This document discusses gender differences in leadership styles and effectiveness. It notes that while men and women can be equally effective leaders, women are more likely to use democratic and transformational leadership styles, whereas men are more likely to use negative incentives. The document also examines the "glass ceiling" and "labyrinth" metaphors for the barriers that women face in advancing to top leadership positions compared to men, despite gaining more education and experience. It analyzes potential explanations like gender differences, human capital factors, and prejudice, as well as strategies for closing the gender gap at both the individual and societal levels.

1. Leadership and Gender
Presented by:
Crystal Gordon
Jennifer Jantz
Jessica Mendez
University of Southern California School of Social Work
Professor Eva Reina
SOWK 611
March 26, 2016

2. Gender Styles & Effectiveness
Differences
• Women less likely to:
– Self-promote
– initiate negotiation
• Women more likely to use:
– Democratic (participative)
– Transformational styles
Similarities
• Men & women equally
effective leaders
• Both more effective when
leadership role is congruent
with their gender
• Both equally committed to
employment roles &
motivated to attain
leadership roles
Northouse, P. G. (2015). Women and Leadership In Leadership: Theory and practice (7th ed. Chapter 15, pp. 401-408).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

3. Gender Differences
WOMEN
• More likely to use
– Positive reward based
incentives
• More likely to receive
– backlash for adopting
masculine traits
• Exceed men on culturally
feminine components
– Support & mentoring
• Promote public good more
MEN
• More likely to use
– Negative threat based
incentives
• May not accept
– Transformational leadership
from women
Eagly, A. H. (2013). WOMEN AS LEADERS: Leadership Style Versus Leaders’ Values and Attitudes. Retrieved March 22,
2016, from http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/conferences/2013-w50-research-symposium/Documents/eagly.pdf

4. Glass Ceiling/Labyrinth
• In recent years, the predicament of female leaders is improving but there is
still a long way to go.
• Keep in mind: women earn 57% of the bachelor’s degrees, 60% of the
master’s degrees, and over 50% of the doctorial degrees
• Half of all management and professional positions and a quarter of all CEO
positions are occupied by women.
• But, less than 17% of top positions with Fortune 500 companies and only 20%
of US congress are women

5. Glass Ceiling/Labyrinth
• The “invisible barrier” that does not allow women to rise
above a certain leadership level was termed the “glass ceiling”
in 1986.
• Those who feel this is not an accurate portrayal prefer
“leadership labyrinth,” which implies a journey of challenges.
• Both terms refer to the global issue of a gender gap with
women disproportionately relegated to lower-level and lower-
authority leadership positions compared to men.

6. Glass Ceiling/Labyrinth
• Three types of explanations for the gender gap have been
offered:
1) Gender Differences
Style and Effectiveness
Commitment and Motivation
Self-Promotion
Negotiation
Traits
2) Human Capital
Education
Work Experience
Developmental Opportunities
Work-Home conflict
3) Prejudice
Gender Stereotypes
Biased Perception and
Evaluations
Vulnerability and Reactance
Cross Pressures

7. Glass Ceiling/Labyrinth
• Successful navigation of the labyrinth is increasing because:
– Changes in workplace norms & development opportunities for women
– Greater gender equity in domestic responsibilities
– Greater negotiation power of women (work/home balance)
– Effectiveness and predominance of women-owned businesses
– Changes in the incongruity between women and leadership.

8. Glass Ceiling/Labyrinth Example
• The Institute for Women’s Policy Research ranks Louisiana 49th
for equal pay, women’s overall earning potential, and labor
force participation
•
Louisiana women earn $0.667 for every $1 a man earns.
•
Nationally, women earn $0.78 for every $1 a man earns.

9. Glass Ceiling/Labyrinth Example
• Based on current trends, Louisiana women will see equal
pay in 2106.
• Nationally, the projection is 2058.
• Women employed full-time in Louisiana earn a median
annual wage of $32,000 compared for $48,000 for men.

10. Success Navigation of the Labyrinth
• The key to organizational success is acknowledging and
trying to understanding the dynamics of leadership and
gender.
• It is about equal opportunity and diversity!

11. Closing the Gap at a micro level
Changes in individual and interpersonal levels
• The role of prejudice and appropriate gender roles in society
beginning at childhood
• Children develop their gender identity by age 3
• According to Fiske (2008), people appreciate girls cuteness
and boys achievements, toys, sports, and clothes are gender
specific
• People need to adopt behaviors such as individualism and
interpersonal motivation to overcome biases.
• Women use of effective negotiation (at work and home) to
augment their leadership advancement

12. Closing the Gap at a
Macro Level
Changes in organizational and societal levels
• According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 1995 76% of
women between 25-54 worked outside the home.
• 47% of white women and women of color make up the
workplace
• In a societal level, with more female presence in the workplace
structural changes in distribution of child rearing and domestic
duties need to made

13. Case Studies
Women can no longer be discriminated in the workplace, however
it comes with a price.
• The amount of time fathers spend with their children under 13
on workdays has increased from 2-3 three hours
• At the same time, the amount of time mothers spend with
their children under 13 on workdays has remained constant at
an average of 3.8 hours.
Thus, mothers still spend significantly more time per workday,
caring for their children than fathers.
Child Care

14. Case Studies Continued
Cooking
• The percentage of women who say they do most of the cooking has dropped
from 75% in 1992 to 67% in 2008
• The percentage of men who report they do most or an equal share of
cooking has increased substantially since 1992, from 34% to 55% in 2008
Cleaning
• While a significantly larger percentage of men say they are involved in
cleaning responsibilities in 2008 (53%) than in 1992 (40%), women do not
report any change over that period.
• Working mothers do 20 hours of housework each week, compared to
working fathers, who do 10.

15. The more things change…
• Rather than blaming each other for the situation, men and
women are increasingly willing to work together to learn about
their new roles. Successful marriage partners learn to negotiate
and share tasks. Managers take employees aside and tell them
when comments are inappropriate. It will take time to sort out
all the implications of the changing gender roles of Americans,
but new expectations should result in better workplaces, better
relationships, better schools, and better lives.

16. References
Eagly, A. H. (2013). WOMEN AS LEADERS: Leadership Style Versus Leaders’ Values and
Attitudes. Retrieved March 22, 2016, from http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/conferences/2013-w50-
research-symposium/Documents/eagly.pdf
Galinsky, E., Aumann, K., & Bond, J. (2008). Times are changing: Gender and generation at
work and at home. Retrieved from
http://familiesandwork.org/site/research/reports/Times_Are_Changing.pdf
Larino, J. (March 13, 2015). Equal Pay For Louisiana Women Still A Century Away. The
Times-Picayune. Retrieved from www.nola.com
Northouse, P. G. (2015). Women and Leadership In Leadership: Theory and practice (7th ed.
Chapter 15, pp. 401-408). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage