This document describes a house security system that uses a laser beam directed around the perimeter of the house by mirrors. Light dependent resistors (LDRs) are placed along the path to detect any interruptions in the laser beam, which would trigger an alarm. The system is powered by a 3V power supply and uses additional components like transformers, relays, transistors, and diodes. The document provides detailed descriptions and specifications for each component used in the circuit.
This document describes the design and components of a laser-based security alarm system. The system uses a laser beam to create an invisible boundary around an area being protected. If an intruder breaks the laser beam, a buzzer will sound the alarm. The system is inexpensive yet effective for protecting buildings and areas from intruders. It uses a laser transmitter, receiver, resistor, transistor, breadboard, batteries, and buzzer.
Pir sensor based security alarm system using um 3561 (2)Ushaswini Chowdary
This document describes a PIR sensor-based security alarm system that uses a PIR sensor and UM3561 siren IC. The system detects infrared radiation emitted from humans using a PIR sensor and triggers the UM3561 IC to produce an alarm siren. It uses low-power, inexpensive components like a PIR sensor, UM3561 siren IC, transistors, resistors, speaker and battery. When the PIR sensor detects human infrared radiation within its 5m range, it sends a signal to the UM3561 IC to generate an alarm siren through the speaker. This provides a low-cost solution for security and other applications.
This document is a mini project report submitted by three students (Rahul Vaity, Sumedh Vartak, and Rohit Vasta) for their course on mini projects. It outlines their project to build a mobile phone detector circuit. The circuit uses an antenna to detect radio frequency signals from nearby mobile phones and triggers an alarm with a blinking LED. The report includes the circuit diagram, descriptions of the components used, and the basic working principle of how it detects mobile phones. It was submitted under the guidance of their professor Shripad Kulkarni.
INFRARED SENSOR WORKING PRINCIPLE AND CIRCUITKaushal Shah
This document summarizes an active learning assignment on infrared sensors. It introduces the topic, explaining that IR sensors are used to detect obstacles like human vision. It then describes the basic components of an IR sensor including the IR LED transmitter, photodiode receiver, and comparator circuitry. The document explains that the IR LED transmits light which bounces off objects and is detected by the photodiode, with the output compared to a reference voltage. Finally, it outlines some common applications of IR sensors and their pros and cons.
This document describes a laser light security system that uses a laser beam, light dependent resistor (LDR), transistor, LED, and buzzer. When the laser beam is interrupted, the resistance of the LDR changes and triggers the transistor to activate the LED and buzzer, alerting of an intrusion. The system provides effective perimeter security for homes inside and out in a discreet and easy to install way. Advancements in technology continue to improve home security systems.
Vishwa Rana submitted a physics project on a Laser Security Alarm System to their teacher, Shweta Mishra. The project describes the components, circuit diagram, experimental setup, working, and uses of a laser security alarm system. It uses a laser beam, photocell, transistor, and buzzer to create an alarm that sounds when the laser beam is interrupted, such as by an intruder breaking in. The system can be used to secure doors, detect theft, and calculate distances and areas accurately.
LASER SECURITY SYSTEM (PPTx) PRESENTATIONKUNALDUTTA36
This document describes a student project to design a laser security system. The system uses a laser, light dependent resistor (LDR), and other components like an LED, transistor, capacitor, resistor, buzzer, and battery. When the laser beam is interrupted by an intruder breaking the plane, the LDR detects the change and triggers the circuit to activate the buzzer alarm. The project aims to develop an affordable modern security system using laser technology to protect individuals and property from crime and threats.
This document describes the design and components of a laser-based security alarm system. The system uses a laser beam to create an invisible boundary around an area being protected. If an intruder breaks the laser beam, a buzzer will sound the alarm. The system is inexpensive yet effective for protecting buildings and areas from intruders. It uses a laser transmitter, receiver, resistor, transistor, breadboard, batteries, and buzzer.
Pir sensor based security alarm system using um 3561 (2)Ushaswini Chowdary
This document describes a PIR sensor-based security alarm system that uses a PIR sensor and UM3561 siren IC. The system detects infrared radiation emitted from humans using a PIR sensor and triggers the UM3561 IC to produce an alarm siren. It uses low-power, inexpensive components like a PIR sensor, UM3561 siren IC, transistors, resistors, speaker and battery. When the PIR sensor detects human infrared radiation within its 5m range, it sends a signal to the UM3561 IC to generate an alarm siren through the speaker. This provides a low-cost solution for security and other applications.
