This document provides information on the principles and techniques of electrophoresis. It begins with an introduction to electrophoresis as the migration of charged particles under an electric field. It then discusses various factors that affect electrophoresis like net charge, size, shape, buffer properties, and temperature. The document goes on to describe different types of electrophoresis techniques in detail, including paper electrophoresis, gel electrophoresis using agarose or polyacrylamide gels, SDS-PAGE, isoelectric focusing, two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, isotachophoresis, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, and immunoelectrophoresis. It explains the basic principles, applications, advantages and disadvantages of each technique.

1. Dr. D Y Patil Arts Commerce And Science College
Pimpri Pune 411018
Chemistry Department
Mrs. Tarannum S Attar

4. CONTENT
Introduction
Principle
Factorsaffecting
Conventionalelectrophoresis
Generaloperation
Technicaland practicalConsideration
Typesofelectrophoresis
3

5. INTRODUCTION
Electrophoresis is the migration of charged particles
or molecules in a medium under the influence of an
applied electric field.
4

6. The rate of migration of an ion in electrical field depend on
factors,
o Net charge of molecule
o Size and shape of particle
o Strength of electrical field
o Properties of supporting medium
o Temperature of operation
o Ionic strength of buffer

10. Peak broadening of samples
Decrease resolution
Formation of temperature gradient –convection current -
resulting mixing of analytes
Denaturation of enzymes and proteins
Effect of heat

11. H=I2R

12. Electro endosmosis

17. Cathode
Anode

19. Conventionalelectrophoresis
18

20. Buffer
The bufferin electrophoresishastwofoldpurpose:
Carry appliedelectricalcurrent
Theyset the pH atwhichelectrophoresisiscarried out.
Thustheydetermine;
Typeof chargeon solute.
Extentofionizationof solute
Electrodetowardswhichthe solutewill migrate.
Thebufferionicstrengthwilldeterminethe thicknessofthe
ionic cloud.
19

23. Commonly buffersused;
Buffer
22
pH value
Phosphate buffer around7.0
Tris-Borate-EDTAbuffer(TBE) around8.0
Tris-Acetate EDTAbuffer(TAE) above8.0
TrisGlycine buffer(TG) more than8.5
Tris-Citrate-EDTAbuffer (TCE) around7.0
Tris-EDTAbuffer(TE) around8.0
Tris-Maleic acid -EDTAbuffer(TME) around7.5
Lithium Borate - buffer(LB) around8.6

24. Supporting medium
Supporting medium is a matrix in which the
protein separation takes place.
V
arious type has been used for the separation
either on slab or capillary form.
Separation is based on charge and mass of
protein,depending on the pore size of the
medium.
23

25. Chemical nature Inert
Availability easy
Electrical conductivity high
Adsorptivity low
Sievingeffect desirable
Porosity controlled
Transparency high
Electro-endosmosis(EEO) low
Preservation feasible
Toxicity low
Preparation easy

26. - Starchgel
- Celluloseacetate
- Agarose
- Polyacrylamidegel
25

27. TYPES OF ELECTROPHORESIS
1)Zone Electrophoresis
a)Paper Electrophoresis
b)Gel Electrophoresis
c)Cellulose acetate Electrophoresis
d)Isoelectric Focusing
e)ImmunoElectrophoresis
2)Moving Boundary Electrophoresis
a)Capillary Electrophoresis
b)Isotachophoresis
39

28. PAPER ELECTROPHORESIS

29.  Filter paper such as Whatmann no1 and no 3mm in strip of 3 or 5cm
wide have been used.
 Separation takes place in 12 to14hrs.
ADVANTAGES:
 It is economical.
 Easy to use.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Certain compounds such as proteins, hydrophilic molecules cannot be
resolved properly due to the adsorptive and ionogenic properties of paper
which results in tailing and distortion of componentbands.
 Electro osmosis.

