetic concepts studied include linkage, sex determination, and causes of genetic disorders.
Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms. Though heredity had been observed for millennia, Gregor Mendel, Moravian scientist and Augustinian friar working in the 19th century in Brno, was the first to study genetics scientifically. Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring over time. He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene.
Trait inheritance and molecular inheritance mechanisms of genes are still primary principles of genetics in the 21st century, but modern genetics has expanded beyond inheritance to studying the function and behavior of genes. Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism (e.g. dominance), and within the context of a population. In science and especially in mathematical studies, a variational principle is one that enables a problem to be solved using calculus of variations, which concerns finding functions that optimize the values of quantities that depend on those functions.
This document defines key terms related to Mendelian genetics and inheritance. It describes Mendel's experiments with pea plants and his conclusions, including his laws of inheritance. Specifically, it discusses Mendel's work on monohybrid crosses and the 3:1 ratio of traits in the F2 generation. It also introduces the chromosomal theory of inheritance proposed by Sutton and Boveri, which linked genes to chromosomes. Finally, it covers the concept of genetic linkage discovered by Morgan, where genes located near each other on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together.
Genetics is the science of heredity, or how traits are passed from parents to offspring. Traits are determined by genes located on chromosomes. Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants in the 1800s laid the foundations for genetics by demonstrating that traits are inherited in predictable patterns depending on whether genes are dominant or recessive. The basic principles of inheritance that Mendel discovered include that each parent contributes half of the offspring's genes, and that dominant traits mask recessive traits. Genetic inheritance can be represented using Punnett squares to predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes.
1. Genetics is the study of heredity, or how traits are passed from parents to offspring.
2. Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the mid-1800s and is considered the founder of genetics. He identified basic principles of heredity by tracking different traits in pea plants over multiple generations.
3. Mendel discovered that traits are controlled by factors, now called genes, which are inherited in pairs and can be dominant or recessive. His work formed the basis for understanding patterns of heredity.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1800s that laid the foundations of modern genetics. Through his work with true-breeding pea plants that differed in traits like plant height, seed shape and color, Mendel was able to deduce three principles of heredity: 1) the law of dominance, which states that some gene variants are dominant over others, 2) the law of segregation, which is that genes separate during gamete formation, and 3) the law of independent assortment, meaning that different genes assort independently of each other. Mendel's discoveries helped explain the patterns of inheritance through the concepts of genes, alleles, dominance, and segregation.
1. The document discusses genetics, inheritance, and Mendel's experiments with pea plants. It defines key genetic terms and concepts.
2. Mendel conducted experiments breeding pea plants with distinct traits like plant height. His findings established basic principles of inheritance including dominance, segregation of alleles, and independent assortment.
3. Mendel determined that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units (now known as genes and alleles) which segregate and sort independently during reproduction.
This document provides information about the history of genetics and key concepts discovered by Gregor Mendel through his experiments with pea plants. It discusses:
- Mendel's experiments on inheritance of traits like plant height and seed color through monohybrid and dihybrid crosses.
- His discovery of the laws of dominance (one allele masks the other) and segregation (alleles separate into gametes independently during reproduction).
- Other genetic concepts like genotypes/phenotypes, homozygosity/heterozygosity, incomplete dominance and codominance that emerged from later experiments building on Mendel's work.
- How Mendel's discoveries established genetics as a science and laid the foundation for understanding inheritance of
This document summarizes Gregor Mendel's pioneering work in genetics and heredity. It explains that Mendel conducted breeding experiments with pea plants in the 1860s, which led him to discover the basic principles of heredity. He found that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units (now known as genes) that can be dominant or recessive. The document defines key genetic terms like genotype, phenotype, monohybrid cross, and Punnett square. It provides examples of how to use a Punnett square to predict the possible genotypes and phenotypes of offspring from a genetic cross.
This document provides an overview of theoretical genetics concepts including:
1) It defines key genetics terms and concepts discovered by Gregor Mendel through his pea plant experiments, including genes, alleles, dominance, segregation, and Punnett squares.
2) It explains Mendel's principles of inheritance including segregation and independent assortment of alleles and how this determines genotype and phenotype probabilities.