This document is a mini project report submitted by three students (Rahul Vaity, Sumedh Vartak, and Rohit Vasta) for their course on mini projects. It outlines their project to build a mobile phone detector circuit. The circuit uses an antenna to detect radio frequency signals from nearby mobile phones and triggers an alarm with a blinking LED. The report includes the circuit diagram, descriptions of the components used, and the basic working principle of how it detects mobile phones. It was submitted under the guidance of their professor Shripad Kulkarni.
INFRARED SENSOR WORKING PRINCIPLE AND CIRCUITKaushal Shah
This document summarizes an active learning assignment on infrared sensors. It introduces the topic, explaining that IR sensors are used to detect obstacles like human vision. It then describes the basic components of an IR sensor including the IR LED transmitter, photodiode receiver, and comparator circuitry. The document explains that the IR LED transmits light which bounces off objects and is detected by the photodiode, with the output compared to a reference voltage. Finally, it outlines some common applications of IR sensors and their pros and cons.
This document describes a laser light security system that uses a laser beam, light dependent resistor (LDR), transistor, LED, and buzzer. When the laser beam is interrupted, the resistance of the LDR changes and triggers the transistor to activate the LED and buzzer, alerting of an intrusion. The system provides effective perimeter security for homes inside and out in a discreet and easy to install way. Advancements in technology continue to improve home security systems.
Vishwa Rana submitted a physics project on a Laser Security Alarm System to their teacher, Shweta Mishra. The project describes the components, circuit diagram, experimental setup, working, and uses of a laser security alarm system. It uses a laser beam, photocell, transistor, and buzzer to create an alarm that sounds when the laser beam is interrupted, such as by an intruder breaking in. The system can be used to secure doors, detect theft, and calculate distances and areas accurately.
LASER SECURITY SYSTEM (PPTx) PRESENTATIONKUNALDUTTA36
This document describes a student project to design a laser security system. The system uses a laser, light dependent resistor (LDR), and other components like an LED, transistor, capacitor, resistor, buzzer, and battery. When the laser beam is interrupted by an intruder breaking the plane, the LDR detects the change and triggers the circuit to activate the buzzer alarm. The project aims to develop an affordable modern security system using laser technology to protect individuals and property from crime and threats.
This document is a project report submitted by students of the Electrical and Electronics Engineering department at SVS Group of Institutions. The project is about developing a mobile phone detector circuit. The circuit uses components like resistors, capacitors, transistors, LEDs, piezo buzzers, and ICs to detect incoming/outgoing calls, SMS, and video transmissions from an activated mobile phone within 1.5 meters. When a signal is detected, the circuit produces an alarm beep and LED blink until the signal stops. The report describes the circuit diagram and components used. It discusses how the circuit works and potential applications of the mobile phone detector.
This document describes a cell phone detector circuit that uses a CA3130 IC and 0.22 μF capacitor to sense radio frequency signals from activated cell phones within 1.5 meters. When the circuit detects an RF signal, the capacitor releases energy to the IC, causing the output to go high and the LED to blink until the signal ceases. The detector can find use in places where cell phones should be silenced like exam halls, hospitals, and courts.
The document discusses passive infrared (PIR) sensor technology. It explains that PIR sensors can detect infrared radiation emitted by warm bodies like humans. The sensor contains a crystalline element that generates a surface charge when exposed to heat in the form of infrared radiation. When the amount of infrared radiation changes, the amount of charge also changes. PIR sensors have two sensing elements connected in a way that cancels out signals from temperature changes and sunlight, allowing it to detect only moving objects. Typical applications of PIR sensors include automatic lighting systems, security systems, and burglar alarms.
This document describes a smart home security system that uses wireless sensor networks and GSM technology. The system can detect theft, gas leaks, temperature changes and send alarm messages to a mobile phone. It allows users to control home appliances like fans and lights remotely. The system uses low-cost and commonly available components like cell phones, SIM cards, and GSM modems. Sensors for smoke, LPG, temperature, and motion can trigger alarm messages. The system has applications for home, locker, industrial and bank security.
This document describes an automatic street light control circuit using an LDR (light dependent resistor). The circuit uses an LDR, resistors, capacitors, diodes, a transistor and relay to automatically turn on LED street lights when it gets dark. When the LDR detects a drop in light levels, it causes the transistor to switch on, powering the relay and turning on the lights. The circuit requires few components, consumes little power and provides an efficient automatic method for controlling street lights without manual operation.
Here you will find details about how you can make a fire detection system by using arduino and flame sensor. We have also added the budget you need to make this project.