30.  Separation is brought about through molecular sieving technique,
based on the molecular size of the substances. Gel material acts as
a "molecular sieve”.
 Gel is a colloid in a solid form (99% is water).
 It is important that the support media is electrically neutral.
 Different types of gels which can be used are; Agar and Agarose
gel, Starch, Polyacrylamide gels.
2
Gel electrophoresis

31. Agarose Gel
(made-up of repeat unit of
30
unit of galactose and 3,6-
 A linear polysaccharide
agarobiose-alternating
anhydrogalactose).
 Used in conc as 1% and 3%.
 The gelling property are attributed to both inter- and
intramolecular hydrogen bonding
 Pore size is controlled by the % of agarose used.
 Large pore size are formed with lower conc and vice versa.
 Purity of the agarose is based on the number of sulphate
conc, lower the conc of sulphate higher is the purity of
agarose.

32. Resolution is superior to that of
filter paper.
Large quantities of proteins can be
separated and recovered.
It adsorbs proteins relatively less
when compared to other medium.
agar tend to give different
results and purification isoften
31
necessary.
Sharp zones are obtained due to less
adsorption.
APPLICATION:
Toseparate DNA, proteins, Hb variants, iso-enzymes etc.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Resolution is less compared
to polyacrylamide gels.
 Different sources and batches of
ADVANTAGES:
Easy to prepare and small
concentration of agar is required.

35. 4

43. TYPES OF ELECTROPHORESIS
1)Zone Electrophoresis
a)Paper Electrophoresis
b)Gel Electrophoresis
c)Cellulose acetate Electrophoresis
d)Isoelectric Focusing
e)ImmunoElectrophoresis
2)Moving Boundary Electrophoresis
a)Capillary Electrophoresis
b)Isotachophoresis
39

44. POLYACRYLAMIDE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS
Frequently referred to as PAGE.
Cross-linked polyacrylamide gel are formed from the
polymerization of the monomer in presence of small amount
of N,N”-methylene- bisacrylamide.
Bisacrylamide – two acrylamide linked by the methylene group.
The polymerization of the acrylamide is an example for free
radical catalysis.
Made in conc. between 3-30% acrylamide.
low % has large pore size and vice versa.
43

46. SDS-PAGE
Sodium dodecyl sulphate- polyacrylamide
gel electrophoresis.
Most widely used method for analysing protein
mixture qualitatively.
Useful for monitoring protein purification – as separation
of protein is based on the size of the particle.
Can also be used for determining the relative molecular
mass of a protein.
45

47. Mercaptoethanolwillbreakthe disulphidebridges.
SDSbindsstronglyto anddenaturesthe protein.
Eachproteinis fullydenatured and open into rod-shapewith
seriesofnegativelychargedSDSmoleculeon polypeptide chain.
SDSisananionic
detergent.
The sample is first
boiled for 5min in
buffercontaining
• Beta-
Mercaptoethanol
• SDS
46

48. On average, One SDS molecule bind for every two
amino acid residue.
Hence original native charge is completely swamped by
the negative charge of SDS molecule.
47

49. Components
48

53. Stacking gel:
ordering/arrangingand conc. the macromoleculebefore
entering the fieldofseparation. (4% ofacrylamide)
Purpose is to concentrate protein sample in sharp band
beforeit enters main separatinggel.
Running gel:
the actualzoneof separationof the particle/molecules based
on their mobility.(15%of acrylamide)

55. Movementofparticle
[Cl]> [protein-SDS]> [Glycinate]
54

56. 55

58. - Researchtool
- Measuringmolecularweight
- Peptidemapping
- Proteinidentification
- Determination of samplepurity
- Separationofproteins and
establishing size
- Blotting
- Smaller fragments ofDNA
APPLICATION:

59. ADV
ANT
AGES:
-Gels are stable over wide range of pH and
temperature.
-Gels of different pore size can be formed.
-Simple and separation speed is good comparatively.
-Exhibitreasonablemechanicalstrength
-Low endosmosiseffect
DISADV
ANT
AGES
-Gel preparationand castingis time-consuming
-carcinogenic
-Completereproducibilityofgelpreparationnot possible

60. STAINING:
Fluorescentstains- Ethidiumbromide – Nucleicacids
Silverstainfor proteingel(sensitive50 timesdyebased)
Dyebased– Coomassieblue–proteinband
Trackingdyes– BPB>xylenecyanol

61. Native(buffer)gel
Donebyusingthepolyacrylamidegel(7.5%).
SDSis absent.
pH of8.7
Proteinsareseparatedaccordingto the electrophoretic
mobility&Sievingeffectofthe gel.
60