3) It discusses extensions of Mendelian genetics including co-dominance, multiple alleles, genetic linkage, sex-linkage, and examples like blood types and hemophilia.
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The document discusses nutrition in bacteria. It explains that bacteria require carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, metals, and water for their biochemical processes. Bacteria are classified as autotrophs or heterotrophs based on their ability to produce or require organic carbon compounds. Autotrophs can produce organic compounds from inorganic sources like carbon dioxide, while heterotrophs require organic carbon sources. The document further describes different types of autotrophs and heterotrophs based on their energy and carbon sources. These include photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs, and chemoheterotrophs. Parasitic, saprophytic, and symbiotic bacteria are also discussed
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Cyanobacteria and their role in nitrogen fixation and rice cultivation are discussed. Cyanobacteria can live in many environments and colonize barren areas due to their photosynthetic abilities. They exist as unicellular, colonial, or filamentous forms. Some cyanobacteria can fix nitrogen symbiotically through associations with plants like Azolla. The Azolla-Anabaena association is an example of biological nitrogen fixation. Application of Azolla mats in rice fields can provide nitrogen and improve soil fertility and rice growth. Other factors like temperature, soil pH and nutrients also impact nitrogen fixation.
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We present the JWST discovery of SN 2023adsy, a transient object located in a host galaxy JADES-GS
+
53.13485
−
27.82088
with a host spectroscopic redshift of
2.903
±
0.007
. The transient was identified in deep James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)/NIRCam imaging from the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) program. Photometric and spectroscopic followup with NIRCam and NIRSpec, respectively, confirm the redshift and yield UV-NIR light-curve, NIR color, and spectroscopic information all consistent with a Type Ia classification. Despite its classification as a likely SN Ia, SN 2023adsy is both fairly red (
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−
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)
∼
0.9
) despite a host galaxy with low-extinction and has a high Ca II velocity (
19
,
000
±
2
,
000
km/s) compared to the general population of SNe Ia. While these characteristics are consistent with some Ca-rich SNe Ia, particularly SN 2016hnk, SN 2023adsy is intrinsically brighter than the low-
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Ca-rich population. Although such an object is too red for any low-
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cosmological sample, we apply a fiducial standardization approach to SN 2023adsy and find that the SN 2023adsy luminosity distance measurement is in excellent agreement (
≲
1
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) with
Λ
CDM. Therefore unlike low-
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Ca-rich SNe Ia, SN 2023adsy is standardizable and gives no indication that SN Ia standardized luminosities change significantly with redshift. A larger sample of distant SNe Ia is required to determine if SN Ia population characteristics at high-
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truly diverge from their low-
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counterparts, and to confirm that standardized luminosities nevertheless remain constant with redshift.
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3. GENETICS ?
The proverb goes- like begets like’. The mother claims the
character of the offspring are identical to grandmother and the
father claims the characters bears by the offspring identical to
grandfather. Is it true? Questions relating to the nature and the
basis for the relationship have occupied the thoughts of man
since the dawn of the human civilization. Initially, the credit
goes to the almighty, God but systematic attempts to seek
answers to these questions began only in the post –renessiau of
the Europe and only in the eighteenth century, several scientists
began to explore the truth behind the truth. The studies lead the
foundation of the journey of the another domain of natural
science and the credit goes to Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-
1884). The branch of biology deals with the cause and
consequences along with the transmission of characters are
called genetics.
4. TERMINOLOGIES
Factor : Mendel presumed that a character is determined by a
pair of factors or determiners (hereditary units) present in each
cells of the individual. These are known as genes in modern
genetics.
Alleles or allelomorphs: allele is a Greek word which means “
belonging to one another”. It is used to refer to one member of
gene pair. According to Mendel, two genes representing two
alternative of a character are present on two separate
chromosomes but as the corresponding loci. For example, in a
gene pair Tt, T is present in one chromosome and t on the other
homologous chromosome but at the same locus., Each of them
is called an allele to the other .T is an allele to t and vice versa.
Locus: The physical location of a particular gene in a
chromosome is called locus or loci.