Ppt on automatic street light control using ir sensorsVikram Emmidi
This document describes a project to automatically control street lights using infrared sensors and a microcontroller. The system is intended to reduce energy consumption by turning lights on only when vehicles are detected. Infrared sensors detect passing vehicles and signal the microcontroller, which then turns on the appropriate street lights. When the vehicle passes, the lights will turn off again after a set time. The goal is to reduce wasted electricity while providing lighting as needed.
Regions of operation of bjt and mosfetMahoneyKadir
This document discusses the regions of operation for bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). It defines the three main regions for both device types as cutoff, active/triode, and saturation. The characteristics and criteria for each region are described. Examples of biasing circuits are provided to illustrate how BJTs and MOSFETs can be biased into the different regions of operation. Transistor symbols and the relationships between terminal voltages and currents are also reviewed.
This document describes a clap switch circuit that uses a condenser microphone to detect sound and trigger a transistor and 555 timer IC to turn an LED on or off. When sound is detected near the microphone, it is converted to electrical energy, turning the transistor on which then triggers the 555 IC. This allows electrical devices to be controlled remotely just by clapping. Potential applications include remotely controlling lights, TVs, or radios from across a room without needing to get out of bed. The major advantage is convenience, while the main disadvantage is it may activate on any loud sound.
This document describes a clap switch circuit project submitted by four students. The circuit uses a microphone to detect clapping sounds, which are then amplified and used to toggle a light or other electrical device on and off. The circuit diagram and components are described, including transistors, capacitors, a transformer, and relay. The working principle is that clapping produces an electrical signal that changes the state of a bi-stable multivibrator flip-flop circuit, turning the light or device on or off with each clap. Potential applications include remotely operating lights or electronics for elderly or mobility-impaired individuals.
AUTOMATIC ROOM LIGHTING SYSTEM is very effective project on a large scale because of the conservation of energy and electricity.
I think that it should have large scale production by multinational companies like TATA etc.
Thankyou for the visit!.
This document summarizes several electronic fire alarm circuit designs. It describes a thermistor-based circuit that uses a thermistor as a heat sensor whose resistance decreases with increasing temperature. When the thermistor gets hot, it causes an alarm to sound. A low-cost circuit is also presented that uses a transistor as a fire sensor whose leakage current increases with temperature, triggering an alarm. An alternative low-power circuit is mentioned. Finally, a smoke detector circuit is described that uses a photo interrupter module and 555 timer chip to detect smoke and sound an alarm. The document concludes that electronic circuits can provide efficient fire detection and alarm capabilities.
The document describes a student project to design a low-cost fire alarm system for single-family homes. The system will use an Arduino board along with sensors like a flame sensor and buzzer to detect fires at different locations in the home. When smoke or fire is detected, the system will alert residents through an alarm. The circuit diagram and requirements are provided. The conclusion states that the project aims to create a microcontroller-based fire alarm that functions similarly to systems used in commercial buildings but at an affordable price point for residential use.
This document describes an automatic street light control circuit using an LDR (Light Dependent Resistor). The circuit uses an LM358 operational amplifier, a relay, an LDR, resistors, a capacitor, a transistor, and a lamp. It works by turning the street light on when the LDR detects low light levels and turning it off when high light levels are detected, thereby automatically controlling the street light and saving energy. The circuit was designed and simulated using Proteus software and implemented on a breadboard.
A band pass filter passes frequencies within a certain bandwidth, created by cascading a low pass filter with a high pass filter. The upper cutoff frequency of the band pass filter is determined by the low pass filter's cutoff frequency, while the lower cutoff frequency is determined by the high pass filter's cutoff frequency. An example calculates the capacitor and resistor values needed for the low and high pass stages to give cutoff frequencies of 1 kHz, creating a band pass filter with a bandwidth centered around 1 kHz. Band pass filters are commonly used to separate signal harmonics and in audio applications.
The document describes an automatic firefighting robot that can detect and extinguish fires. It uses sensors to detect temperature, smoke, and flames. If the sensors detect a fire, the microcontroller activates a water pump to extinguish it. The robot reduces human labor needed for firefighting and decreases damage from fires. It is designed to monitor hazardous areas for natural disasters and bomb explosions.
A major project report on Energy Efficient Infrared (IR) Based Home Automatio...Prasant Kumar
The objective of proposed research work is to implement such a system that can reduce efforts, energy losses, provides a comfortable life, enhance living standards and can help the elderly, handicapped, disables as well as the normal beings to control the home appliances.Employment to Population ratio has increased drastically with increasing living standards. Home Automation plays an important role in maintaining these living standards of employed population by providing a secure & convenient environment. Home automation is similar to smart home, digital home, e-home and intelligent household. They both mean a high living condition with many smart devices. It is the residential extension of building automation which is using automation technology, computer technology and telecommunication technology to give the user a developed living condition, entertainment and security. It helps people to reduce house working and household management by its automation. The Home Automation Systems not only benefit the employed population but it also helps the disabled and elderly population.The vision of the system is to provide an efficient based system to control everyday home appliances. The system offers users an easy & effective means of controlling their various home appliances.
