Geert Driessen & Michiel van der Grinten (1994) SEE Home language proficiency in the Netherlands. The evaluation of Turkish and Moroccan bilingual programmes - A critical review.
This document provides an overview of the state of foreign language teaching and transition between primary and secondary education in several European countries. It describes key issues around FL teaching policies, curricula, starting ages, languages taught, methodologies used, and teacher training in countries like Austria, France, Germany, Hungary, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. National reports within the document analyze transition from different perspectives of teachers, students, parents and more. Each report also identifies specific needs within that country's educational system to help make the transition between primary and secondary school smoother for foreign language learning.
Report and evaluation of the Development of CLIL Programs in CataloniaNeus Lorenzo
Article conjunt de Neus Lorenzo i Inmaculada Piqué sobre els programes internacionals i de llengua estrangera a Catalunya. (2013). Universitat de Barcelona. Ref: https://www.raco.cat/index.php/TempsEducacio/article/view/274640/362671
Catalan Language in Education (In Transit #27)Miqui Mel
The issue of Catalan language in education is controversial in Spain. Catalonia has adopted a model where Catalan is the primary language of instruction to ensure students learn both Catalan and Spanish, while the Valencian region allows parents to choose the language of instruction. Pressure from Spanish nationalist politicians to reduce the role of Catalan in education has increased in recent years, including court rulings limiting its use and new laws in the Balearic Islands. Supporters argue the Catalan model works and students learn both languages well, but opponents claim it denies the right to choose Spanish.
This article discusses how English language classes in Greek schools could shift from a focus on English as a foreign language to developing students' multicultural awareness. It introduces the concept of Multicultural Awareness Through English (MATE) as an alternative teaching paradigm. MATE aims to help students understand and appreciate cultural diversity, develop intercultural skills, and recognize how language expresses cultural attitudes. The article argues MATE aligns with Greece's new Cross-Thematic Curriculum Framework, which emphasizes multiculturalism and preparing students for life in a diverse society.
The document discusses the history and types of bilingual education in the Philippines. It outlines how bilingual education evolved from primarily using English for instruction to adopting a policy of using Filipino and English as official languages, with certain subjects taught in either Filipino or English. The goals of bilingual education in the Philippines are to develop competence in both Filipino and English and further enrich Filipino as the national language.
the implementation of bilingual education systemtaqiudinzarkasi
This document discusses the implementation of a bilingual education system using Indonesian and English at Frater Private Junior High School in Maumere. It describes the immersion model used, in which students learn content subjects in both English and Indonesian. Teaching is done through cooperative teaching between an English teacher and teachers of other subjects. The implementation aims to prepare students for a globalized world by developing their English skills alongside their Indonesian education.
The Greek speaking Minority Education in Istanbul: how open is it?LangOER
This document summarizes a presentation on the Greek speaking minority education in Istanbul. It discusses the historical context of the Greek Orthodox minority population in Istanbul and nearby islands, which has declined significantly over time due to emigration and language shift toward Turkish. It describes the current bilingual educational system for the minority, where some subjects are taught in Greek and others in Turkish, according to the Treaty of Lausanne. However, it notes that Greek language instruction and materials are limited. Overall the presentation examines factors contributing to the loss of Greek language use among the minority population and explores whether open educational resources could help address this issue.
The filipino bilingualism from a sociolingustic perspectiveTrenz
The document discusses the profile of the Filipino bilingual from a sociolinguistic perspective. It covers their identity, language attitudes and motivations, language use patterns, code switching behaviors, and relationship between language and identity. The key points are:
- Filipino bilinguals have a strong national identity but their language skills need to be more functional for modern times. Bilingual education can help equip them for a changing world.
- Studies show Filipino bilinguals have instrumental motivations to learn English for opportunities and integrative motivations to learn Filipino for identity. Their attitudes vary depending on proficiency and other factors.
- Language use is influenced most by social roles and contexts rather than topics
This document provides an overview of the state of foreign language teaching and transition between primary and secondary education in several European countries. It describes key issues around FL teaching policies, curricula, starting ages, languages taught, methodologies used, and teacher training in countries like Austria, France, Germany, Hungary, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. National reports within the document analyze transition from different perspectives of teachers, students, parents and more. Each report also identifies specific needs within that country's educational system to help make the transition between primary and secondary school smoother for foreign language learning.
Report and evaluation of the Development of CLIL Programs in CataloniaNeus Lorenzo
Article conjunt de Neus Lorenzo i Inmaculada Piqué sobre els programes internacionals i de llengua estrangera a Catalunya. (2013). Universitat de Barcelona. Ref: https://www.raco.cat/index.php/TempsEducacio/article/view/274640/362671
Catalan Language in Education (In Transit #27)Miqui Mel
The issue of Catalan language in education is controversial in Spain. Catalonia has adopted a model where Catalan is the primary language of instruction to ensure students learn both Catalan and Spanish, while the Valencian region allows parents to choose the language of instruction. Pressure from Spanish nationalist politicians to reduce the role of Catalan in education has increased in recent years, including court rulings limiting its use and new laws in the Balearic Islands. Supporters argue the Catalan model works and students learn both languages well, but opponents claim it denies the right to choose Spanish.
This article discusses how English language classes in Greek schools could shift from a focus on English as a foreign language to developing students' multicultural awareness. It introduces the concept of Multicultural Awareness Through English (MATE) as an alternative teaching paradigm. MATE aims to help students understand and appreciate cultural diversity, develop intercultural skills, and recognize how language expresses cultural attitudes. The article argues MATE aligns with Greece's new Cross-Thematic Curriculum Framework, which emphasizes multiculturalism and preparing students for life in a diverse society.
The document discusses the history and types of bilingual education in the Philippines. It outlines how bilingual education evolved from primarily using English for instruction to adopting a policy of using Filipino and English as official languages, with certain subjects taught in either Filipino or English. The goals of bilingual education in the Philippines are to develop competence in both Filipino and English and further enrich Filipino as the national language.
the implementation of bilingual education systemtaqiudinzarkasi
This document discusses the implementation of a bilingual education system using Indonesian and English at Frater Private Junior High School in Maumere. It describes the immersion model used, in which students learn content subjects in both English and Indonesian. Teaching is done through cooperative teaching between an English teacher and teachers of other subjects. The implementation aims to prepare students for a globalized world by developing their English skills alongside their Indonesian education.
The Greek speaking Minority Education in Istanbul: how open is it?LangOER
This document summarizes a presentation on the Greek speaking minority education in Istanbul. It discusses the historical context of the Greek Orthodox minority population in Istanbul and nearby islands, which has declined significantly over time due to emigration and language shift toward Turkish. It describes the current bilingual educational system for the minority, where some subjects are taught in Greek and others in Turkish, according to the Treaty of Lausanne. However, it notes that Greek language instruction and materials are limited. Overall the presentation examines factors contributing to the loss of Greek language use among the minority population and explores whether open educational resources could help address this issue.
The filipino bilingualism from a sociolingustic perspectiveTrenz
The document discusses the profile of the Filipino bilingual from a sociolinguistic perspective. It covers their identity, language attitudes and motivations, language use patterns, code switching behaviors, and relationship between language and identity. The key points are:
- Filipino bilinguals have a strong national identity but their language skills need to be more functional for modern times. Bilingual education can help equip them for a changing world.
- Studies show Filipino bilinguals have instrumental motivations to learn English for opportunities and integrative motivations to learn Filipino for identity. Their attitudes vary depending on proficiency and other factors.
- Language use is influenced most by social roles and contexts rather than topics
The esl teacher's role in heritage language maintenanceNelly Zafeiriades
The document discusses ways that English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers can support students in maintaining their heritage languages. It notes that while ESL instruction focuses on teaching English, the native languages of students influence their acquisition of English. The document outlines suggestions from ESL teachers on communicating with parents of heritage language students. Teachers recommended holding events outside of school to build relationships with parents, visiting students' homes, and inviting parents to observe their children in the classroom. The goal is for teachers to help parents feel respected and reassured about their children's progress as they learn English.
The Roadmap to Philippine MultiliteracyDina Ocampo
The document discusses language education policy in the Philippines. It outlines executive orders and bills that aim to strengthen the use of English as a medium of instruction in schools. It also discusses the importance of maintaining cultural identity through language and the benefits of mother tongue education and multilingualism based on evidence from studies. Key recommendations include recognizing the country's multilingual nature and promoting additive bilingual and multilingual education models.
Finland has a population of over 5 million people concentrated in the southern region. One of the keys to Finland's success is its high-quality education system, which provides public investment in education and training. Finland's education system includes 9 years of compulsory primary education, after which students can choose between general and vocational secondary programs. It also has a bilingual focus, with most students learning two additional languages starting in third grade, and some schools offering content instruction in other languages through immersion or CLIL programs to further improve students' language skills. Recent international assessments show Finland remaining among the top countries in reading and science, though its math scores have declined slightly.
Multilingualism versus Plurilingualism. Looking for collective empowermentNeus Lorenzo
The document discusses Catalonia's educational policies, which focus on consolidating Catalan citizenship through plurilingualism rather than multilingualism. The goal is to provide students with the competencies needed for the future, such as employability and sustainability. Schools are given autonomy to develop leadership and make international decisions. Immigrant populations in Catalonia are growing and the educational system aims to manage diversity and promote intercultural dialogue.
Implementing communicative language teaching (clt) in cameroon high schools a...Alexander Decker
- Cameroon has a complex linguistic situation with over 248 languages from the major African language families represented in the country. English and French are the official languages as a result of its colonial history under Britain and France.
- The education system is divided into Anglophone and Francophone subsystems, with each teaching English and French as subjects but using a different primary language of instruction.
- Implementing Communicative Language Teaching to develop communicative competence in English faces challenges in both subsystems due to factors like reliance on traditional teaching methods and focus on examinations over communication skills.
This document compares the Irish and Spanish educational systems regarding post-compulsory second language education. It finds that Irish students study English and Irish in school but lack proficiency in oral skills, making it difficult to learn additional languages well. Spanish students receive more focus on oral language skills in their primary education, allowing them to more easily learn foreign languages. The document also examines curriculum differences, finding Ireland focuses more on basic communication while Spain incorporates various teaching approaches. It analyzes assessment methods and finds both countries use the Common European Framework of Reference, but Spain places more emphasis on oral exams earlier.
Making Connections: Biliteracy Instruction for Spanish-Speaking English Langu...Patrick Proctor
This article describes a pilot that provided Spanish literacy instruction one day per week for sixteen weeks to a group of fourth grade Spanish-speaking English language learners enrolled in an English-only instructional environment. The curriculum was not pre-set. Rather, instructional decisions were made based on knowing the students, their backgrounds, and affect toward literacy in English and in Spanish. However, all instruction was guided by 3 main tenets: a) Culturally responsive instruction; b) rich vocabulary instruction; and c) cross-linguistic awareness. Descriptions of the nature of instruction are provided.
Making Connections: Biliteracy Instruction for Spanish-Speaking English Langu...guest9a5e58
The document discusses a pilot Spanish literacy program for Spanish-speaking English language learners in Massachusetts. It provided 90 minutes per week of Spanish instruction including vocabulary, phonics, and read alouds. Students also received sheltered English reading instruction using culturally relevant materials. Interviews found the program increased students' participation, use of both languages, and feelings of freedom to express themselves. Pre- and post-testing showed gains in Spanish and English literacy skills.
The document outlines the fundamental requirements for an effective Mother Tongue Based Multilingual Education (MTBMLE) program according to the Department of Education. It notes that using a child's first language as the primary medium of instruction until at least Grade 3 helps facilitate understanding of subjects. The requirements also include developing instructional materials in local languages, continuing education for teachers on using the first language to develop students' thinking skills, and ensuring support from parents and the community.
Language immersion schools aim to develop students' cultural awareness through bilingual education. There are several types of immersion programs, including foreign language immersion, majority language immersion, and bilingual immersion. Research shows immersion students perform equally or better than non-immersion peers in their first language proficiency and academic achievement. Students in immersion programs develop stronger cognitive learning strategies and interpersonal communication skills due to instructing in a second language. However, immersion programs face limited funding and misunderstanding in the U.S. due to an emphasis on standardized testing in core subjects rather than language education.
Effects of Language of the Catchment Area in Learning Kiswahiliinventy
Kiswahili one of the compulsory subjects that is nationally examined but there has been complaints about poor performance in schools. This paper is a report of a study carried out in 2012 in Kapseret Division of Uasin Gishu County. The study assessed the effects of the language of the catchment area in learning Kiswahili. The study was guided by sociocultural theory (SCT) and was descriptive in nature. Simple random sampling was used to select 15 out of 50 schools in Kapseret Division, it was also used to select 20 %(750) of standard six pupils from each of the selected schools. Purposive sampling was used to select 30 upper primary Kiswahili teachers; one class six Kiswahili teacher and a Kiswahili panel head from the selected schools. Data was collected using questionnaires, observation checklists. It was analyzed using descriptive statistical techniques such as percentages and frequencies. The investigation found out Nandi was the language of the catchment area but Kiswahili was used in communication because of different ethnic communities. Kiswahili be used in schools, parents be sensitized to have a positive attitude towards Kiswahili hence changing the learners attitude.