5. TERMINOLOGIES
Dominance: One member of an allelic pair of genes has the
ability to manifest to itself while the exclusion of the other
member. This is known as dominance. The trait bearing this
character is known as dominant traits. A capital letter (T) is
used to denote it.
Recessive: One of the allelic pair of genes having no ability to
manifest itself during crossing is known as recessive. The trait
bearing such character is called recessive character as
expressed as small letter (t).
Genotype & Phenotype: the genetic make up of an organism is
called genotype and the phenotype indicates its external
appearance. A pure round genotype is (RR) or heterozygous
(Rr).
Homozygous & Heterozygous: Two genes identical(TT) for
particular character is called homozygous but two contrasting
gene pair for particular character (Tt) is called heterozygous.
6. GREGOR JOHAN MENDEL
Born in 1822, Moravia near Brunn in Austria in a poor family,
Mendel initially joined as priest and then studied physics,
Mathematics, Philosophy In Vienna university. He returned to
Brunn, appointed as substitute Science teacher along with
priest in a local church. He began to collect pea seeds for his
experiment for seven years. He presented his findings before
the Natural History Society Of Brunn at two of its meetings
entitled a paper ‘Experiments in plant hybridization’ in 1866;
Mendel became much more involved in his inquisitiveness to
explore the beauty of the transmission of characters. He died on
1884 at the age of 62. He proposed three important principles-
Law of dominance, Law of segregation & law of Independent
assortment. After his death, three scientists ,Hugo de Vries,
Correns & Tschermak rediscovered his findings.
7. WHAT DID MENDEL DO?
The main objects of Mendel experiments basically based on the
determination of pure line characters followed by the cross
pollination of the bisexual plants to establish the desired
outcomes in a repeatedly manner. He chose garden pea, Pisum
sativum with well defined characters for its different
advantages like availability several characters in two
contrasting forms, characters relatively large, plants bi-sexual,
self fertilized and homozygous character, duration of crop
comprises single season, easy to grow and handle etc.
i. Crossed two parents having contrasting characters by
artificial cross pollination using emasculation of bisexual plants
followed by bagging of the designed female one.
ii. The male and female gametes unite randomly to form zygote
iii. If two varieties are crossed, only one trait is expressed
called dominant and others remain hidden called recessive.
8. WHAT DID MENDEL DO?
He gave the formulae for determining the numbers of i0
different types of gametes produced by F1, ii) different
genotypes in F2, iii) homozygous genotypes and iv)
heterozygous genotypes in F2 for the segregation of factors
anticipated for the expression of the phenotypic traits.
He made a clear distinction between the external appearance
(Phenotype) and the genetic make up (genotype). He classified
the F2 individuals with dominant phenotype into pure and
hybrid forms on the basis of types in the succeeding progenies.
On the basis of the observation of the single characters
crossing( Monohybrid), he explored three important outcomes-
Law of unit characters- Each character controlled by one factor
Law of dominance- Phenotypically expressed treated as
dominance.
Law of segregation- Segregations of the two factors having the
chance during gamete formation.
9. MONOHYBRID CROSS
A hybrid that differs with respect of one pair of genes is called
a monohybrid. In the Pea plant, a smooth (SS) seed flower
plant crossed with a wrinkled seed (ss) fives F1 hybrid (Ss) that
are all smooth in seed shape. Such a cross is known as
monohybrid cross. It has in fact a gene for smooth and a gene
(allele) for wrinkle seed shape. Smooth seed shape are
dominant over wrinkle seed shape. The SS peas are pure for
smooth shape and would produce all smooth seed offspring.
The same held true for the ss peas in respect of wrinklelness.
The ss pea seeds are phenotypically smooth but carried the
factor for wrinkleness as a recessive. Two of these crossed
would again give SS. Ss, Ss and ss .The 3:1 ratio is a
phenotype and the genotype ratio (SS: Ss:ss) is 1:2:1 as shown
in the next slide.
10. CHECKER BOARD
Male/Female S s
S SS (Homozygous,
dominant)
Ss (Heterozy7gous,
dominant)
s Ss (Heterozygous,
dominant)
ss (homozygous,
Recessive)
11. MENDEL FINDINGS
From the above experiment, Mendel concluded three important
principles-
Law of unit characters,
Law of dominance,
Law of Segregation.
Law of unit character- This theory advocates the presence of
factor responsible for the expression of a particular character as
experimentally proved by Mendel. The pod shape either
smooth or rough is determined by the presence of unit factors
viz. S &s. If SS or Ss, the phenotypic expression will be
smooth but if it becomes ss, then it will be rough in pure
recessive homozygous form. Thus , the law of unit characters
states the factor responsible for the expression of any unit
character.
12. DETERMINATION OF
HOMOZYGOUS OR HETEROZYGOUS
As told earlier, the character having physical manifestation is
known as phenotypic character and the hidden factor(gene)
responsible for the external manifestation is called genotypic
character. But how it becomes confirms the homozygous or
heterozygous nature of the expression because this is very
important clues before conducting any type of hybridization
programme irrespective or plants or animal hybridization
programme. The test which is consulted in this regard known
as the test cross and it is also a type of back cross as the
crossing is done in between the traits of which the testing
individual derived from the parent one. So, it is usually called
that all test crosses are back cross in other hand. Now question
comes the definition of the test cross and how it is conducted to
have the result in this regard.
13. TEST CROSS
A cross between the F1 hybrid and a strain having the recessive
form of character is known as test cross. The purpose of the test
cross is to obtain evidence that segregation for the alleles as a
single gene in the F1 hybrid produces two types of gametes in
equal frequencies. According to the law of segregation, the F1
(Tt) from a cross between TT & tt seeded pea varieties would
produce gametes of T & t in equal frequencies. The strain with
recessive trait( tt, dwarf) used in test cross, would produce only
one type of gametes i.e t. Union of the gametes from F1 with
those from the test cross parent, therefore, is expected to
produce two type of seeds. Tt (tall) and tt (dwarf). The
frequencies of these two types of seeds are expected to be
equal. Mendel devised and made suitable test cross in this
study. He found that the ratio in test cross progeny was always
1 dominant : 1 recessive that indicate the appearance of
character in equal frequencies.
15. ALL TEST COROSS ARE BACK CROSS BUT
NOT VICE VERSA
A method of verification of an unknown genotype is the
behavior of its alleles in test crosses. It is a crossing the
genotype back to the homozygous recessive parent. Generally,
when F1 is crossed with any of the parent irrespective to
dominant or recessive is called back cross. So, in this logic, all
test crosses are back cross but all back crosses are not test cross
unless the F1 is crossed with homozygous recessive parent. To
test the validity of the theory of inheritance, Mendel used a test
cross in which the F1 plants were mated to recessive
homozygous. The F1 plant heterozygous for a single pair of
alleles should produce two type of germ cells in equal numbers
following meiosis and so yields half of the dominant progeny
and half of the recessive progeny as found in the aforesaid
cross but if it is done with homozygous dominant, all will have
dominant characters.
16. LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
According to this law, the segregation of two or more
characters in the same hybrid is independent to each other.
Thus any allele of one gene is equally likely to combine with
any allele of the other gene and pass into the same gamete.
Independent segregation of two genes produces four different
type of gametes in equal proportion. A random union among
these gametes give rise to 16 possible zygotes. The zygotes
yield a phenotypic ration of 9:3:3:1 which is known as typical
dihybrid ratio. The genotypic ratio is 1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1.As the
two different traits were considered in this context, it is called
dihybrid test .The independent segregation of two genes means
that one of the two alleles of one gene can combine any one of
the two alleles of the other gene and pass into the same gamete.
The frequencies of all such combinations are equal. The result
was confirmed by the hybridization of the consideration of two
characters as follows.
17. DIHYBRID EXPERIMENT
A cross between two parents differing in two traits or in which
only two traits are considered called dihybrid cross. Mendel
raised separately two pure varieties of garden peas, one with
yellow cotyledon, round seed and another with green
cotyledon, wrinkled seed. From the cross between these two
parental (P) generation plants, the offspring’s in the F1
generation were all with yellow cotyledon and round seed.