The document describes a clap switch, which is a switch that can turn an electrical circuit on or off through the detection of sound from clapping. It works by using a microphone to pick up the sound of clapping and converting it into an electrical signal, which is then amplified and used to trigger a flip-flop circuit connected to a relay to switch the circuit. The advantages are that it allows controlling devices remotely through sound and eliminates the need for manual switches, while the disadvantages are that clapping can be cumbersome and the circuit may activate to unwanted sounds without proper filtering.
We provide you Project Cell Phone Detector.You can choose the best of your choice and interest from the list of topics we suggested. All new project ideas that are appearing focuses to improve the knowledge of Engineering students.
https://www.elprocus.com
Visit our page to get more ideas on Project Report Format for Final Year Engineering Students these ideas developed by professionals.
Elprocus provides free verified electronic projects kits around the world with abstracts, circuit diagrams, and free electronic software. We provide guidance manual for Do It Yourself Kits (DIY) with the modules at best price along with free shipping.
This document describes an automatic street light circuit that uses a light dependent resistor (LDR) to sense light levels and control a relay that switches the street light on and off. When it is light outside, the resistance of the LDR is low, which keeps a transistor on and prevents the relay from activating. At night, when light levels drop, the LDR's resistance increases, which allows the transistor to turn off and energizes the relay to power the street light. The circuit uses additional components like a voltage regulator, fuse, resistors and transistors to regulate power and control the switching of the relay based on the LDR's light sensing.
This document is a project report submitted by students of the Electrical and Electronics Engineering department at SVS Group of Institutions. The project is about developing a mobile phone detector circuit. The circuit uses components like resistors, capacitors, transistors, LEDs, piezo buzzers, and ICs to detect incoming/outgoing calls, SMS, and video transmissions from an activated mobile phone within 1.5 meters. When a signal is detected, the circuit produces an alarm beep and LED blink until the signal stops. The report describes the circuit diagram and components used. It discusses how the circuit works and potential applications of the mobile phone detector.
This document describes a cell phone detector circuit that uses a CA3130 IC and 0.22 μF capacitor to sense radio frequency signals from activated cell phones within 1.5 meters. When the circuit detects an RF signal, the capacitor releases energy to the IC, causing the output to go high and the LED to blink until the signal ceases. The detector can find use in places where cell phones should be silenced like exam halls, hospitals, and courts.
The document discusses passive infrared (PIR) sensor technology. It explains that PIR sensors can detect infrared radiation emitted by warm bodies like humans. The sensor contains a crystalline element that generates a surface charge when exposed to heat in the form of infrared radiation. When the amount of infrared radiation changes, the amount of charge also changes. PIR sensors have two sensing elements connected in a way that cancels out signals from temperature changes and sunlight, allowing it to detect only moving objects. Typical applications of PIR sensors include automatic lighting systems, security systems, and burglar alarms.
This document describes a smart home security system that uses wireless sensor networks and GSM technology. The system can detect theft, gas leaks, temperature changes and send alarm messages to a mobile phone. It allows users to control home appliances like fans and lights remotely. The system uses low-cost and commonly available components like cell phones, SIM cards, and GSM modems. Sensors for smoke, LPG, temperature, and motion can trigger alarm messages. The system has applications for home, locker, industrial and bank security.
This document describes an automatic street light control circuit using an LDR (light dependent resistor). The circuit uses an LDR, resistors, capacitors, diodes, a transistor and relay to automatically turn on LED street lights when it gets dark. When the LDR detects a drop in light levels, it causes the transistor to switch on, powering the relay and turning on the lights. The circuit requires few components, consumes little power and provides an efficient automatic method for controlling street lights without manual operation.
Here you will find details about how you can make a fire detection system by using arduino and flame sensor. We have also added the budget you need to make this project.
Ppt on automatic street light control using ir sensorsVikram Emmidi
This document describes a project to automatically control street lights using infrared sensors and a microcontroller. The system is intended to reduce energy consumption by turning lights on only when vehicles are detected. Infrared sensors detect passing vehicles and signal the microcontroller, which then turns on the appropriate street lights. When the vehicle passes, the lights will turn off again after a set time. The goal is to reduce wasted electricity while providing lighting as needed.