Mother tongue based education as the aplication of critical pedagogy in timor...barr0336
This document proposes using mother tongue-based education in Timor-Leste to address the high dropout rates in rural areas. It discusses how the current education system relies on a mono-language approach that fails students by not connecting to their cultural experiences. The document recommends adopting a critical pedagogy framework based on Paulo Freire that emphasizes dialogue and problem-posing education centered around students' lives. It argues that using students' mother tongues along with Tetum and Portuguese will help make education more relevant and engaging while promoting local identities and collaboration with communities. The goal is to transform the current "banking system" of education into a learner-centered approach that empowers students through place-based learning.
National Language Policy on Primary Education and the Challenges of Language ...inventionjournals
This document discusses the national language policy on primary education in Nigeria and the challenges of implementing it. It outlines the policy which specifies using the mother tongue or language of the immediate community as the medium of instruction for the first three years, then progressively introducing English. However, it notes many challenges including a multilingual setting, lack of qualified teachers, inadequate funding and instructional materials, and problems with implementation. Overall, the document examines the difficulties faced in teaching multiple languages and effectively carrying out the national language policy in primary schools.
The document discusses variables that influence the successful teaching and learning of a target language through content-based instruction. It outlines key issues like the differences between instructed foreign language techniques versus naturalistic second language acquisition strategies, and crosslingual versus intralingual techniques. It also discusses the different types of language instruction, including analytic versus global methods, and code-based versus content-based programs.
Moura e Jalil - An overview of-bilingualism-and-bilingual-education-in-BrazilSelma Moura
An overview of bilingualism and bilingual education in Brazil, paper presented by Samira Jalil and Selma Moura in the 9th Southern Cone Tesol, Brazil, 2011
Testing is used to measure a person's knowledge, skills, or abilities in various topics. There are several types of language tests that serve different purposes. Proficiency tests measure overall language ability, achievement tests evaluate how well learning objectives were met, diagnostic tests identify strengths and weaknesses, and placement tests determine what level is appropriate. While final achievement tests directly relate to course content, they can provide misleading results if the course or materials were poorly designed, as successful test performance does not necessarily indicate true achievement of all learning objectives.
La EPOC afecta al 10,2% de la población española según EPI-SCAN y al 9,1% según IBERPOC. El tabaco es la principal causa, afectando al 55% de los fumadores. El diagnóstico de EPOC se realiza mediante manifestaciones clínicas, pruebas de función pulmonar, biomarcadores, índices multidimensionales e imagen. El seguimiento incluye autocuidados, nuevas tecnologías, hospitalización a domicilio y rehabilitación.
The document discusses using proficiency testing to improve instruction for English learners. It summarizes key standards and assessments used in many states including WIDA standards, WIDA English language proficiency levels, and the ACCESS and CELLA assessments. The document also provides an overview of Krashen's five hypotheses of second language acquisition, including the acquisition-learning distinction, the monitor hypothesis, natural order hypothesis, input hypothesis, and affective filter hypothesis.
The esl teacher's role in heritage language maintenanceNelly Zafeiriades
The document discusses ways that English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers can support students in maintaining their heritage languages. It notes that while ESL instruction focuses on teaching English, the native languages of students influence their acquisition of English. The document outlines suggestions from ESL teachers on communicating with parents of heritage language students. Teachers recommended holding events outside of school to build relationships with parents, visiting students' homes, and inviting parents to observe their children in the classroom. The goal is for teachers to help parents feel respected and reassured about their children's progress as they learn English.
The Roadmap to Philippine MultiliteracyDina Ocampo
The document discusses language education policy in the Philippines. It outlines executive orders and bills that aim to strengthen the use of English as a medium of instruction in schools. It also discusses the importance of maintaining cultural identity through language and the benefits of mother tongue education and multilingualism based on evidence from studies. Key recommendations include recognizing the country's multilingual nature and promoting additive bilingual and multilingual education models.
Finland has a population of over 5 million people concentrated in the southern region. One of the keys to Finland's success is its high-quality education system, which provides public investment in education and training. Finland's education system includes 9 years of compulsory primary education, after which students can choose between general and vocational secondary programs. It also has a bilingual focus, with most students learning two additional languages starting in third grade, and some schools offering content instruction in other languages through immersion or CLIL programs to further improve students' language skills. Recent international assessments show Finland remaining among the top countries in reading and science, though its math scores have declined slightly.
Multilingualism versus Plurilingualism. Looking for collective empowermentNeus Lorenzo
The document discusses Catalonia's educational policies, which focus on consolidating Catalan citizenship through plurilingualism rather than multilingualism. The goal is to provide students with the competencies needed for the future, such as employability and sustainability. Schools are given autonomy to develop leadership and make international decisions. Immigrant populations in Catalonia are growing and the educational system aims to manage diversity and promote intercultural dialogue.
Implementing communicative language teaching (clt) in cameroon high schools a...Alexander Decker
- Cameroon has a complex linguistic situation with over 248 languages from the major African language families represented in the country. English and French are the official languages as a result of its colonial history under Britain and France.
- The education system is divided into Anglophone and Francophone subsystems, with each teaching English and French as subjects but using a different primary language of instruction.
- Implementing Communicative Language Teaching to develop communicative competence in English faces challenges in both subsystems due to factors like reliance on traditional teaching methods and focus on examinations over communication skills.
This document compares the Irish and Spanish educational systems regarding post-compulsory second language education. It finds that Irish students study English and Irish in school but lack proficiency in oral skills, making it difficult to learn additional languages well. Spanish students receive more focus on oral language skills in their primary education, allowing them to more easily learn foreign languages. The document also examines curriculum differences, finding Ireland focuses more on basic communication while Spain incorporates various teaching approaches. It analyzes assessment methods and finds both countries use the Common European Framework of Reference, but Spain places more emphasis on oral exams earlier.
Making Connections: Biliteracy Instruction for Spanish-Speaking English Langu...Patrick Proctor
This article describes a pilot that provided Spanish literacy instruction one day per week for sixteen weeks to a group of fourth grade Spanish-speaking English language learners enrolled in an English-only instructional environment. The curriculum was not pre-set. Rather, instructional decisions were made based on knowing the students, their backgrounds, and affect toward literacy in English and in Spanish. However, all instruction was guided by 3 main tenets: a) Culturally responsive instruction; b) rich vocabulary instruction; and c) cross-linguistic awareness. Descriptions of the nature of instruction are provided.
Making Connections: Biliteracy Instruction for Spanish-Speaking English Langu...guest9a5e58
The document discusses a pilot Spanish literacy program for Spanish-speaking English language learners in Massachusetts. It provided 90 minutes per week of Spanish instruction including vocabulary, phonics, and read alouds. Students also received sheltered English reading instruction using culturally relevant materials. Interviews found the program increased students' participation, use of both languages, and feelings of freedom to express themselves. Pre- and post-testing showed gains in Spanish and English literacy skills.
The document outlines the fundamental requirements for an effective Mother Tongue Based Multilingual Education (MTBMLE) program according to the Department of Education. It notes that using a child's first language as the primary medium of instruction until at least Grade 3 helps facilitate understanding of subjects. The requirements also include developing instructional materials in local languages, continuing education for teachers on using the first language to develop students' thinking skills, and ensuring support from parents and the community.
Language immersion schools aim to develop students' cultural awareness through bilingual education. There are several types of immersion programs, including foreign language immersion, majority language immersion, and bilingual immersion. Research shows immersion students perform equally or better than non-immersion peers in their first language proficiency and academic achievement. Students in immersion programs develop stronger cognitive learning strategies and interpersonal communication skills due to instructing in a second language. However, immersion programs face limited funding and misunderstanding in the U.S. due to an emphasis on standardized testing in core subjects rather than language education.
Effects of Language of the Catchment Area in Learning Kiswahiliinventy
Kiswahili one of the compulsory subjects that is nationally examined but there has been complaints about poor performance in schools. This paper is a report of a study carried out in 2012 in Kapseret Division of Uasin Gishu County. The study assessed the effects of the language of the catchment area in learning Kiswahili. The study was guided by sociocultural theory (SCT) and was descriptive in nature. Simple random sampling was used to select 15 out of 50 schools in Kapseret Division, it was also used to select 20 %(750) of standard six pupils from each of the selected schools. Purposive sampling was used to select 30 upper primary Kiswahili teachers; one class six Kiswahili teacher and a Kiswahili panel head from the selected schools. Data was collected using questionnaires, observation checklists. It was analyzed using descriptive statistical techniques such as percentages and frequencies. The investigation found out Nandi was the language of the catchment area but Kiswahili was used in communication because of different ethnic communities. Kiswahili be used in schools, parents be sensitized to have a positive attitude towards Kiswahili hence changing the learners attitude.
Mother tongue based education as the aplication of critical pedagogy in timor...barr0336
This document proposes using mother tongue-based education in Timor-Leste to address the high dropout rates in rural areas. It discusses how the current education system relies on a mono-language approach that fails students by not connecting to their cultural experiences. The document recommends adopting a critical pedagogy framework based on Paulo Freire that emphasizes dialogue and problem-posing education centered around students' lives. It argues that using students' mother tongues along with Tetum and Portuguese will help make education more relevant and engaging while promoting local identities and collaboration with communities. The goal is to transform the current "banking system" of education into a learner-centered approach that empowers students through place-based learning.
National Language Policy on Primary Education and the Challenges of Language ...inventionjournals
This document discusses the national language policy on primary education in Nigeria and the challenges of implementing it. It outlines the policy which specifies using the mother tongue or language of the immediate community as the medium of instruction for the first three years, then progressively introducing English. However, it notes many challenges including a multilingual setting, lack of qualified teachers, inadequate funding and instructional materials, and problems with implementation. Overall, the document examines the difficulties faced in teaching multiple languages and effectively carrying out the national language policy in primary schools.
The document discusses variables that influence the successful teaching and learning of a target language through content-based instruction. It outlines key issues like the differences between instructed foreign language techniques versus naturalistic second language acquisition strategies, and crosslingual versus intralingual techniques. It also discusses the different types of language instruction, including analytic versus global methods, and code-based versus content-based programs.
Moura e Jalil - An overview of-bilingualism-and-bilingual-education-in-BrazilSelma Moura
An overview of bilingualism and bilingual education in Brazil, paper presented by Samira Jalil and Selma Moura in the 9th Southern Cone Tesol, Brazil, 2011
Testing is used to measure a person's knowledge, skills, or abilities in various topics. There are several types of language tests that serve different purposes. Proficiency tests measure overall language ability, achievement tests evaluate how well learning objectives were met, diagnostic tests identify strengths and weaknesses, and placement tests determine what level is appropriate. While final achievement tests directly relate to course content, they can provide misleading results if the course or materials were poorly designed, as successful test performance does not necessarily indicate true achievement of all learning objectives.
La EPOC afecta al 10,2% de la población española según EPI-SCAN y al 9,1% según IBERPOC. El tabaco es la principal causa, afectando al 55% de los fumadores. El diagnóstico de EPOC se realiza mediante manifestaciones clínicas, pruebas de función pulmonar, biomarcadores, índices multidimensionales e imagen. El seguimiento incluye autocuidados, nuevas tecnologías, hospitalización a domicilio y rehabilitación.
The document discusses using proficiency testing to improve instruction for English learners. It summarizes key standards and assessments used in many states including WIDA standards, WIDA English language proficiency levels, and the ACCESS and CELLA assessments. The document also provides an overview of Krashen's five hypotheses of second language acquisition, including the acquisition-learning distinction, the monitor hypothesis, natural order hypothesis, input hypothesis, and affective filter hypothesis.
This document discusses diagnostic tests, which are designed to identify specific learning deficiencies in individuals in order to address them. It outlines the nature, definition, functions, characteristics, construction, preparation, administration, and uses of diagnostic tests. Diagnostic tests differ from achievement tests in that they more exhaustively test each learning point to provide a detailed picture of a student's strengths and weaknesses. The roles of diagnostic tests include directing curriculum, providing educational guidance, simulating learning activities, and informing administrative and supervisory efforts. Computer programs can help score and interpret diagnostic tests to formulate individualized instructional programs.
This document discusses key features and purposes of diagnostic assessment. It emphasizes that assessment should empower students as learners, provide guidance to teachers and students on next steps, and value developing long-term skills over short-term performance. Assessment should be formative, diagnostic, and promote self-esteem. It should use criteria-referenced and public standards to lead to diagnostic teaching and self-evaluation. Evidence comes from classroom activities. The document then provides examples of diagnostic assessment tools and strategies teachers can use, such as journals, self-assessments, interviews, and mind maps.