62. Isoelectricfocussing
of the
First described by- H.Svensson in Sweden.
Method is ideal for the separation
amphoteric substances.
Method has high resolution.
Able to separate the protein which differ in isoelectric
point by as little as little 0.01 of pH unit.
61

63. Differentgradient of thepH along
the lengthof the separatinggel.
62

64. Establishmentof phgradient:
This is achieved by the ampholyte & must have following
prop:
Must dictate pH course (buffering capacity at their pI)
Should have conductance at their pI.
Low molecular weight
Soluble in water
Low light absorbance at 280nm.
Available commercially with pH band (3-11)
Eg: Ampholine, Pharmalyte and Bio-lyte.
63

65. 64

66. Movement
65

67. Application:
- Highlysensitiveforstudyingthemicroheterogeneity of
proteins
- Usefulforseparatingthe isoenzymes.
- Researchinenzymology,immunology
- Forensic,foodandagriculture industry
66

68. Two-dimensional polyacrylamide
gel electrophoresis
Principle:
Techniquecombineswith
IEFasfirstdimensional.
• Whichseparateaccordingto
thecharge.
Seconddimensionby
SDS-PAGE
• Separateaccording molecular
size.
67

69.  This combinationgives sophisticated analytical method
for analysing the protein mixture.
 Size very from 20*20cm to the minigel.
 IEF is carried on acrylamide gel (18cm*3mm), with
8M urea.
68
for further
 After separation, placed on 10% SDS-PAGE
separation .
 Usedinfieldof proteomics.
 Canseparate1000to 3000proteinsfromthe cellor tissueextract.

70. 69

71. Isotachophoresis
 Used for separation of smaller ionic substances.
 They migrate adjacent in contact with one another, but not
overlapping.
 The sample is not mixed with the buffer prior to run.
 Hence current flow is carried entirely by the sample ions.
 Faster moving ions migrate first and the adjacent ones next
with no gap between the zone .

72. Allionsmigrateatthe rate offastestionin zones.
Thenit ismeasuredbyUVabsorbance.
Application-
Separationofsmallanionsand cations
Aminoacids
Peptides
Nucleotides
Nucleosides
Proteins.
71

73. Pulsed-FieldElectrophoresis
Powerisappliedalternativelyto differentpair ofelectrodes
Electrophoreticfieldiscycledat 105-1800
Becauseofwhichthemoleculehaveto orient to thenewfielddirection
Thispermit separationoflargemoleculelike DNA.
Applied:for typingvariousstrainsof DNA.
72

75. under an
 Immunoelectrophoresis refers to precipitation in agar
electric field.
 It is a process of combination of immuno-diffusionand
electrophoresis.
 An antigen mixture is first separated into its component parts by
electrophoresis and then tested by double immuno-diffusion.
 Antigens are placed into wells cut in a gel (without antibody) and
electrophoresed. A trough is then cut in the gel into which
antibodies are placed.
 The antibodies diffuse laterally to meet diffusing antigen, and
lattice formation and precipitation occur permitting determination
of the nature of the antigens.
 The term “immunoelectrophoresis” was first coined by Grabar and
Williams in 1953.
Immuno electrophoresis

76. Principle
When electric current is applied to a slide layered with
gel, antigen mixture placed in wells is separated into
individual antigen components according to their
charge and size. Following electrophoresis, the
separated antigens are reacted with specific antisera
placed in troughs parallel to the electrophoretic
migration and diffusion is allowed to occur. Antiserum
present in the trough moves toward the antigen
components resulting in formation of separate
precipitin lines in 18-24 hrs, each indicating reaction
between individual proteins with itsantibody.

77. -Precipitation reactions arebasedon the interaction of antibodies andantigens.They
are based on two soluble reactants that come together to makeone insoluble
product, the precipitate(Figure).
-Thesereactions depend on the formation of lattices (cross-links) when antigen and
antibody existin optimal proportions.[ it isknown aszoneofequivalence andappears
to us asprecipitation].
-Excessof either component reduceslattice formation andsubsequentprecipitation.