When these F1 plants were self-fertilized, the offspring’s of F2
generation were of four types in the ratio 9:3:3:1 –
(a) Yellow cotyledon, round seed (b) Yellow cotyledon,
wrinkled seed (c) Green cotyledon, round seed and (d) Green
cotyledon, wrinkled seed. The offspring’s showed that two
pairs of contrasting characters combined in every possible way.
Mendel carried out dihybrid experiments with all the chosen
characters in different combinations and got the similar results.
19. EXPLANATION
1. As the parental plants were pure, so their genotypes will be
homozygous – YYRR and yyrr producing YR and yr gametes
respectively.
2. The F1 dihybrid will be heterozygous for both the traits
(YyRr).
3. As all the F1 plants were with yellow cotyledon and round
seed, so allele Y for yellow cotyledon is dominant over allele y
for green cotyledon and allele R for round seed is dominant
over allele r for wrinkled seed.
4. The appearance of all the four possible phenotypic
combinations in F1 in the ratio 9:3: 3 :1 is possible if the two
pairs of characters are believed to behave independent of each
other. Each pair of contrasting characters bear no permanent
association with particular other character.
20. EXPLANATION
5. If the F1 plant (YyRr) produces only parental gametes (YR,
yr), then in F2 only two types of phenotypes (parental) are
expected. But the appearance of four types of phenotypes in F2
(two parental and two new types) confirms the production of
four types of gametes (YR, Yr, yR, yr) in equal frequency.
The appearance of two new types of phenotypic combinations
– yellow cotyledon, wrinkled seed and green cotyledon, round
seed in addition to parental phenotypic combinations requires
the production of Yr and yR gametes in addition to YR, yr
gametes by F2 plants.
6. Thus the allele Y may be associated with the allele R as well
as r in equal frequency, giving rise to YR and Yr gametes
respectively. Similarly, the allele y may be associated with the
allele R as well as r in equal frequency giving rise to yR and
21. EXPLANATION
yr gametes respectively. Thus four types of gametes viz.’, YR,
Yr, yR and yr will be produced in the ratio 1 : 1 : 1 : 1.
7. These four types of gametes (both male and female) will
unite in sixteen possible combinations to produce nine types of
genotypes in the ratio 1 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 4 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1 and four
types of phenotypes in the ratio 9:3: 3 : 1.
8. The similar ratios will result even if the characters are
present in different parental combinations: yellow cotyledon,
wrinkled seed X green cotyledon, round seed. This further
proves that the inheritance of individual character is
independent of the other characteristics.
Mendel was fortunate in selecting his experimental material. It
is self-fertilizing species but fertile hybrids can be produced
and all the seven characters chosen by him showed independent
assortment without any linkage.
22. GENETIC EXPLANATION
The round yellow & wrinkled green varieties used as parents ,
may be assigned as RRYY & rryy
The round yellow will produce all RY gametes & green
wrinkled will produce ry gametes,
The union between RY & ry gametes from two parents will
produce RrYy progeny in F1,
In the F1, both Rr & Yy will segregate at the same time and
the segregation will take place independently to each other.
In the F2 generation, the selfing in between the two F1 will
produce four different kind of gametes- RY, Ry, rY & ry and
the crossing in between the 4 gametes will produce 16 different
type of combination having 4 altogether phenotypic traits as
told earlier. It indicates, that the two pairs of characters may
stay together but can be assorted independently if they have the
pleasure to do so.
23. DIHYBRID TEST CROSS
Mendel tested his theory by crossing the F1 (double
heterozygous) to a completely recessive i.e wrinkle green. If
Mendel’s hypothesis was correct, the progeny would be of four
kinds: round yellow, round green, wrinkle yellow and wrinkle
green in a ration of 1:1:1:1 as expected from dihybrid
backcross to the double recessive parent. Mendel obtained , in
the test cross progeny, 55 round yellow ( RRYY), 51 round
green (RrYy), 49 wrinkle yellow ( rrYY) and 53 wrinkle green
(rryy). This is approximately the predicted ratio of 1:1:1:1.The
frequencies of four classes was ¼, ¼, ¼ & ¼ yielding the
above ratio. Dihybrid test cross (involving genes segregate
independently) do actually yield four types of progeny in the
ratio of 1:1:1:1. This test also used to know the genotype of the
dominant pair of traits-either homozygous or heterozygous at
the onset of breeding programme in designing And
development.