A Brief History on the Approaches to
Language Testing
In the 1950s, an era of behaviorism and special
attention to constrastive analysis, testing focused on
specific language elements such as the phonological,
grammatical, and lexical contrasts between two
languages.
Between the 1970s and 1980s, communicative theories
of language brought with them a more integrative view of
testing in which specialists claimed that the whole of
communicative event was considerably greater than the
sum of its linguistic element (Clark, 1983; Brown, 2004: 8)
Definition of Language Testing
According to Oller (1979, 1-2), a language testing is a
device that tries to assess how much has been learned
in a foreign language course, or some part of a course
by learners.
According to Brown (2004: 3), a language testing is a
method of measuring a person’s ability, knowledge, or
performance in a given domain.
This document provides an overview of communicative language testing. It begins with the historical perspective and debates around the nature of language. It then defines communicative testing as intended to assess a test-taker's ability to perform language tasks in specific contexts. It discusses types of communicative competence and principles of communicative language testing. Advantages include assessing integrated language skills in realistic tasks. Weaknesses include difficulty assessing grammar separate from communication and potential cultural bias. The document provides examples of communicative language test questions.
The document discusses different approaches to language assessment, including traditional and communicative testing. Traditional testing focuses on linguistic accuracy and discrete points, while communicative testing emphasizes functional language ability and performance in real-world contexts. Communicative testing is presented as a more effective approach that provides ongoing feedback to support learning, evaluates students based on their strengths and progress rather than weaknesses, and encourages intrinsic motivation through collaborative and authentic activities. While difficult to implement, communicative principles aim to make assessment more valid, reliable and fair.
This document discusses standardized language testing. It describes the key aspects of developing a standardized test, including determining objectives, designing test specifications, developing and selecting test items, specifying scoring and reporting, and ongoing validation. It also outlines four major standardized language proficiency tests: TOEFL, MELAB, IELTS, and TOEIC. The purpose of these tests is to evaluate English language abilities in a standardized way.
This document discusses approaches to language testing and types of language tests. It describes six main approaches: traditional, discrete, integrative, pragmatic, and communicative. It also outlines five main types of language tests based on their objective: selection tests, placement tests, achievement tests, diagnostic tests, and try-out tests. Achievement tests measure learning from a course, while proficiency tests measure skills for a future task. Diagnostic tests identify areas of difficulty.
Testing for Language TeachersArthur HughesRajputt Ainee
Testing is done for various purposes such as verifying that a product meets requirements, managing risk, and assessing knowledge or skills. The main purposes of testing are to verify that specifications are met and to manage risks. Tests can have negative effects if not aligned with learning objectives, and inaccuracies can arise from flawed test content or unreliable scoring techniques. Effective testing requires quality assurance and validation to catch errors before public release. Assessment includes formative assessment for immediate feedback and summative assessment for end-of-period evaluation. Teachers can help improve testing by writing better tests, educating others, and advocating for testing improvements.
This document discusses teaching, testing, and their relationship in TESOL. It defines teaching as passing on accepted information to help students achieve objectives, while tests assess if objectives were achieved. Tests can positively or negatively influence teaching through "washback effect" - the extent tests impact what teachers and students do. Positive washback includes focusing on objectives and motivating learning, while negative includes ignoring untested topics and "teaching to the test." Good tests are valid, reliable, practical, comprehensive, and balanced assessments that provide useful feedback for students and help teachers identify strengths and weaknesses.
The document discusses the definition and purposes of language testing. It defines a test as an activity meant to convey how well a test-taker knows or can perform something. Tests serve several functions, including reinforcing learning, assessing student performance, and providing diagnostic information. There are two main types of assessment: formative, to check student progress, and summative, used at the end to measure achievement. The document also outlines five common types of language tests: proficiency, achievement, diagnostic, placement, and direct/indirect. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of different testing methods.
The document discusses diagnostic procedures used in dentistry. It outlines various tests like thermal tests, electric pulp tests, mobility tests, and radiographs that are used to diagnose dental issues like pulp vitality, periapical lesions, and periodontal disease. The goal of diagnosis is to accurately identify the disease through signs, symptoms, and test results to determine the appropriate treatment.
Similar to Geert Driessen & Michiel van der Grinten (1994) SEE Home language proficiency in the Netherlands. The evaluation of Turkish and Moroccan bilingual programmes - A critical review.
Geert Driessen (2005) ed Söhn From cure to curse.pdfDriessen Research
Driessen, G. (2005). From cure to curse: The rise and fall of bilingual education programs in the Netherlands. In J. Söhn (ed.), The effectiveness of bilingual school programs for immigrant children. WZB Discussion Paper SP IV 2005-601 (pp. 77-107). Berlin: Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung.
Geert Driessen 2017 JER Language choice and language proficiency.pdfDriessen Research
This document summarizes a study that analyzed data on 14,000 Dutch 2nd grade students to examine the relationship between immigrant children's use of their mother tongue and their proficiency in Dutch. The study found that two-thirds of immigrant children speak their mother tongue in at least one context, such as with family. Additionally, the more often immigrant children spoke their mother tongue, the lower their proficiency tended to be in Dutch. The study controlled for factors like mothers' country of birth, education level, and language skills, which all correlated with children's lower scores on standardized Dutch language tests compared to children with Dutch-speaking parents.
Driessen, G. (2004). From cure to curse: The rise and fall of bilingual education programs in the Netherlands. Invited paper Expert meeting Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung (WZB) ‘Effectiveness of Bilingual Education Programs’. Berlin, Germany, November 18-19, 2004.
Geert Driessen, Frans van der Slik & Kees de Bot (2002) JMMD Home Language an...Driessen Research
This study analyzed data from a large-scale longitudinal study of language proficiency in Dutch primary schools. It examined differences in language proficiency and background characteristics between pupils from various linguistic backgrounds, including Dutch, Turkish/Moroccan, Frisian, Limburgish, and dialects. The study developed a causal model to analyze how factors like parents' education and language use at home influence pupils' developing language proficiency from ages 7-10.
The document discusses theories of language acquisition, including behaviorism and nativism. It provides details on behaviorist theory, which believes that language is learned through reinforcement and conditioning, and that children are "blank slates" learning from their environment. The document also discusses nativist theory and debates around nature vs nurture in language learning. Additionally, it covers topics like bilingualism, second language acquisition, and debates around bilingual education programs.
This document summarizes a forum article that proposes adopting a plurilingual approach to teaching English that softens the boundaries between languages. Traditionally, English has been taught in isolation from other languages through monolingual practices. However, the article argues for a more holistic plurilingual approach in line with the Council of Europe's concept of plurilingualism as a single, dynamic competence encompassing a learner's full linguistic repertoire. A plurilingual approach sets more attainable goals than native-like proficiency, utilizes learners' existing language skills, integrates teaching across language subjects, and values code-switching and translanguaging in learning. The article concludes by outlining implications for TESOL professionals to accelerate
Geert Driessen & Virigie Withagen (1999) LCC Language varieties and education...Driessen Research
The document discusses a study exploring the relationship between language varieties spoken at home and educational achievement for indigenous primary school pupils in the Netherlands. The study analyzed data from over 7,700 pupils, looking at which language they spoke with family and friends, their parents' language and education level, province, and performance on standardized Dutch and arithmetic tests. The main finding was that only parents' education level and province explained differences in test performance. Surprisingly, pupils from Limburg and Friesland - where nearly half spoke a non-Dutch language at home - performed best and worst respectively, with no differences based on home language within those groups.
This document discusses Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), an educational approach where subjects are taught in a foreign language to simultaneously teach content and language skills. It provides background on CLIL, including key definitions, how it has developed over time in Europe through various initiatives, and how it is implemented in different countries and educational systems. The document also discusses benefits of CLIL for learners, as well as strategies and considerations for teaching CLIL effectively.
Schools Should End Up Hurting American StudentsRikki Wright
The author argues that terms like "disruptive innovation" are often used imprecisely in everyday conversation. Even companies commonly referred to as disruptive, like Uber, may not truly fit the definition. This casual use of jargon terms can be misleading for corporate leaders. Rather than overreacting to calls to "disrupt or be disrupted," incumbents should carefully assess actual competitive threats on a case-by-case basis. Creating a strong corporate culture and shared values may help motivate employees in today's global business environment.
Schools Should End Up Hurting American StudentsBrooke Curtis
The author argues that terms like "disruptive innovation" are often used imprecisely in everyday conversation. Even companies commonly referred to as disruptive, like Uber, may not truly fit the definition. This casual use of jargon terms can mislead corporate leaders to overreact to the idea that they must "disrupt or be disrupted." Instead, incumbents should carefully monitor changes rather than feel pressured into unnecessary actions. Precise use of language is important to have meaningful discussions about business strategies.
This document provides details about a case study examining the English language development of a 3-year-old Spanish child named X. The child was taught English methodology in a Spanish environment, with exposure to English for 1-8 hours per week depending on his age. The case study aims to show that a foreign language can be learned effectively through careful, planned methodology rather than just exposure time. It describes X's family background, the methodology used to teach him English words and structures in different contexts, and examines his progress in comprehending and producing English syllables, phrases, and sentences. The document analyzes research on stages of second language acquisition and bilingual development as they relate to X's case.
- Mother tongue-based multilingual education (MLE) leads to better learning outcomes compared to only using English. However, legislators continue to ignore research and promote stronger English-only policies.
- This document aims to clarify issues around language in education in the Philippines by addressing 21 frequently asked questions about MLE. MLE uses multiple languages for literacy and instruction, starting in the learner's first language and gradually introducing additional languages.
- Research shows MLE produces learners who are multilingual, multi-literate, and able to work with diverse cultures. However, it requires well-developed curricula, well-trained teachers, good materials, and community support.
This document provides an overview of English language teaching. It defines TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language) as focusing on learners who will use English daily in addition to their native language, such as immigrants. TESL teaching develops basic survival skills. TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) occurs in students' home country and is academically-based, developing a range of skills. While the distinction between TESL and TEFL is becoming less important, TESL generally ignores literature and focuses on functional skills, while TEFL students have less exposure to English outside class. The document then discusses English language teaching in Algeria.
This document summarizes a paper that analyzes 10 different types of bilingual education programs. It distinguishes between weak and strong forms of bilingual education based on whether students typically become bilingual. Weak forms like submersion aim for assimilation, while strong forms like immersion and two-way programs aim for bilingualism. The document provides details on the typical students, languages used, educational aims, and language outcomes of each program type.
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This document discusses different models of bilingual education, focusing on "strong" forms like dual language education. Dual language education involves instruction in two languages, with the goal of developing balanced bilingualism, biliteracy, and bicultural understanding. It describes key features of dual language programs, including using each language for 50% of instruction and maintaining an approximately equal balance of students from both language groups. The document outlines challenges in achieving language balance and notes dual language education aims to promote high academic achievement as well as intercultural competence and positive intergroup relations.
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This document provides an overview of dual language bilingual education. It discusses key features, including having approximately equal numbers of language minority and majority students integrated in the same classroom, with both languages used for instruction, aiming to produce balanced bilingual students. It notes challenges like maintaining a balance between the languages among students. Strict separation of languages is beginning to be questioned, as translanguaging occurs naturally. Dual language programs aim for high proficiency in both languages, academic achievement, and positive intercultural attitudes.
This document outlines guidelines for a Two-Way Dual Language Program across multiple campuses. It began in 2003 with 44 kindergarten students and has since expanded to include over 1,100 Spanish-speaking ELL students and 800 non-ELL students from kindergarten through high school. The mission of the program is to develop bilingual, bi-literate and multicultural students. It is based on research showing students need 4-7 years to become proficient in academic content in a second language. The program aims for students to become proficient in both English and Spanish.
This document discusses mother tongue-based multilingual education (MLE) in the Philippines. It provides arguments for using students' first language as the primary medium of instruction, at least in the early grades, rather than exclusively using English. MLE has been shown to improve learning outcomes compared to English-only instruction by building on what students already know. The document also summarizes several studies, bills, and positions from government agencies and experts that support adopting MLE nationally rather than mandating English as the sole medium of instruction.
Similar to Geert Driessen & Michiel van der Grinten (1994) SEE Home language proficiency in the Netherlands. The evaluation of Turkish and Moroccan bilingual programmes - A critical review. (20)
Geert Driessen (2024) OOP De generaliseerbaarheid van een VVE-modelprogramma....Driessen Research
SAMENVATTING
Voor- en Vroegschoolse Educatie (VVE) richt zich op het voorkomen van achterstanden die het gevolg zijn van sociaal-etnische gezinsomstandigheden. De claim is dat het daarin effectief kan zijn, mits het van hoge kwaliteit is. Ondanks de input van vele miljarden zijn de achterstanden de afgelopen decennia echter alleen maar gegroeid. De vraag die hier gesteld wordt is daarom of die claim wel terecht is. Daartoe wordt de externe validiteit van het meest geciteerde voorschoolse programma, het Perry Preschool Project, onder de loep genomen. Kunnen de resultaten daarvan echt in die mate worden gegeneraliseerd als wordt geclaimd?