80. Procedure
Agarose gel is prepared on a glass slide put in a horizontal position.
Using sample template, wells are borne on the application zone carefully.
The sample is diluted 2:3 with protein diluent solution (20μl antigen solution
+10 μl diluent).
Using a 5 μl pipette, 5 μl of control and sample is applied across each
corresponding slit (Control slit and Sample slit).
The gel is placed into the electrophoresis chamber with the samples on the
cathode side, and electrophoresis run for 20 mins/ 100 volts.
After electrophoresis completes, 20 μl of the corresponding antiserum is added
to troughs in moist chamber and incubated for 18- 20 hours at room
temperature on a horizontal position.
The agarose gel is placed on a horizontal position, and dried with blotter
sheets.
The gel in saline solution is soaked for 10 minutes and the drying and washing
repeated twice again.
The gel is dried at a temperature less than 70°C and may be stained with

81. Results
o Presence of elliptical precipitin arcs represents antigen-
antibody interaction.
o Absence of formation of precipitate suggests no
reaction.
o Different antigens (proteins) can be identified based on
the intensity, shape, and position of the precipitation
lines.

82. Applications
The test helps in identification and approximate quantization of
various antigens in immunology.
suspected monoclonal and polyclonal gammopathies.
Used to analyze complex protein mixtures containingdifferent
antigens.
The medical diagnostic use is of value where certain proteins are
suspected of being absent (e.g., hypogammaglobulinemia) or
overproduced (e.g., multiple myeloma).
This method is useful to monitor antigen and antigen-antibody
purity and to identify a single antigen in a mixture ofantigens.

83. 50μm – ID.
300 μm –ED.
Length– 50-100cm.
Fusedsilicacapillarytube.
Polyimidecoatingexternal.
Packedwiththebufferin use.
82
oTechnique first described by- Jorgensen and Lukas (1980’s). As the
name suggest, the separationis carried in a narrow bore Capillary
Capillary electrophoresis

84. Components:
83

85. Sampleapplicationisdonebyeitherofone method
Highvoltage
injection
High voltageinjection
The bufferreservoir is
replacedbythe sample
reservoir the high
voltageis applied(+
electrode) buffer
reservoir is placedagain
andvoltageappliedforthe
separation.
Pressure
injection
Pressure injection
Anodicend of capillaryis
removed from bufferand
placedin air tight sample
sol with pressuresample
is pushedintocapillary
kept backin the
buffersampleandvoltage
isapplied.
84

86.  High voltage is applied (up to 50 kV)
 The components migrate at different rate along the length.
 Although separated by the electrophoretic migration, all the
sample is drawn towards cathode by electroendosmosis.
 Since this flow is strong, the rate of electro endosmotic flow is
greater than the Electrophoretic velocity of the analyte ion,
regardless of the charge.
85

87. Positivelychargedmoleculereach the cathodefirst
(electrophoretic migration+ electroosmoticflow).
86

88. DETECTION:
87

89. Troubleshooting :
Adsorption of protein to the wall of capillary – leading to
smearing of protein – viewed as peak broadening – or
complete loss of protein.
- Use of neutral coating group to the inner surface of
the capillary.
88

90. clinical
applications
include
Multiplemyelomatesting
Haemoglobinopathy
screening.
HbA1c
Monitoringchronic
alcoholism(GGT).

91. • Online detection.
• Improved quantification.
• Almost complete automation.
• Reduced analysis time.
90
Advantageover conventional

92. Microchipelectrophoresis
Current advanced method.
Development in technique include
Integrated microchip design
Advanced detection system
separation can be
91
New application
Protein and DNA
done

93. Instrumentation
Similarto thecapillaryelectrophoresis.
Separationchannel
Sampleinjection(50-100pL)
Reservoirs
V
oltage(1-4kV)
samplepreparation
Precolumnor postcolumnreactors.
ClassicalCross-T design.
Timeperiodof 50-200sec.
92

94. Detector :
Laserinducedfluorescence
Electrochemical detectors
Pulsedamperometricdetector
Sinusoidalvoltametry
93

95. References
Tietz- Textbookofclinicalchemistry.
Kaplan- clinicalchemistry.
YouTubeand Googleimages.
95

96. THANK
YOU