25. CHROSOMAL BASIS OF INHERITENCE
Mendel findings was in the middle of the 19th century when the
experimental genetics was not in the right track due to lack of
modern appliances and knowhows.In the early of the 20th century,
Mendel findings was rediscovered by a number of his followers and
the darkness about the inheritance of the acquired character and its
transmission became crystal clear. Nowadays, Mendel discovery has
been explained on the basis of the chromosomal basis of inheritance
pattern.
The phenomenon of segregation has been explained on the behavior
of chromosomes during meiosis. According to Mendelism, the two
alleles separate and go to different gametes. In the F1 hybrid, one
allele of one gene is located in one chromosome and the other allele
is present in the other members of homologous chromosomes.
During normal cell division. Two homologous chromosomes pair
during zygotene and each split longitudinally to form two chromatids
being joined with each other in different points.
26. PHYSICAL BASIS OF SEGREGATION
The two bivalents homologous chromosomes each carrying
one of the two alleles , start moving to opposite poles at
anaphase I , as a result, each pole has haploid (N) number of
chromosomes. The two sister chromatids of each chromosome
separate and migrate to opposite poles in anaphase II. The cell
divides into two halves but do not separate after the first
meiotic division. By the end of the telophase II, the one parent
cell produces four daughter cells (tetrad) .Each having one
chromatid from each homologous pair of chromosomes. Two
of the four cells receive the sister chromatids from one of the
two homologues while the other two receive the sister
chromatids from other homologues. So, the two of the four
cells receive the same allele of the gene, while the remaining
two cells contain other allele of the allele pair. Thus, each of
the two nuclei formed after the meiotic division has only one of
the two alleles of every gene.
27. CROSSING OVER FOR SEGREGATION
At prophase stage, each homologous chromosomes of the pair
has two sister chromatids. Occasionally, non-sister chromatids
of a homologous pair of chromosomes exchange similar
portions of their chromosome, a phenomenon called crossing
over. When such crossing over takes place between the genes
and centromere, the sister chromatids of the chromosome as a
result now carry different alleles of the gene in question.
Therefore, a separation of the two chromosomes of a
homologous pair at anaphase I does not lead to segregate of the
two alleles of the gene. The two alleles of the gene, however,
segregate at anaphase II when the sister chromatids of each
chromosome moves to the opposite poles . In such situation,
the two alleles of a gene segregate during second meiotic
division. Thus, the segregation of the homologous
chromosomes during meiosis is the reason behind the
segregation of the two alleles of a gene located in identical
position in the homologous chromosomes.
29. PHYSICAL BASIS OF INDEPENDENT
ASSORTMENT
Independent assortment for two genes can be explained by
assuming that the two genes are located in two different
chromosomes. The two alleles of a gene will be located in the
two homologues of the concerned chromosome. Independent
separation of these two pairs of chromosomes at anaphase I of
meiosis will lead to the independent assortment of the genes
located in them. Two alleles of a gene occupy the same position
in two homologues of a chromosome. The fixed location of a
gene in a specific location is called locus(loci). During
prophase –I , the two chromosomes pairs containing r locus ( R
& r) and y (Y & y) locus form two bivalents. R and r will be
present in one bivalent while Y and y will be present in another.
If the orientations of the two homologues pairs are independent
at metaphase-I, there will be4 four possible combinations of the
two chromosome pairs-RY, Ry, rY, ry in 1:1:1:1.
30. PHYSICAL BASIS OF INDEPENDENT
ASSORTMENT
Thus, an independent movement of the two pairs of
chromosomes , each carrying alleles of one gene , leads to an
independent segregation and assortment of the alleles of the
two genes in question. The independent orientation and
movement of chromosomes can be evidenced under
microscope by heteromorphic homologues pairs of
chromosomes in which the two members differ from each other
in their morphology and form heteromorphic bivalent. Such
heteromorphic pair of unequal size was discovered by
Carothers in 1913 in an insect Brachystola. Thus, an
independent separation of two pairs of chromosomes, each pair
carrying alleles of one of the two genes, will lead to an
independent segregation of the alleles of the two genes.
31. LIMITATIONS OF MENDEL’S LAWS
1. Mendel assumed that characters controlled by a single pair
of genes. But gene interactions result a new trait or modify
trait. Multiple characters control quantitative traits.
2. In each of the seven characters as studied by Mendel,
dominance of one allele over the other was rule. However, in
some cases, the F1 heterozygous was intermediate in between
the two homozygote. This shows incomplete dominance. The
ideal example is the flower color of four o’ clock plant-
Mirabilis jalapa; red flower crossed with white flower appears
pink color that does not follow the Mendelian rule.
3. Mendel predicted of only one alternative forms of each
character he studied. He assumed only two allomorphs of each
locus.-one dominant and other recessive. But multiple alleles
existence reject this concept.
4.Mendel seven characters wren fortunately distributed in
seven different pairs of chromosomes but in other cases,
32. LIMITATIONS OF MENDEL’S LAWS
this does not happen. He did not face the consequences of
linkage and crossing over-the two magic of reality. Had he
studied more characters he would have come up with more
complicated phenomenon of linkage and crossing over. So, he
was quite fortunate enough to have these inferences from his
experiment and this was one of the cause and consequences of
his outstanding performances.
Mendel assumed that factor was particulate but he had no idea
about its biochemical nature and this was quite obvious in his
contemporary. Neither DNA nor the gene and its existence was
explored.
Contrasting characters, mathematical knowledge, experiment
with care and elaborateness are some of the features for his
success in this endeavor.
The limitations of Mendel was an opportunity by his
successors to unfold of new chapter of in this domain.
33. SOME PROBLENS CAN BE ADDRESSED
1. All test crosses are back crosses but not all back crosses are
test crosses-justify.
2.Determine the different gametes produced by the following:
a) Aabb, ii) AABb iii) AaBbDd iv) Tt rR
3.In man, brown eyes (B) are dominant over blue(b) and dark
hair ® to red (r). A man has brown eyes and red hair. He
marries a woman with blue eyes and dark hair. Give the
genotypes and phenotypes of the parent and children.
4.A dwarf pea plant with yellow seeds is crossed with tall plant
with green seeds. Give the genotypes and phenotypes of F1, the
gametes produced by F1 and the genotypes and phenotypes
with checker board.
5.An individual having three pairs of chromosomes has
received the centromeres. A, B, and D from his father and a, b,
and d from mother. List the various combinations of
centromeres obtaining its gametes.( Consider the centromeres
as genes)
34. CONCLUSION
Mendel was considered as “father of genetics’ due to his urge
to explore the cause and consequences about the cause of the
biological characters and its mode of transmission following
the rule of mathematics in inheritance pattern. William Batson (
1909) stated “ The study of heredity thus becomes an organized
branch of physiological science, already abundant in results,
and in promise unsurpassed”. Although the principles of
Mendel laid the foundations of genetics, still, it developed a lot
of questions after the post- Mendelian research outcomes.
Irrespective of monohybrid, dihybrid or trihybrid experiments,
different other issues like incomplete dominance, lethal factor,
multiple alleles, pleiotropy, co-dominance, complementary
gene interaction, supplementary gene action, epistasis,
hypostasis etc are now become crystal clear as far as the cause
and consequences that to be explored in the next PPT.
35. THANKS FOR YOUR JOURNEY
References:
1. Google for images,
2. Principles of Genetics- Basu & Hossain,
3. A textbook of Botany (Vol III) Ghosh, Bhattacharya, Hait
4. Fundamentals of Genetics- B.D. Singh,
5.A Textbook of genetics- Ajoy Paul
This presentation has been made without any financial interest,
to enrich open source of information. The presenter
acknowledges the followings to develop this PPT.