Kernwoorden: Voor- en Vroegschoolse Educatie; VVE; onderwijsachterstanden; Perry Preschool; James Heckman; generalisatie; externe validiteit
SUMMARY
Preschool Education programs aim at preventing educational delays resulting from socioethnic disadvantage in the home environment of young children. Proponents claim that such programs can be effective, provided they are of high quality. Despite the investment of huge budgets, the educational gap between socioeconomically deprived families and their wealthier counterparts still is widening. The question therefore is whether the programs’ claim is justified. This article focuses on the external validity of the most cited preschool program, the High/Scope Perry Preschool Project. Is it really possible to generalize its findings to other programs, settings and conditions, and target groups, as is being claimed?
Keywords: Pre- and Early School Education; educational disadvantage; Perry Preschool; High/Scope; James Heckman; generalization; external validity
Pre-print van: Driessen, G. (2024). De generaliseerbaarheid van een VVE-modelprogramma. Heckmans dubieuze claims. Orthopedagogiek: Onderzoek en Praktijk, 63(1), 18-29. ISSN 2211-6273
https://orthopedagogiek.eu/
Geert Driessen (2024) Demasqué VVE-modelprogramma's.pdfDriessen Research
Het effect van vve blijft in Nederland moeilijk aantoonbaar. Vve-beleid wordt daarom vaak gestoeld op bewijs uit Amerikaans onderzoek. Geert Driessen fileert de belangrijkste – Perry Preschool en Abecedarian. Er blijft weinig van het bewijs over.
Geert Driessen (2024) Encyclopedia Abecedarian an impossible model preschool ...Driessen Research
The primary goal of pre- and early-school programs is to prevent young children from socioeconomically disadvantage backgrounds to start school already with educational delays. The programs offer compensatory stimulation activities which are supposed to be not available in the home situation; the focus is on language development. Proponents claim that such programs can be effective, provided they are of high quality. The belief in their success is very much based on the outcomes of a few so-called model programs from the 1960s and 1970s. One of these programs is the Carolina Abecedarian Project, a small single-site project started in 1972. Four cohorts of in total 111 children and their poor, Black parents participated in this experiment with a random allocated treatment and a control group. The children were followed from 6 weeks after birth to 6 years of age, that is, when they entered school. They were regularly tested and observed, and then after the program had ended again until they were 40 years of age. The focus here is on the internal and external validity of the Abecedarian Project. Are the effects as reported by the program’s staff reliable and valid? Is it possible to generalize the findings of this model program to other times, settings, conditions, and target groups?
Driessen, G. (2024). Abecedarian: An impossible model preschool program. Encyclopedia, 11 January 2024.
ISSN 2309-3366
Retrieved from https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/121338
Geert Driessen (2023) Encyclopedia The Perry HighScope Preschool Program A Cr...Driessen Research
Early Childhood Education programs aim at preventing educational delays associated with socio-ethnic disadvantage in the home environment of young children. Advocates claim that such programs can be effective, provided they are of high quality. Despite the investment of enormous budgets, the educational gap between socio-economically deprived families and their wealthier counterparts is still widening. The question therefore is justifiied whether these claims are justified. This article focuses on the internal and external validity of the most cited preschool program, the High/Scope Perry PreschoolProject, which was carried out between 1962 and 1967 in one school in Ypsilant, MI. Are the program's effects as reported by, e.g. Lawrence Schweinhart and James Heckman, reliable and valid? And is it really possible to generalize the findings of this so-called model program to other programs, target groups, settings and conditions, as is being claimed?
Geert Driessen (2023) The Perry High/Scope Preschool program. A critique
Retrieved from https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/history/show/109024
Kees de Bot, Geert Driessen & Paul Jungbluth (1988) MLEML An exploration of t...Driessen Research
Bot, K. de, Driessen, G., & Jungbluth, P. (1988). An exploration of the effects of the teaching of immigrant language and culture. Paper International Conference on Maintenance and Loss of Ethnic Minority Languages, Noordwijkerhout, the Netherlands, August 28-30, 1988.
Geert Driessen (1992) MLEML Developments in first and second language acquisi...Driessen Research
Driessen, G. (1992). Developments in first and second language acquisition of Turkish and Moroccan children in the Netherlands. Paper Second International Conference on Maintenance and Loss of Ethnic Minority Languages, Noordwijkerhout, the Netherlands, September 1-4, 1992.
Geert Driessen, Lia Mulder & Paul Jungbluth (1994) ILAPSI Ethnicity and socia...Driessen Research
The document discusses the results of a study on the impact of climate change on global wheat production. Researchers found that rising temperatures will significantly reduce wheat yields across different regions of the world by the end of the century. Under a high emissions scenario, the study projects a global average decrease in wheat production of 6% by 2050, and a 17% decrease by 2100, threatening global food security.
Geert Driessen & Pim Valkenberg (2000) AERA Islamic schools in the western wo...Driessen Research
Driessen, G., & Valkenberg, P. (2000). Islamic schools: the case of the Netherlands. Paper AERA Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA, USA, April 24-28, 2000.
Geert Driessen (2000) AEGEE Islamic schools in the western world Paper.pdfDriessen Research
Driessen, G. (2000). Islamic schools in the Western World: The case of the Netherlands. Invited paper AEGEE Conference on Intercultural Education, Nijmegen, the Netherlands, April 14-16, 2000.
Geert Driessen & Frederik Smit (2005) ERNAPE Integration participation and ed...Driessen Research
1) The document discusses a study on the relationship between minority parents' participation in Dutch society and their children's educational outcomes.
2) The study uses data from over 10,000 children and their parents to examine how factors like parental ethnicity, education, labor participation, and cultural participation correlate with children's language, math, and social skills.
3) The results find a consistent positive effect of parents' cultural participation (e.g. attending concerts and museums) on children's language and math abilities, supporting the idea that cultural capital benefits children's education. However, the hypothesis that greater parental participation broadly leads to better child outcomes is only partially confirmed.
Frederik Smit & Geert Driessen (2005) CARE Parent and community involvement i...Driessen Research
Smit, F., & Driessen, G. (2005). Parent and community involvement in education from an international comparative perspective. Challenges for changing societies. Invited paper international conference Children At-Risk in Education, (CARE), ‘Children at Risk. Advancing their Educational Frontiers’. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, December 2-4, 2005.
Geert Driessen (2006) ERCOMER Integration participation and education Pres.pptDriessen Research
This document summarizes a study on the effects of minority parents' participation in society on their children's educational outcomes. The study used data from 10,680 children in the Netherlands to analyze relationships between parental ethnicity, education, participation in different domains (e.g. labor, religion), and children's language, math and social skills. The results showed a consistent positive effect of parents' cultural participation (e.g. attending concerts) on children's language and math abilities, supporting the idea of cultural capital. However, the hypothesis that greater parental integration would more broadly promote children's education received only partial confirmation. Higher expectations for immigrant children's chances may need to be more realistic.
Michael Merry & Geert Driessen (2010) WCCES Integration by other means Hindu ...Driessen Research
Merry, M., & Driessen, G. (2010). Integration by other means: Hindu schooling in the Netherlands. Paper XIV World Congress of Comparative Education Societies, ‘Bordering, re-bordering and new possibilities in education and society’, Istanbul, Turkey, June 14-18, 2010.
Geert Driessen & Michael Merry (2013) AERA Tackling socioeconomic and ethnic ...Driessen Research
Driessen, G., & Merry, M. (2013). Tackling socioeconomic and ethnic educational disadvantage to prevent lifelong poverty. Paper Annual Meeting AERA 2013, San Francisco, CA, USA, April 27 – May 1, 2013.
Frederik Smit & Geert Driessen (2013) ERNAPE Dealing with street culture in s...Driessen Research
Smit, F., & Driessen, G. (2013). Dealing with street culture in schools: Are families, schools and communities able to work together to improve the quality of the daily interactions and communication? Paper 9th International Conference of the European Research Network About Parents in Education (ERNAPE), ‘Learn from the past, review the present, prepare for a future with equity’. Lisbon, Portugal, September 4-6, 2013. In Nieuwsbrief Ouders, scholen en buurt, juli 2013. Retrieved from http://itsexpertisecentrum.wordpress.com/2013/07/02/dealing-with-street-culture-in-schools-are-families-schools-and-communities-able-to-work-together-to-improve-the-quality-of-the-daily-interactions-and-communication/
Frederik Smit & Geert Driessen (2013) ERNAPE Critical lessons from practices ...Driessen Research
Smit, F., & Driessen, G. (2013). Critical lessons from practices for improving the quality of communication between parents and schools. Paper 9th International Conference of the European Research Network About Parents in Education (ERNAPE), ‘Learn from the past, review the present, prepare for a future with equity’. Lisbon, Portugal, September 4-6, 2013. In Nieuwsbrief Ouders, scholen en buurt, juli 2013. Retrieved from http://itsexpertisecentrum.wordpress.com/2013/07/02/critical-lessons-from-practices-for-improving-the-quality-of-communication-between-parents-and-schools/
Geert Driessen & Michael Merry (2015) RA The gross and net effects Pres.pdfDriessen Research
Driessen, G., & Merry, M. (2015). The gross and net effects of the schools’ denomination on student performance. Paper Annual Meeting AERA 2015, Chicago, Ill., USA, April 16 – 20, 2015.
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.30454.40006
Orhan Agirdag, Geert Driessen & Michael Merry (2015) ESA Is there a Catholic ...Driessen Research
Agirdag, O., Driessen, G., & Merry, M. (2015). Is there a catholic school effect for Muslim pupils? Paper 12th Conference of the European Sociological Association 2015, Prague, Czech Republic, August 25–28, 2015.
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.14725.76004/1
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
Preparation and standardization of the following : Tonic, Bleaches, Dentifrices and Mouth washes & Tooth Pastes, Cosmetics for Nails.
Geert Driessen & Michiel van der Grinten (1994) SEE Home language proficiency in the Netherlands. The evaluation of Turkish and Moroccan bilingual programmes - A critical review.
1. Pergamon
StudieainE#u~z~onalEvalua~n,VoL 20, pp. 365-386, 1994
@ 1994 Elsevier Sci~co Ltd
Pnnted in Groat Britain. All ri~t8 reserved.
0191-491X1941~26.00
0191-491X(94)00030-1
HOME LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY IN THE NETHERLANDS:
THE EVALUATION OF TURKISH AND MOROCCAN BILINGUAL
PROGRAMMES-A CRITICAL REVIEW
Geert W. J. M. Drlessen and Mlchlel A. van tier Grlnten
Institute for Applied Social Sciences, University of Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Background
The Non-indigenous Population in the Netherlands
In the Netherlands it is possible to distinguish three categories of non-
indigenous people. First, there are the migrants from former Dutch colonies, i.e.,
inhabitants of the former Dutch East Indies, the Moluccan Islands, Surinam, the Antilles,
and Aruba. As a result of their ties with the (former) motherland of the Netherlands,
these migrants were already somewhat acquainted with the Dutch language and
culture. The second category are the so-called migrant workers. These mainly came
from Mediterranean countries, such as Italy, Spain and later also from Turkey and
Morocco. One characteristic all of these migrants have in common is their low level of
education; in addition, their language and culture is very different from the Dutch one.
This is particularly true for the Turks and Moroccans. The third category of non-
indigenous people is made up of refugees from Eastern Europe, South-America, Asia
and--more recently--Africa, the Middle East, and again Eastern Europe. This is a very
diverse category both in terms of language and culture.
These three categories are made up of roughly 650,000, 500,000 and 40,000
people.l Within the second category, Turks and Moroccans make up the largest group
with respectively 206,000 and 168,000 people. The Netherlands has a population of
about fifteen million inhabitants, about 6% of the population is non-indigenous. Of the
119,000 non-indigenous children attending primary education, 38,000 are Turkish and
39,000 Moroccan. The total percentage of non-indigenous children in primary
education is twelve per cent (data for the year 1990).
Educational Models
The arrival of non-indigenous children in Dutch education met with various
educational approaches (Verhoeven, 1987). It is possible to distinguish two main
365
2. 366 G. W. ,I, M. Driessen and M. A. van der Grinten
models in these approaches, namely monolingual and bilingual models. From the very
start, a variant of the monolingual model, i.e., the submersion model, has frequently
been used in primary education. In this model non-indigenous children are placed
directly into Dutch classes, where they receive monolingual (Dutch) education. At some
schools, this model has been adapted somewhat by taking the children from their
classes at set times and giving them additional tuition in Dutch as a second language. In
both cases, the learning of Dutch plays a central part and no attention is paid to the
home language of the children. Children who have been in the Netherlands for a
relatively short period of time can receive intensive instruction in Dutch for a maximum
period of one year, with the aim of making it easier to talk to them in Dutch. In the
submersion approach, occasional use is made of the home language; in these situations
foreign teachers, especially Turks and Moroccans, are called in to assist the group
teacher. In this situation, the function of the home language is a purely supportive one.
In bilingual models, the home language is used as well as Dutch. The extent to
which the home language is used does vary, however. In a first variant of the model,
called the transitional model, pupils are instructed in their home language during the
first year. In the second year they are also given instruction in Dutch. At the end of that
year, instruction in their home language is stopped and instruction continues in Dutch
only. In this model, the home language is seen as a temporary aid to facilitate the
learning of Dutch. A second variant is the simultaneous model. In this model, the
children receive half of the instruction in Dutch and half in their home language, for a
period of two to three years. After this period, a complete transition is made to Dutch.
Although the home language is used as the language of instruction for a great deal of
the time, the main emphasis is still on learning Dutch. This does not alter the fact,
however, that it is also possible to use the simultaneous model to achieve a certain
degree of functional biliteracy (language maintenance). In the Netherlands, transitional
and simultaneous models have been applied at only a few schools. A third, very
frequent variant of bilingual education is Home Language Instruction--HLI. 2 This
variant has been around, unofficially, since 1967; since 1970 it has official status and
has been co-financed and organized by the Dutch government. In principle, pupils can
receive HLI throughout their entire primary education. Furthermore, there are also
possibilities for receiving HLI at secondary schools. Since its introduction, there have
been some changes in relation to the aims to be achieved (Lucassen & K6bben, 1992).
Initially, HLI was mainly aimed at maintaining the home language to facilitate
reintegration in case of remigration to the country of origin. Later, a number of aims
were added or substituted, such as: the development of a positive self-image; offering
possibilities for maintaining contacts with relatives and other family members living here
or in the country of origin; reducing the gap between school and home environment;
gaining access to one's own cultural heritage. As a language model, HLI can probably
best be characterized as a restricted maintenance model.
There are several variants of HLI. In some cases a distinction is made between in-
school and out-of-school HLI; in others between official and unofficial HLI. Currently,
a large part of all non-indigenous primary school children have the possibility of getting
five hours of official HLI a week, i.e., HLI subsidized and organized by the Dutch
government. They are allowed to get no more than half of this during school time ("in
school"), which amounts to half a school day. The other half they get after school hours
or on their free Wednesday afternoons ("out of school"). Research (Inspectie van het
3. HomeLanguageProficiency 367
Onderwijs, 1988; Driessen, Jungbluth, & Louvenberg, 1988; Driessen, de Bot, &
Jungbluth, 1989) shows that about 90% of all non-indigenous children receiving HLI
do so during school time; on average the children receive about two hours of HLI a
week. HLI provided outside school hours is mainly attended by the smaller language
groups (e.g., Italians, Spaniards), here too, for an average of two hours a week. It is
important to note that the Dutch government stipulates that the language taught
during HLI should be the official language of the country, and therefore not another
language or dialect spoken in that country (e.g., Kurdish for Turks or Berber for
Moroccans). In addition to this official variant, there are also forms of HLI organized
by the non-indigenous parents themselves or by embassies. In principle, there is no limit
to the number of hours involved. Research carded out by Driessen et al. (1989) shows
that 15% of the Turks and 30% of the Moroccans take part in this kind of out-of-
school instruction, often alongside in-school HLI. In addition to these HLI variants,
Moroccan and Turkish children very often also attend classes in the Koran, in which
classical Arabic plays an important part. It is not exactly clear what is covered in these
classes, and over what period of time. In principle, there is no limit to the number of
hours pupils can receive this type of instruction; in some cases this is up to fifteen hours
a week (Driessen, 1990; Wagenaar, 1993).
Right from the very start, HLI has faced a range of problems. The most recent
studies into this subject (Driessen et al., 1988; Inspectie van het Onderwijs, 1988)
summarize them as follows: There is a shortage of qualified teachers, their command of
Dutch is often poor and their pedagogical-didactic approach is sometimes not in line
with the one generally used in the Netherlands; there is a shortage of educational
resources adapted to the Dutch situation as well as a shortage of classrooms; there are
only occasional contacts and meetings with the Dutch team; there is disagreement
about the aims to be achieved and the time that can be spent on these. The final
conclusion is that HLI is still largely operating in complete isolation from regular Dutch
education, even though the limiting conditions have improved over the years.
Finally, some figures to give an impression with regard to the scale of HLI: In
1991, a total of 66,000 pupils enrolled for official HLI. Of these, 60,000 belonged to the
Turkish and Moroccan population, which constitutes about 75% of the total number of
Turkish and Moroccan pupils. In 1991, official HLI took up a total off 63 million.3
Research
Education involving home language has been an extremely controversial subject
in the Netherlands right from the very start. Those involved can be roughly divided into
two camps. On the one hand, there are the linguists who regard a certain command of
the home language (i.e., the first language) as a necessary prerequisite for developing
an adequate command of Dutch (in this case, the second language).4 These linguists
have, in addition, recently started to attribute an increasingly autonomous function to
bilingual education (in this case, HLI), which involves learning the home language for
its own sake. On the other hand, there are the educationalists and educational
sociologists who do not attribute more than a very temporary supportive function to
the home language in Dutch education. They would prefer to see a situation in which
non-indigenous children start to learn Dutch immediately and do not have to bother
about learning their home language. The disagreement between the two scientific
4. 368 G. W. J. M. Driessen and M. A. van der Grinten
disciplines can, to a certain extent, be reduced to the old deficit versus difference
controversy.5 Advocates and opponents derive the evidence for their own particular
points of view from the same (foreign) sources. On the basis of studies such as the ones
described in the reviews by Baker & de Kanter (1983) and Willig (1985), linguists
postulate that bilingual education most definitely is effective; educationalists use
exactly the same studies to prove the contrary (see also Baker, 1987; Secada, 1987;
Willig, 1987). This deadlock, which has existed since the very start of bilingual
education, has not so far been broken (Lucassen & K~Sbben,1992).
The occasion for the review at hand can be found in the recommendation,
recently given to the government by the Committee for Non-indigenous Pupils in
Education, about the future of HLI (Commissie Allochtone Leerlingen in het Onderwijs,
1992).6 This recommendation makes out a case for drastic future expansion of HLI. In
its recommendations the committee, however, largely ignores questions such as: What
is already known about the effects on home-language proficiency? Is there at this
scale a need for expansion, now and in the future? How long will this need continue
to exist--if it exists at all--and, Can the expansion be realized in practice?
In the discussions concerning the role of the home language in Dutch education,
attention is actually only paid to its use in the learning of Dutch. Very little is known
about the effects it has on home language proficiency itself and this is something which
is hardly ever brought up for discussion.7 The review at hand hopes to provide a
better insight into these effects. The amount of research carried out into in the field of
home-language acquisition by non-indigenous people in the Netherlands, is in fact very
limited. Three criteria were used for the final selection of the studies presently
considered. (1) The studies are to pertain to Turks and Moroccans; there is hardly any
material available on other language groups. (2) Furthermore, the studies must concern
children in primary education; this type of education covers a period of eight years in
total, the first two of which being nursery education and the last six actual "school
years". From now on, we will be referring to these eight years as "forms". The children
concerned are usually aged between four and twelve. (3) Finally, the studies should
also establish a correlation between bilingual education and home-language
proficiency.8
The relevant studies are discussed in detail below. When results are summarized
the emphasis is always on the level of home-language proficiency achieved. Subjects or
relationships covered by the studies, but not directly relevant to the review (for
instance, the correlation between the command of one's own language, on the one
hand, and the command of Dutch or well-being at school, on the other) are therefore
not discussed.
A fixed pattern is followed in describing the selected studies. The paragraph
header refers to the researcher(s) involved in the evaluation. Subsequently the
following issues are dealt with in succession: the educational model involved, the aim
of the study; the design of the study; the sample; the research period, i.e., the data-
collection period; the instruments used to establish the level of language proficiency
(e.g., tests); the analysis techniques used; the most important research results; possibly
some specific remarks that are of importance for the interpretation of the results;
references which have not yet been quoted in the discussion, in order of importance.
5. Home LanguageProficiency
Empirical Findings
369
Study 1: Teunissen
Model. An experimental bilingual model, in which in the third form during 55%
of the time the Turkish and Moroccan children were taught in their home language and
for the remaining 45% of the time in Dutch; in the fourth form, the ratios were reversed.
Both years were spent in ethnically homogeneous classes. From the fifth form onwards,
the children attended regular Dutch education (together with Dutch children) and in
addition received 2.5 hours of HLI a week. A control group at other schools only
received regular Dutch education and 2.5 hours of HLI a week.
Aim. A study into the effects of a bilingual-bicultural educational programme for
Moroccan and Turkish pupils.
Design. Longitudinal, quasi-experimental, five cohorts.
Sample. A local sample, in one city. Bilingual group: one primary school with 70
Turkish pupils and one primary school with 78 Moroccan pupils; control group: 20
primary schools with a total of 86 Turkish pupils. Age at the start: six to seven years
old. When drawing samples, matches were made on starting level, age, participation in
nursery education, social background, sex and home language.
Period. 1980-1984.
Instruments. Two receptive oral tests: listening comprehension and vocabulary;
these were used to match the bilingual group with the control group. Three tests were
used for the effect measurement itself: vocabulary, word decoding and reading
comprehension. These were parallel tests, i.e., Turkish or Arabic translations of existing
Dutch tests, or self-developed tests (derived from Turkish or Moroccan instructional
materials). Reliability computations were not made for all of the tests; the number of
items involved in each of the tests is not known either. Attention was paid to
concurrent validity. By means of the latter three tests, the level of comprehension,
verbal fluency and reading proficiency was tested in Turkish and Arabic, respectively;
writing proficiency was not tested. Tests for matching were administered prior to the
experiment (at the end of the second form), the tests for the effect measurement itself in
the third and fourth form (i.e., during the experiment) and in the two subsequent forms,
i.e., the fifth and sixth form. Not all of the tests were, however, administered to all of the
pupils in all of the forms. One Arabic test (reading comprehension) could not be
administered at all because it turned out to be too difficult. On average 30 to 40 pupils
from each sub-group took part in the tests. Pupils repeating a year were tested a year
later and their results were subsequently included in those of their original cohort.
Techniques. Table analysis, analysis of variance.
Results. At the beginning of the experiment the vocabulary and listening
comprehension of the Turkish and Moroccan bilingual groups was no different from
that of the Turkish control group. In the vocabulary, word decoding and reading
comprehension tests the Turkish bilingual group scored significantly higher than the
Turkish control group in all forms. The Moroccan bilingual group scored significantly
lower than the Turkish bilingual group on all tests and in practically all forms.
As far as the development of language proficiency is concerned, the vocabulary
test for the Turkish bilingual group showed an average change in score from 14.7 to
15.7 points (SD=2) and the Turkish control group from 12.3 to 12.5 (SD=3); the
Moroccan bilingual group went from 11.9 to 14.5 points (SD-3). In the decoding test,
the score for the Turkish bilingual group went from 19.4 to 62.7 (SD=I 1); for the
Turkish control group scores went from 16.4 to 50.2 (SD---10) and for the Moroccan
bilingual group from 19.8 to 24.0 (SD=6). It should be kept in mind that these
development data pertain to a period of four years.
6. 370 G. W. J. M. Driessen and M. A. van der Grinten
Teunissen concludes that the bilingual programme has a clear and fairly constant
positive effect on the development of the native language of non-indigenous pupils,
without seriously affecting their development in the Dutch language and related school
subjects.
Remarks. For the Turkish bilingual model there was a control group; it was not
possible, however, to find such a comparative group for the Moroccan bilingual model.
Consequently, it is hard to interpret the test results of the Moroccan children from the
experimental group. Teunissen compares the scores on the Turkish tests with those on
the Arabic tests; it is very much the question whether it is possible to do this at all.
Furthermore, it is not clear exactly which pupils were tested at which moments, with the
aid of which instruments. To the extent that they can be interpreted, the test results
show that the language development of the Moroccan pupils lags behind that of both
the Turkish bilingual group and the Turkish control group. The positive effects noted
by Teunissen, therefore only apply to Turkish bilingual classes.
References. Teunissen (1986a; 1986b).
Study 2: Verhoeven
Model. Two experimental bilingual models. The Turkish pupils in the third form
of school A were first only taught in Turkish for a period of two months. After this, they
attended lessons conducted in Turkish in separate mother tongue classes for about half
of the time, while attending lessons in Dutch, together with Dutch pupils during the
other half of the time. By the end of the fourth form, the Turkish and Dutch children
were all receiving full-time education in Dutch; the Turkish children, however, had some
extra hours of HLI. In the third form of school B the pupils were only taught in Turkish;
it was not until the fourth form that instruction in Dutch was added. The model of
school A is a variant of the simultaneous model, and that of school B of the transitional
model. A control group of Turkish children also attended a few hours of HLI a week in
addition to Dutch education, in the third and fourth form.
Aim. A study into the effect of two linguistic models on the acquisition of
language proficiency in Turkish and Dutch.
Design. Longitudinal, quasi-experimental.
Sample. Local sample, in four cities. Bilingual group: two primary schools, forms
3 and 4 (17 and 8 Turkish pupils, respectively); control group: ten primary schools,
forms 3 and 4 (a total of 74 Turkish pupils). Average age at the start: 6.5. When
drawing the sample, matches were made on such factors as home language, social
background, participation in nursery education, age and the number of years that had
to be repeated.
Period. 1982-1984.
Instruments. Four tests to establish oral proficiency: phoneme discrimination (30
items), receptive vocabulary (108 items), productive vocabulary (80 items), sentence
imitation (24 items). Three tests to establish reading proficiency: word recognition
(reading out words correctly; 60 items), word spelling (32 items), reading
comprehension (20 items). Parallel versions were developed for all of these tests: one in
Dutch and one in Turkish. The tests were used to measure oral proficiency, reading and
comprehension skills; writing proficiency was not included. The reliability (KR20, o~)of
the tests varied from 0.83 to 0.96. Attention was paid to concurrent validity and
content validity. The tests were administered three times: after one month, after ten
months and after twenty months. However, as a result of a number of pupils dropping
out of the experiment (because of remigratiori or having to repeat a year), only 70% of
the pupils were tested at the last measurement.
Techniques. t-test, multi-variate analysis of variance, regression analysis,
correlational analysis.
7. Home Language Proficiency 371
Results. At measuring moment 1 the oral proficiency levels of pupils in Turkish
and Dutch were ascertained. Both the bilingual and the control group appeared to be
significantly better in Turkish than in Dutch. As far as the development of oral Turkisfi
proficiency during the three measuring moments is concerned, it became apparent that
both groups showed significant progress at about equal rates; however, the bilingual
group already started with higher scores at measuring moment 1.
With regard to reading proficiency, it was concluded that there were no
significant differences between the experimental group and the control group in word
recognition and word spelling; the pupils from the bilingual group were, however,
better at Turkish and the pupils from the control group better at Dutch. As regards
reading comprehension, there were no significant differences between the two groups,
either for Turkish or for Dutch.
Verhoeven's final conclusion was that the education received by the pupils in
the control group did not adequately link up with the background of the Turkish
pupils, in view of the fact that for these pupils Turkish was still the dominant language
even after two years of nursery education in Dutch. When comparing the two groups, it
became apparent that the Turkish pupils in the bilingual model were achieving better
results in Turkish and more or less comparable results in Dutch.
Remarks. Parallel versions were developed for each of the tests used; in general,
this meant that the Dutch tests were "translated" into Turkish. Next, the results obtained
in both tests were compared. This approach is based on the assumption that the
underlying psycho-linguistic operations for both languages are identical, or at least
comparable; it is questionable whether this assumption is in factjustified.
Due to pupils having to repeat a year or to remigration, both groups showed a
drop-out rate of about 30% after one year. It is not clear how this affects the average
level of the remaining pupils.
One remarkable conclusion (which was not drawn in the research report) is--
taking into account the differences in scores at the start of the research--that for the
level of Turkish it apparently makes little or no difference whether pupils (in form 3) are
taught in Turkish half of the time (the transitional model A), all of the time (simultaneous
model B) or merely a few hours a week (the control group). In other words: the amount
of instruction does not appear to affect the level achieved.
The research leaves a number of important questions unanswered, such as the
one relating to the effect of the HLI received by the pupils in the control group, and
another relating to the class sizes of the categories compared: If the two bilingual
classes were (much) smaller than the control group classes--as the report implies--then
it is possible that the effects are partly due to the fact that the children in the first group
received much more individual attention from their teachers than the ones in the second
group.
References. Verhoeven (1987).
Study 3: Driessen, de Bot and Jungbluth
Model. HLI. Practically all of the children received HLI, but the number of hours
per week varied greatly.
Aim. A study into the correlation between, on the one hand, HLI participation,
and on the other, knowledge of one's home language and culture, or performances in
"regular" Dutch education.
Design. Cross-sectional, quasi-experimental.
Sample. National, random sample of 120 primary schools containing all pupils in
the eighth form; 368 Turkish and 254 Moroccan pupils; average age: 12.5.
Period. 1987/88.
8. 372 G. W. J. M. Driessen and M. A. van der Grinten
Instruments. Written language tests (multiple choice and open questions) in
Turkish (81 items) and Standard Arabic (53 items). As far as the linguistic description
level was concerned, distinctions were made in the test between pragmatics, idiom,
vocabulary, grammar and spelling. The level of the tests was adjusted to what the pupils
should command, according to HLI teachers, policy makers, and educational and
language experts. Pupil self-evaluation scales had scores ranging from (I) "I cannot do
this" to (5) "I find this very easy" (12 items). Teacher's ratings featured scores ranging
from (1) "definitely no command" to (5) "definite command" (four items). The reliability
((~) of the instruments ranged from 0.83 to 0.93. Face validity, concurrent validity and
content validity were studied in more detail. The tests were used to measure reading
and writing proficiency, the pupil self-evaluation scales and teacher's ratings were used
to measure listening/comprehension, verbal fluency, reading and writing proficiency.
Techniques. Table analysis, correlational analysis, analysis of variance, regression
and path analysis.
Results. The Turkish pupils got 73% of the test items right. Of the Moroccan
pupils, 42% did not get a single item right; of the remaining 58 per cent, the average
percentage of correctly answered items was 33. For Turkish and Moroccan pupils, the
scores on the self-evaluation scale were 4.2 and 3.2 respectively. It should be noted
that for the Moroccans verbal command was better than written command (3.5 and 3.0,
respectively). On the teacher's rating scale the Turkish and Moroccan pupils scored 4.1
and 3.5, respectively.
In order to study the correlation between HLI participation and home language
proficiency, HLI participation was indexed using the average number of hours per
week during which the children had received HLI over the past years. Because of this,
it was necessary to first of all check whether there were any differences between the
various categories of HLI participation. The correlation between HLI participation and
language proficiency was linear in only a few cases. For the Turkish pupils, the
maximum nominal-metric correlation (Eta) with the three effect measures (test, scale and
rating) was 0.27 and for the Moroccans it was 0.26.
The following characteristics appeared to be of (some) importance in explaining
the differences in home language proficiency. For the Turkish pupils: HLI participation,
age (negative), motivation, the importance which parents attach to HLI; the HLI teacher
working towards the aim of "language maintenance". For the Moroccan pupils the most
important factors were: language use at home (Moroccan Arabic versus Berber), the
length of stay (negative), use of Dutch (negative), and the degree of contact between
the HLI teacher and the parents of the pupils. Speaking a Berber dialect at home, in
particular, had a strong negative effect on the command of Arabic. The linear
correlation (r) between home language proficiency and Dutch language proficiency for
Turkish pupils amounted to a maximum of 0.14 and for Moroccan pupils -0.22
(negative).
The final conclusion drawn by Driessen et al. is that there are major differences in
language proficiency levels. The level of Turkish appears to be fairly good, whereas the
level of spoken Arabic is poor and that of written Arabic definitely very low. The
correlation between language level and HL1 attendance is weak to very weak.
Remarks. During the construction phase the Standard Arabic test had to be very
much simplified, because a pilot study had shown that the pupils would not be able to
attain the level originally aimed for; in addition, the test was produced in vocalized
Arabic, which also meant a simplification.
It can be viewed as a disadvantage that one of the instruments used, the test,
only measured general language proficiency, and was not sub-divided into sub-tests;
this makes it hard to establish pupils' level on certain psycho-linguistic sub-aspects.
In a comparative study in three Moroccan cities involving 117 pupils (forms 2-4;
aged between 8-12) the Standard Arabic test was administered again (Bentahila &
Davies, 1990). It appeared that 47, 51 and 78% of the pupils in the second, third and
9. HomeLanguageProficiency 373
fourth form, respectively, were able to answer the test questions correctly. From this,
Bentahila and Davies conclude, that the results in the Netherlands are not all that bad,
compared with the results obtained in Morocco itself. In any case not as bad as they
first appeared to be. According to Driessen & de Bot (1991), the findings in Morocco
provide a double relativization for the low test results obtained in the Netherlands. On
the one hand, the level aimed at in the Netherlands is far too high, and on the other
hand, the level achieved in Morocco itself is very low.
References. Driessen et al. (1989), de Bot et al. (1991), Driessen (1990; 1991a;
1991b; 1992a; 1992b; 1993; 1994), Driessen and de Bot (1990), de Ruiter (1992).
Study 4: Van de Wetering
Model. HLI. The children received HLI but the extent to which they received it
varied widely.
Aim. A study into the effectiveness of HLI to Moroccan children, and especially
into the effects of education in the Arabic language.
Design. Longitudinal, quasi-experimental.
Sample. Local sample, eight primary schools in two large cities; 447 Moroccan
pupils from forms 3-8; aged between 6-14.
Period. 1983-1985.
Instruments. Decoding test (63 words), reading comprehension test I (14 multiple
choice items), reading comprehension test II (13 multiple choice items). The decoding
test measured reading proficiency and verbal fluency, and the reading comprehension
tests measured the level of reading proficiency. Pupils were not required to produce
any written work. All three tests were translated and edited versions of existing Dutch
tests. The level of the tests was adjusted to the level at the end of third form of primary
school. In this study, the reliability of the tests was not established, but reference was
made to studies in which the reliability (o0 for reading comprehension was 0.63.
Aspects of concurrent validity were taken up. The tests were administered three times,
however, not always on the whole sample, since the experiment had a drop-out rate of
over 45%.
Techniques. Table analysis.
Results. The researcher presents the test results in relation to the number of years
of Arabic-language instruction the pupils had received, both in the Netherlands and in
Morocco. In the word decoding test 71% of the pupils with three years of Arabic
education or more got at least 33 of the items correct in the first research year; in the
second research year, the same score was achieved by 72% of the pupils with four
years of Arabic education or more, and in the third research year by 76% of the pupils
with five years of Arabic education or more. In reading comprehension test I, 70% of
the pupils with three years of Arabic education or more got at least 10 out of 14
questions right in the first year; in the second year the same score was achieved by
84% of the pupils with four years of Arabic education or more, and in the third year by
87% of the pupils with five years of Arabic education or more. In reading
comprehension test II, 39% of the pupils got l0 or more of the 13 questions right, in the
first year; the following year the same score was achieved by 33% of the pupils and in
the last research year by 48% of the pupils.
Van de Wetering's final conclusion was that the yield of HLI in the field of word
decoding and reading comprehension is relatively low; that at least three years are
needed to round off the decoding process and that after five to six years of HLI pupils
can be expected to voice and comprehend a simple vocalized text, on condition,
however, that HLI functions under reasonably favourable circumstances.
Remarks. In Driessen (1991c) attention is drawn to the fact that no more than
54% of the pupils participated in the decoding test; for reading comprehension test I
10. 374 G. W. J. M. Driessen and M. A. van der Grinten
this percentage was 24 and for reading comprehension test II it was a mere 9%. This
was caused, on the one hand, by the fact that HLI teachers often did not allow their
pupils to participate in the test administration because they felt their pupils could not
meet the required level, anyway; and, on the other hand, by the fact that pupils who
were not successful in the first test were not allowed to go on with the second or,
respectively, third test. In addition, about half of the respondents dropped out in the
course of the research. Furthermore, the number of test items was extremely small and
only reading proficiency was tested; no research was carried out into writing
proficiency. Consequently, the results presented undoubtedly very much over-estimate
the level of the group as a whole. Driessen (1992c) therefore warns against drawing
incorrect conclusions. He shows that the interpretation adopted by van de Wetering is
not correct, or at least incomplete. From his re-analyses it appears that the level of
language proficiency is extremely low and that this level furthermore goes down for
each consecutive form as the years go by.
References. Van de Wetering (1988; 1990), Driessen (1994).
Study 5: De Ruiter, Aarts and Verhoeven
Model. HLI. The pupils participated in HLI to various degrees.
Aim. The development of Turkish and Arabic tests which present a summarized
picture of the yield of HLI in primary education and also a diagnostic profile for HLI in
secondary education.
Design. Cross-sectional, quasi-experimental.
Sample. The study was made up of three parts: an exploratory study, the main
study (both in the Netherlands) and a comparative study (in Turkey or Morocco). The
exploratory study pertains to a local sample: 23 primary schools in seven cities with 69
Turkish and 81 Moroccan pupils in the eighth form. For the main study, a national,
random sample was drawn; 68 primary schools; 263 Turkish and 222 Moroccan pupils
in the eighth form. The comparative study in Turkey pertains to a local sample survey:
six primary schools in two cities, with 276 pupils in the highest form. The study in
Morocco pertains to a local sample; six primary schools in two cities, with 242 pupils in
the highest form.
