The document provides an overview of electrophoresis, a technique used for separating charged biomolecules in an electric field based on their physical characteristics such as charge, mass, and shape. It discusses the principles and mechanics of gel electrophoresis, including the types of gels used, such as agarose and acrylamide, as well as the specific techniques like SDS-PAGE and isoelectric focusing. The applications of gel electrophoresis span various fields including forensics, molecular biology, and the food industry.

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2. Introduction
• Positive or negative electrical charges are frequently
associated with biomolecules.
• When placed in an electric field, charged biomolecules
move towards the electrode of opposite charge due to
the phenomenon of electrostatic attraction.
• Electrophoresis is the separation of charged molecules
in an applied electric field.
• The relative mobility of individual molecules depends
on several factors such as net charge, charge/mass
ratio,molecular shape and the temperature, porosity
and viscosity of the matrix.
• Complex mixtures can be separated to very high
resolution by this process.
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3. Principle of Electrophoresis
If a mixture of electrically charged biomolecules is
placed in an electric field of field strength
E, they will freely move towards the electrode of
opposite charge. However, different
molecules will move at quite different and
individual rates depending on the physical
characteristics of the molecule and on
experimental system used. The velocity or
movement, ν, of a charged molecule in an electric
field depends on variables described by
ν= E.q / f (1)
where f is the frictional coefficient and q is the
net charge on the molecule
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4. The frictional coefficient describes frictional
resistance to mobility and depends on a
number of factors such as mass of the
molecule, its degree of compactness, buffer
viscosity and the porosity of the matrix in
which the experiment is performed. The net
charge is determined by the number of
positive and negative charges in the molecule.
Charges are conferred on proteins by amino
acid side chains as well as by groups arising
from post translational modifications such as
deamidation, acylation or phosphorylation.
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5. Gel electrophoresis
Hydrated gel networks have many desirable properties for
electrophoresis. They allow a wide variety of mechanically
stable experimental formats such as horizontal/vertical
electrophoresis in slab gels or electrophoresis in tubes or
capillaries. The mechanical stability also facilitates post
electrophoretic manipulation making further experimentation
possible such as blotting, electro-elution or MS identification
/finger printing of intact proteins or of proteins digested in gel
slices. Since gels used in biochemistry are chemically rather
unreactive, they interact minimally with biomolecules during
electrophoresis allowing separation based on physical rather
than chemical differences between sample components
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7. Gel types
In general the macromolecules solution is
electrophoresed through some kind of matrix.
The matrix acts as a molecular sieve to aid in the
separation of molecules on the basis of size. The
kind of supporting matrix used depends on the
type of molecules to be separated and on the
desired basis for separation: charge, molecular
weight or both (Dolnik, V.; 1997). The most
commonly used materials for the separation of
nucleic acids and proteins are agarose and
acrylamide.
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8. Table 1. above shows some media used for Gel Electrophoresis
Agarose: The most widely used polysaccharide gel matrix nowadays is that
formed with agarose. This is a polymer composed of a repeating
disaccharide unit called agarobiose which consists of galactose and 3,6-
anhydrogalactose (Fig. 1). Agarose gives a more uniform degree of porosity
than starch and this may be varied by altering the starting concentration of
the suspension (low concentrations give large pores while high
concentrations give smaller pores). This gel has found wide spread use
especially in the separation of DNA molecules
LIMITATION: limited mechanical stability
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9. Acrylamide: A far stronger gel suitable for electrophoretic
separation of both proteins and nucleic acids, may be formed
by the polymerization of acrylamide. The inclusion of a small
amount of acrylamide cross linked by a methylene bridge (N,N′
methylene bisacrylamide) allows formation of a cross linked gel
with a highly-controlled porosity which is also mechanically
strong and chemically inert.
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10. .
The polymerization reaction is
initiated by persulphate radicals and catalyzed by
N,N,N’,N’-tetramethylethylendiamine(TEMED).
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11. Staining of gel
One of the most important aspects of gel
electrophoresis technique is staining. Once
sample molecules have separated in the gel
matrix it is necessary to visualize their
position. This is achieved by staining with an
agent appropriate for the sample. Some of the
more common staining methods used in
biochemistry are listed in Table below.
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13. Preparation and running of standard agarose gels
The equipment and supplies necessary for conducting agarose gel
electrophoresis are relatively simple and include:
1.An electrophoresis chamber and power supply
2.Gel casting trays, which are available in a variety of sizes and
composed of Uv transparent plastic. The open ends of the trays are
closed with tape while the gel is being cast, then removed prior to
electrophoresis.
3.Sample combs, around which molten medium is poured to form
sample wells in the gel.
4.Electrophoresis buffer, usually Tris-acetate-EDTA (TAE) or Tris-
borate-EDTA (TBE).
5.Loading buffer, which contains something dense (e.g. glycerol) to
allow the sample to "fall" into the sample wells, and one or two
tracking dyes, which migrate in the gel and allow visual monitoring or
how far the electrophoresis has proceeded. 13

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15. Staining: DNA molecules are easily visualized
under an ultraviolet lamp when
electrophoresed in the presence of ethidium
bromide.
Alternatively, nucleic acids can be stained
after electrophoretic separation by soaking
the gel in a solution of ethidium bromide.
NOTE:
Ethidium bromide is a known mutagen and
should be handled as a hazardous chemical -
wear gloves while handling
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16. Transilluminator (an ultraviolet light box),
which is used to visualize stained DNA in
gels.
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17. Types of Gel Electrophoresis
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18. SDS-PAGE Electrophoresis
• SDS-PAGE is an analytical technique to separate
proteins based on their molecular weight. separates
proteins primarily by mass.
• Non denaturing PAGE, also called native PAGE,
separates proteins according to their mass:charge
ratio.
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19. When proteins are separated by electrophoresis
through a gel matrix, smaller proteins migrate faster
due to less resistance from the gel matrix. Other
influences on the rate of migration through the gel
matrix include the structure and charge of the proteins.
In SDS-PAGE, the use of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS,
also known as sodium lauryl sulfate) and
polyacrylamide gel largely eliminates the influence of
the structure and charge, and proteins are separated
solely based on polypeptide chain length.
SDS is a detergent with a strong protein-denaturing
effect and binds to the protein backbone at a constant
molar ratio. In the presence of SDS and a reducing
agent that cleaves disulfide bonds critical for proper
folding, proteins unfold into linear chains with negative
charge proportional to the polypeptide chain length
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22. NATIVE PAGE
• Native page electrophoresis is run in absence of SDS.
• Here, the mobility depends upon both the protein’s charge
and its hydrodynamic size.
• If native page is carried out near neutral pH to avoid acid or
alkaline denaturation.
• Then it can be used to study confirmation, self association or
aggregation .
ADVANTAGE:
It is possible to recover proteins in their native state after the
separation.
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23. ISOELECTRIC FOCUSING
• It is a technique for separating different molecules by
differences in their isoelectric point.
• It is a type of zone electrophoresis which is performed
on proteins in a gel.
• Separation is achieved by applying a potential difference
across a gel that contains a pH gradient.
• It requires a solid support such as agarose gel and
polyacrylamide gel
• All proteins have isoelectric point pH.
• Proteins migrate to the point where net charge is zero.
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24. Applications
1. Gel electrophoresis is used in forensics, molecular
biology, genetics, microbiology and biogenetics.
2. Estimation of size of DNA molecules following
restriction enzymes digestion e.g. In restriction
mapping of cloned DNA.
3. Analysis of lipoproteins.
4. Used in DNA fingerprinting.
5. Used for DNA sequencing.
6. separation of organicacids,alkaloids,carbohydrates ,
amino acids and nucleic acids
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25. 7.Used in food industry.
8. Used for separating Protein mixtures.
9. Separation of serum proteins.
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26. BIBLIOGRAPHY
• https://www.intechopen.com/books/gel-electrophoresis-principles-
and-basics/gel-electrophoresis-and-its-applications
• https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-
technology/dna-sequencing-pcr-electrophoresis/a/gel-
electrophoresis
• http://chemfuuast.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/8/9/12894433/presen
tation_on_electrophoresis_by_dr_shah_ali-ul-qadir.pdf
• https://biologydictionary.net/gel-electrophoresis/
• http://ruo.mbl.co.jp/bio/g/support/method/sds-page.html
• https://www.slideshare.net/udayarajitha/gel-electrophoresis-
64123389?qid=6d6a4a18-4530-4360-8b2b-
61cbcd1dd785&v=&b=&from_search=2
• https://www.slideshare.net/mbn1994/introduction-principle-
instrumentation-and-applications-of-sdspage-55728195
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