Period. 1990, 1991.
Instruments. Two tests to establish listening proficiency: vocabulary and
instruction comprehension; four test to establish reading proficiency: word decoding,
spelling, vocabulary, syntax and reading comprehension. In the first instance a total of
almost 300 multiple choice-items was used to determine receptive language proficiency,
i.e., only understanding/comprehension and reading proficiency. In the exploratory
study, two parallel versions were developed, i.e., a Turkish test and a Moroccan
Arabic/Standard Arabic test. The reliability (ct) of the original tests for Arabic ranged
from 0.38 to 0.93 and the reliability for Turkish tests from 0.57 to 0.92. After
adjustment (by means of removing about 100 items), the reliability varied from 0.67 to
0.94. Part of the tests had been derived from Dutch material intended for six year olds.
Content validity and concurrent validity were ascertained.
Techniques. t-test and correlational analysis.
Results. Test scores were converted into the percentage of items answered
correctly. In the exploratory and the main study carried out in the Netherlands, the
scores of the Turkish pupils varied between 52 and 96. A distinction can be made here
between, on the one hand, listening proficiency, with scores between 75 and 87, and
reading proficiency on the other, with scores between 52 and 67. The word-decoding
test was not included in the latter; the scores on this were 93 and 96. In the
comparative study carried out in Turkey, the scores were generally higher than those in
the main study (by 5 to 18 test points), with the exception of those for reading
11. HomeLanguageProficiency 375
comprehension and instruction (6 points lower). The researchers concluded that in the
Netherlands pupils did reasonably well in the spelling test and fairly satisfactorily in the
reading comprehension test. On the other parts they achieved very reasonable to good
scores. Furthermore, the researchers argued that the children in the Netherlands did not
lag very far behind those in Turkey; the areas in which the pupils lagged behind most
were spelling and written vocabulary.
For the Moroccan children the scores in the exploratory and the main study
varied between 24 and 81. For listening proficiency, the scores were between 52 and
74 and for reading proficiency between 24 and 60. Here, again, the scores for word
decoding were considerably higher, namely 81 and 79 respectively. In the comparative
study in Morocco, the scores on all parts were considerably higher, i.e. 13 to 42 points
compared to the main study. The conclusions were that listening proficiency was fair
and that instruction comprehension was of a lower level. Word decoding presented few
difficulties and the researchers also considered the level of reading comprehension to
be satisfactory. However, the children did not have a command of spelling and syntax
yet and their written vocabulary was not very extensive. According to the researchers,
it was possible to conclude on the basis of the differences between the results obtained
in the Netherlands and those obtained in Morocco that the children in the Netherlands
have a better command then was found in earlier research (in this case, Driessen et al.,
1989 and van de Wetering, 1990).
The final conclusion of the study is that the Turkish pupils in general have a high
level of listening proficiency and reading proficiency in Turkish; the listening
proficiency of the Moroccan children is reasonably good, but their reading proficiency
is fairly poor.
In the exploratory study, the correlation between language proficiency and HLI
participation was also examined. For the Turkish pupils (who had on average attended
six years of HLI), the correlations (r) were between -0.01 and 0.31, of which the
correlations for the oral tests were the highest. The relationships between the degree to
which the children spoke Turkish at home and with friends (versus Dutch) were all
weak to very weak, and sometimes even negative; the correlations varied from -0.18 to
0.28. Tests of the differences between first form entrants and higher form entrants (side
streamers) showed that the group that had attended Dutch education from the first form
onwards in general scored worse. For the Moroccan children the correlations between
the test parts and HLI participation varied from -0.13 and 0.30. The correlation between
the degree to which the pupils spoke Arabic at home or with friends (versus Dutch) and
the test parts were also weak; they varied from -0.16 tot 0.38. In general, the differences
in language proficiency between f'trst form entrants and higher form entrants were small
and not significant at any point, which led the researchers to draw the conclusion that
education attended in Morocco apparently does not have an effect on the test scores.
Remarks. Driessen's (1992d) criticism of this study is not just directed at its
technical-methodological aspects, but also very much at the way in which the
researchers interpret the results. His main objection is that the tests were limited to
receptive language proficiency; the pupils were not expected to produce language.
Therefore, the researchers only succeeded in finding out something about listening and
reading skills (the easier skills), but nothing about verbal and writing skills (the more
difficult skills). In view of this limitation, Driessen feels that the researchers very much
overstepped their mark by concluding that the Turkish children had a "good" command
of Turkish and the Moroccan children a "reasonably good" command of verbal Arabic
and a "fairly poor" command of written Arabic. He states that if the children had been
subjected to productive tests (as was the case in the research by Driessen et al., 1989)
their level would no doubt have turned out to be considerably lower than the one
suggested.
Another point of criticism raised (Driessen, 1993) relates to, among other things,
the fact that on three out of the seven Moroccan tests the pupils did not, or hardly,
12. 376 G. W. J. M. Driessen and M. A. van der Grinten
score above guessing level (four multiple choice items, with on average 24 to 33% of
the items answered correctly). It is further stated that a very rosy picture was painted of
the results of the exploratory study. From the research report (Aarssen, de Ruiter, &
Verhoeven, 1992) it appears that only half of the pupils took part in some parts of the
test. The remaining pupils were not allowed to participate in the tests by their HLI
teachers, who felt that the tests were far too difficult and that their pupils would not be
able to do them anyway. In other words: If these pupils were to have sat the tests, the
general average would have dropped considerably as a result.
References. De Ruiter et al. (1992), Aarssen et al. (1993), de Ruiter (1992).
Study 6: Wagena~
Model. In an experimental bilingual model, in an ethnically homogeneous class,
in the first and second form of primary education (nursery school) Moroccan Arabic
was spoken in the mornings and Dutch in the afternoons (for respectively 15 and 8
hours per week). Originally the intention was to reverse the set up in the third form, but
owing to the non-availability of Moroccan teachers it became necessary to switch to
Dutch education with some additional hours of HLI per week after the second form.
The third form did however remain ethnically homogeneous; in the fourth form the
children were distributed over various ethnically heterogeneous classes. A control
group consisted of Moroccan pupils receiving normal Dutch education as well as some
hours of HLI a week.
Aim. A study into the effects of bilingual nursery education on the school career
of Moroccan children.
Design. Longitudinal, quasi-experimental.
Sample. A local sample, one primary school (bilingual model) and two primary
schools (control group) in a large city; two times 30 Moroccan children from the first,
second and fourth form; two times 23 pupils who spoke Moroccan Arabic at home, and
two times 7 pupils who spoke Berber. The average age at the start of the study was 4.5.
In the sampling, matches were made against ethnic background, age, sex, and socio-
economic background.
Period. 1987-1991.
Instruments. The sub-tests for language comprehension and language
production (speaking) of the Reynell Developmental Language Test and the sub-tests
for passive and active vocabulary of the Language Test for Non-indigenous Children.
These tests were used to measure oral language proficiency; they were Moroccan
Arabic translations of existing Dutch tests. No information is available about the
content and number of items of the tests, and no data is presented about the reliability
and validity of the tests. The tests were administered three times: at the beginning of the
first form (pre-test), at the end of the second form (effect measurement), and at the end
of the fourth form (post-test).
Techniques. Analysis of (co)variance, regression analysis, correlational analysis,
discriminant analysis.
Results. The results of the first two measuring moments are expressed in age
equivalents. In the first measurement, the bilingual group scored 3.8 years for
Moroccan Arabic language comprehension and the control group scored 4.1 years (the
norm is 4.5 years). There was only one significant effect for ethnic group: the scores of
the Arabic-speaking children were 3.8 and 4.6 years, those of the Berber-speaking
children were considerably lower, i.e., 2.5 and 2.4 years in the bilingual group,
respectively, the control group. The language production level for Moroccan Arabic
was much lower, for the bilingual and control group the scores were 2.8 and 2.9 years,
which is more than 1.5 years below their norm. Here, too, ethnic group had a significant
effect. The Arabic speaking children obtained scores of 2.9 and 3.2 years and the
13. HomeLanguageProficiency 377
Berber-speaking children obtained scores of 2.2 and 1.9 years. In all cases, the scores
for Dutch language comprehension and language production were.about 2.5 years,
which is below the level of Moroccan Arabic, and 2 years below the norm. According
to Wagenaar, the latter provides an argument for offering bilingual education.
In the second measurement, which took place when the children were aged 6,
the bilingual group's score for Moroccan Arabic language comprehension was 5.3
years and the control group's was 3.7 years; after checking for the first measurement
this difference turned out to be a significant one. There was also a significant difference
between Moroccan Arabic and Berber speaking children: 5.7 years and 4.5 years
versus 4.9 and 2.9 years for the bilingual group and the control group, respectively.
Therefore, the bilingual group was more than six months, and the control group two
years, below the norm. In the bilingual group the Berber speaking children were more
than one year below the norm. The picture for language production was comparable,
the difference being that the overall level of verbal fluency was much lower than the
level of comprehension. The scores for the bilingual group and the control group were
3.9 and 2.9 years, respectively. After checking the level for the first measurement this
difference appeared to be a significant one. There were major differences between
Moroccan Arabic speaking and Berber speaking children, but these were not
significant. In the bilingual group both sub-groups appeared to have profited from the
education, but the Arabic speaking children considerably more so than the Berber
speaking ones. Wagenaar states that the level of the Berber children is still so low that
one should have serious doubts about the use of Moroccan Arabic education for this
group. She attributes this result to the fact that the home language of the Berber
children is a Berber variant and not Moroccan Arabic.
Regression analysis was used to establish which factors could explain the
differences in the level of Arabic. For language comprehension the ethnic origin
(Moroccan Arabic versus Berber) appeared to be the most important predictive factor,
followed by participation or non-participation in the experiment (fl=-0.48, andfl=0.28,
respectively); the same factors applied for language production, although the strength
of the coefficients differed (fl=-0.26 andfl=0.61, respectively). IQ, sex, educational level
of parents and language orientation at home no longer appeared to have a significant
effect.
In the third measurement, which took place two years after the experiment was
completed, the expected norm for passive vocabulary was between 83 and 92.
Although the scores of the bilingual group were considerably higher than those of the
control group (62 versus 47), this difference appeared not to be significant. Both
groups stayed well below the norm, despite the fact that both groups had attended HLI
in the third and fourth form. The expected norm for active vocabulary was between 42
and 51; the scores of the bilingual group and control group were 18 and 17
respectively. After controlling for the starting measurement, this difference was not
significant either. Wagenaar concluded that the home-language proficiency of the
bilingual group continued to develop well during the period in which the experiment
was being run, but stagnated when the experiment was stopped. Productive language
proficiency in particular appears to be sensitive to education. According to the
researcher, the Moroccan Arabic language is given insufficient support in the home
environment to allow it to continue to develop.
A relatively large number of children from the bilingual group were referred to
special education. Discriminant analysis showed that this was mainly related to Berber
background and a very traditional family orientation on the one hand, and participation
in the bilingual model, i.e., attending Moroccan Arabic education, on the other. On the
basis of this Wagenaar advises Berber speaking children against participation in this
type of bilingual nursery school.
14. 378 G. W. J. M. Driessen and M. A. van der Grinten
Remarks. It is unfortunate that there are no norms available for the tests used,
which were all Moroccan Arabic translations, when constant comparisons are being
made with a norm group (based on the Dutch tests).
References. Wagenaar (1990; 1993), Wagenaar and Scholte (1989a; 1989b;
1990).
Conclusions
In the first place, it is remarkable that in 25 years of bilingual education no more
than six studies have been financed in which the effect of this type of education on
home-language proficiency is examined. In fact, only one study (by Driessen et al.,
1989) into the effects of HLI was financed by the Ministry of Education and Science.9
Its budget amounted to about 0.3 million guilders. This is in sharp contrast to the
amount of money that has been invested in HLI over the last 25 years (roughly
estimated to be around 1 billion guilders). The controversial and sensitive nature of this
type of education could be seen as the cause for this. Just like in all other matters
relating to ethnic minorities in general, politicians and policy makers are somewhat
reluctant to make hard statements or take decisions with regard to this type of
education (cf. Lucassen & Ktibben, 1992). They would rather steer clear of this type of
issue than run the risk of getting their hands burnt. It is, after all, somewhat remarkable
that there appears to be no more of a need to get some insight into the effects of an
investment of this kind by the authorities (in financial terms) and by the children
concerned (more than 10 per cent of the time they spend in primary education).
A second conclusion relates to the fact that part of the studies discussed are
dated. The data for the studies by Verhoeven, by van de Wetering and Teunissen was
collected more than ten years ago, the data for the studies by Driessen and Wagenaar
more than five years ago. This is a serious shortcoming, particularly for the theme at
hand, because there is every indication that the length of time the pupils have spent in
the Netherlands--which increases over the years--is a very decisive factor for their
command of the home language.
Another consideration relates to the size of the samples. Those of the studies
involving transitional and simultaneous models (Teunissen, Verhoeven, Wagenaar) are
particularly small, making generalization problematic.
An important issue is that of the home language itself. The bilingual programmes
were first introduced in the Netherlands, because it was felt that non-indigenous pupils
had the right to learn their home language (also referred to as "mother tongue," "native
language" or "first language"), in order to be able to communicate with their
family/relatives in that language, gain access to their own cultures, or acquire this
language as an aid to facilitate the learning of Dutch. Only a few people have pointed
out that for a very large part of the non-indigenous people concerned the official
national language in which they are to be taught is not in fact their home language at
all (Driessen, 1991a). This is also the case for the two groups discussed here. There is
not a single Moroccan child that speaks Standard Arabic at home: they either speak a
Moroccan Arabic dialect or a Berber variant (people speaking one dialect or variant
can hardly, if at all, understand those speaking another dialect or variant, for that
matter). To them, Standard Arabic is a completely foreign language. To many Turkish
children, Standard Turkish is equally foreign. Turks originating from the rural areas,
15. Home Language Proficiency 379
especially, speak dialects that deviate from Standard Turkish to a greater or lesser
extent. Furthermore, Turkey has some minority languages, of which Kurdish is probably
the best-known one. For Kurds, in particular, who are oppressed in Turkey and whose
language was officially forbidden until recently, it is psychologically unacceptable that
they should learn Standard Turkish, the language of their oppressors, in bilingual
education.
In view of this peculiar situation, some important aims of bilingual education
definitely no longer hold any water. Command of the official national language, after
all, is no guarantee that the children will be able to communicate with family
members/relatives. Often the culture taught is not their "own" culture. Nor can it be
expected that education in a language and culture which are not one's own will
contribute to a positive self-image. Possible transfer-effects are also unlikely in this
case: if a foreign standard language is taught instead of the mother tongue this in fact
means that pupils have to learn a third, foreign language.
Another important point is the way in which the progress, the stagnation or
deterioration in the language development of the individual or the groups is
determined. This therefore involves the point of reference selected or the norm with
which the test scores of pupils from the sample are to be compared (see Jaspaert, Kroon,
& van Hout, 1986). One possibility is to compare form cohorts with varying lengths of
stay or periods of instruction (see Driessen et al., 1989; van de Wetering, 1990) or to
compare subsequent generations (e.g., de Ruiter, 1989; Huls & van de Mond, 1992).
Another frequently used method is the one in which pupils in the immigration country
are compared with pupils in the country of origin (see Driessen et al., 1989; de Ruiter,
1992; Boeschoten, 1990; Schaufeli, 1991). Usually, both groups are first matched on
some background characteristics such as age, socio-economic background and
language background, before the test results are compared. The (relativizing)
conclusion which is then frequently drawn, is that the children in the immigration
country (in this case, the Netherlands) do not lag very far behind those in the country
of origin.
However, some words of caution are called for when drawing this type of
conclusion. In the first place, it is possible to conclude from the study by Schaufeli
(1991) that the tests administered in Turkey were biased. This bias was caused by the
fact that the children in Turkey--as a result of the different pedagogic-didactic
approach generally used there, which is based on competition and reproduction of
knowledge--often were not accustomed to the type of tests they had to complete for
the Dutch researchers. As a result the reliability and validity of the test results are
questionable. At the same time this also means that the true level in Turkey might have
been underestimated. This in turn could mean that the children in Turkey are in fact
performing much better than the children in the Netherlands. Naturally, a similar
conclusion would apply to Morocco. A second word of caution relates to the fact that
these designs were not matched on one vital characteristic: education, especially the
quality of that education. Characteristics such as organization, pedagogic-didactic
approach and content were not included in the comparison, either. In other words, the
fact that the level of education in the country of immigration and the country of origin
can vary immensely is overlooked, as well as the fact that the level of language
proficiency in the country of origin might have been considerably higher if this
education had been of the same quality as that in the country of immigration.
16. 380 G. W. J. M. Dries,sen and M. A. van der Grinten
The following example (partly) derived from the study by Schaufeli (1991)
should illustrate this. This researcher compares Turkish children in the Netherlands with
those in Turkey and points out the following problems: The children in Turkey often
have to walk long distances in order to get to school; they are frequently absent, for
instance, when the weather is bad or when they have to help out at home--this is
particularly true for girls. As the children frequently have to help out at home, they do
not have time to do homework for school. At home there is no tradition of attending
school or reading, and children therefore do not receive any help with their homework,
either. All the instructional materials, including the school books, have to be paid for
by the (often needy) parents themselves; if there is no money, then the children do not
have books. Children are taught in very heterogeneous classes with one (underpaid)
teacher for (up to) 60 pupils. The pedagogic-didactic approach is characterized by
discipline, imitation and role learning. When this is compared with the situation in the
Netherlands (or any other western country) it is obvious that the level in the country
of origin simply cannot appear anything but low. It is therefore unjustified to use the
country of origin as a point of reference and subsequently be satisfied with the level
achieved in the country of immigration. In view of the "luxurious" educational situation
in the Netherlands, the level achieved here could be expected to be at least the same as
that in the country of origin, despite the relatively limited period of instruction--
certainly when it comes to written language proficiency.
One last point refers to the language skills examined. A rough classification is
one in which four language modalities are distinguished: understanding, speaking,
reading and writing. The first and third are receptive skills and the second and fourth
are productive skills. In general, it is assumed that the sequence in which the modalities
are presented here is also one of increasing difficulty. Only one of the studies looked at
in this review (Driessen et al., 1989) pays attention to the most difficult skill, writing (i.e.,
written language production); the other studies limit themselves to oral proficiency and
reading. This is a serious limitation because they only shed light on a part of language
proficiency. (The fact that practically all studies only make use of multiple-choice tests
is a problem too.) This is most certainly something which will have to be taken into
consideration in the interpretation of the research results.
By now, it will have become clear that in terms of methodology there are many
flaws in the studies discussed. In this respect, the Dutch situation is no different from
that existed in the USA ten years ago (Baker & de Kanter, 1983; Birman & Ginsberg,
1983; Willig, 1985). This means that it is almost impossible to draw hard conclusions
about the effectiveness of bilingual programmes. Statements concerning the level of
language skills as such, -- i.e., ones that do not take into consideration instructional
characteristics -- are somewhat less risky to make but not entirely unproblematic either.
If we disregard this type of objection, we can point out the following trends in
language skills as such. The level of Turkish appears to be reasonably good, both from
an oral and a written point of view. As far as the level of Arabic is concerned, an
emphatic distinction has to be made between Moroccan Arabic (the informal, spoken
language) and Standard Arabic (the formal, written language). The command of the first
is limited, that of the second downright poor. The difference in level can largely be
attributed to the fact that to all Moroccans, Standard Arabic is a foreign language.
Furthermore, the children do not live in Morocco but in the Netherlands, which makes it
even more difficult for them to learn Standard Arabic: it is written in another direction
17. Home Language Proficiermy 381
(from the right to the left), uses different characters, and there is little communication in,
and contact with, Standard Arabic.
The programmes' effect on the level of language proficiency is not entirely clear.
Transitional and simultaneous models appear to be more effective than HLI
programmes, which is probably related to the length of the period of instruction, the age
at which it is provided, the length of stay and the home language of the children. As
concerns the question about to the persistence of the effects of transitional and
simultaneous models after completion of the experiments, the results are not promising
(see Wagenaar, 1993). The correlation between HLI and home-language proficiency is
at the very best weak, and at the very worst negative. For the language level, factors
such as home language (e.g., Moroccan Arabic versus Berber or Dutch) and length of
stay (the longer the period of stay in the Netherlands, the lower the level) appear to be
at least as important as the (period of) instruction. Among Moroccan children in
particular a very definite loss of language, or perhaps more aptly, a stagnation in
language acquisition seems to take place. This is confirmed by linguistic studies carried
out in the Netherlands, which have not been discussed here, such as those by Nortier
(1989) and de Ruiter (1989) for Arabic, and Boeschoten (1990), Schaufeli (1991) and
Huls and van de Mond (1992) for Turkish. One should probably not expect HLI to do a
great deal more than simply slow this process down a little.
To return to the occasion for this review, i.e., the recommendation by the
Committee for Non-indigenous Pupils in Education to drastically increase HLI, we have
to conclude the following. In view of the fact that only very few evaluation studies
have been carried out into the effects on the home language, and given that the little
that is known about this matter has serious methodological shortcomings, there are, for
the time being, no grounds for deciding whether this increase is justified or not. l0 One
should really first of all carry out some adequate research, i.e., a longitudinal study, with
adequate verification for the characteristics of the starting situation, with sufficiently
large groups of pupils, with verification of the (educational) activities undertaken
within the framework of the intervention (or in this case, the programme), and with tests
which differentiate adequately according to the various language modalities and
psycho-linguistic sub-skills. Above all, however, political will and courage are needed
to bring the issue up for discussion and subsequently support its evaluation. At the
same time, a needs analysis and a feasibility study should be carded out, too. That is:
one should find out from non-indigenous parents and their children whether they have
a need (now and in the future) for education in their home language. At the same time,
they should be asked in which language this should take place, the actual home
language (the mother tongue) or the official national language (the standard
language).ll Linguists, educational experts and developers of language methods
should then find out whether the wishes of the non-indigenous people can be realized
at all. For instance, is it possible to develop an adequate teaching method for a non-
codified language such as Berber and what kind of aims and norms should one use for
this? One almost insurmountable problem in all this, is, however, the fact that time
continues to pass, and the situation therefore continues to change. It is for this reason
very debatable whether the results of such studies will still be relevant to the situation,
by the time they become available.
18. 382 G. W. J. M. Driessen and M. A. van der Grinten
Notes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
The number of non-indigenous people in the various statistics can vary greatly, depending
on the criteria used. Here we started out from the country of birth of the person or his/her
parents.
The Dutch name for this type of education is "Onderwijs in Eigen Taal en Cultuur"--OETC
(Minority Language and Culture Teaching). Originally, it consisted of a language
component as well as a cultural component. The latter component was dropped, however, in
1991. Since then it has therefore been regarded as language instruction.
f 1.00 NL = $ 0.54 = £ 0.36.
They were particularly inspired in this by the interdependence and threshold hypothesis of
Cummins (1979).
In short, the deficit view assumes that there are language delays among (in this case) Turkish
and Moroccan children, and that these children could possibly catch up by means of
compensation programmes. In the difference view all languages are considered to be
equal---one can therefore at the very most speak in terms of language differences.
Typical for this deadlock is that a year later another advisory body, i.e., the Social and
Cultural Planning Bureau, on the basis of a study of the literature on the effects of HLI on
Dutch educational performance, recommended that HLI should be scrapped from the
primary-school curriculum entirely, and that in view of the considerable educational
disadvantages of these children, all attention should be focused on the core subjects of Dutch
language and arithmetic. They also recommended that if non-indigenous parents so wished,
HLI could be organized outside school hours and that this type of education should only be
subsidized by the Dutch government as long as it met certain quality requirements (Tesser,
1993).
The review by Baker and de Kanter (1983) with regard to the situation in the U.S. did not go
into the effects of bilingual education on performance in the home language, either.
This means that research into bilingual projects in which only the level of Dutch language
proficiency is tested (Appel, 1984) has not been included in this review. The study by van de
Gelder (1982) relating to Spanish bilingual education has not been included, either.
Monolingual studies into the home language proficiency of Turks and Moroccans (Nortier,
1989; de Ruiter, 1989; Boeschoten, 1990; Schaufeli, 1991; Huls & van de Mond, 1992) in
which no link is made with education in the languages concerned, or in which adults form
the target group, are not covered in this review.
The project by de Ruiter et al. (1992) was related to the development of tests as such. The
other studies were financed by scientific bodies or municipalities.
According to some (see Tesser, 1993) it is not just the question of the possible expansion of
HLI that needs to be raised, but also HLrs entire right to exist. Furthermore, in trying to
answer this question one should also look at other effects, for instance, the effect on
achievement levels in Dutch education.
A poll carried out in 1987/88 into the need for education in non-standard languages in
secondary education (de Jong, Mol & Oirbans, 1988) showed that there was only a very
limited need for this. The most important consideration in the choice of the language was
not so much its function, but its status. The researchers warn that any introduction of
education in non-standard languages could encounter major difficulties, not just because of
a lack of teachers and educational materials, but even more so because most parents would
not be willing to allow their children to participate in this type of education.
19. Home Language Proficiency 383
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The Authors
GEERT W.J.M. DRIESSEN and MICHIEL A. VAN DER GRINTEN are educational
researchers at the Institute for Applied Social Sciences (ITS) at the University of
Nijmegen, the Netherlands. Their major research interests are first and second language
acquisition, the teaching of minority language and culture, the position of non-
indigenous pupils in education, and educational careers.