Regions of operation of bjt and mosfetMahoneyKadir
This document discusses the regions of operation for bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). It defines the three main regions for both device types as cutoff, active/triode, and saturation. The characteristics and criteria for each region are described. Examples of biasing circuits are provided to illustrate how BJTs and MOSFETs can be biased into the different regions of operation. Transistor symbols and the relationships between terminal voltages and currents are also reviewed.
This document describes a clap switch circuit that uses a condenser microphone to detect sound and trigger a transistor and 555 timer IC to turn an LED on or off. When sound is detected near the microphone, it is converted to electrical energy, turning the transistor on which then triggers the 555 IC. This allows electrical devices to be controlled remotely just by clapping. Potential applications include remotely controlling lights, TVs, or radios from across a room without needing to get out of bed. The major advantage is convenience, while the main disadvantage is it may activate on any loud sound.
This document describes a clap switch circuit project submitted by four students. The circuit uses a microphone to detect clapping sounds, which are then amplified and used to toggle a light or other electrical device on and off. The circuit diagram and components are described, including transistors, capacitors, a transformer, and relay. The working principle is that clapping produces an electrical signal that changes the state of a bi-stable multivibrator flip-flop circuit, turning the light or device on or off with each clap. Potential applications include remotely operating lights or electronics for elderly or mobility-impaired individuals.
AUTOMATIC ROOM LIGHTING SYSTEM is very effective project on a large scale because of the conservation of energy and electricity.
I think that it should have large scale production by multinational companies like TATA etc.
Thankyou for the visit!.
This document summarizes several electronic fire alarm circuit designs. It describes a thermistor-based circuit that uses a thermistor as a heat sensor whose resistance decreases with increasing temperature. When the thermistor gets hot, it causes an alarm to sound. A low-cost circuit is also presented that uses a transistor as a fire sensor whose leakage current increases with temperature, triggering an alarm. An alternative low-power circuit is mentioned. Finally, a smoke detector circuit is described that uses a photo interrupter module and 555 timer chip to detect smoke and sound an alarm. The document concludes that electronic circuits can provide efficient fire detection and alarm capabilities.
The document describes a student project to design a low-cost fire alarm system for single-family homes. The system will use an Arduino board along with sensors like a flame sensor and buzzer to detect fires at different locations in the home. When smoke or fire is detected, the system will alert residents through an alarm. The circuit diagram and requirements are provided. The conclusion states that the project aims to create a microcontroller-based fire alarm that functions similarly to systems used in commercial buildings but at an affordable price point for residential use.
This document describes an automatic street light control circuit using an LDR (Light Dependent Resistor). The circuit uses an LM358 operational amplifier, a relay, an LDR, resistors, a capacitor, a transistor, and a lamp. It works by turning the street light on when the LDR detects low light levels and turning it off when high light levels are detected, thereby automatically controlling the street light and saving energy. The circuit was designed and simulated using Proteus software and implemented on a breadboard.
A band pass filter passes frequencies within a certain bandwidth, created by cascading a low pass filter with a high pass filter. The upper cutoff frequency of the band pass filter is determined by the low pass filter's cutoff frequency, while the lower cutoff frequency is determined by the high pass filter's cutoff frequency. An example calculates the capacitor and resistor values needed for the low and high pass stages to give cutoff frequencies of 1 kHz, creating a band pass filter with a bandwidth centered around 1 kHz. Band pass filters are commonly used to separate signal harmonics and in audio applications.
The document describes an automatic firefighting robot that can detect and extinguish fires. It uses sensors to detect temperature, smoke, and flames. If the sensors detect a fire, the microcontroller activates a water pump to extinguish it. The robot reduces human labor needed for firefighting and decreases damage from fires. It is designed to monitor hazardous areas for natural disasters and bomb explosions.
A major project report on Energy Efficient Infrared (IR) Based Home Automatio...Prasant Kumar
The objective of proposed research work is to implement such a system that can reduce efforts, energy losses, provides a comfortable life, enhance living standards and can help the elderly, handicapped, disables as well as the normal beings to control the home appliances.Employment to Population ratio has increased drastically with increasing living standards. Home Automation plays an important role in maintaining these living standards of employed population by providing a secure & convenient environment. Home automation is similar to smart home, digital home, e-home and intelligent household. They both mean a high living condition with many smart devices. It is the residential extension of building automation which is using automation technology, computer technology and telecommunication technology to give the user a developed living condition, entertainment and security. It helps people to reduce house working and household management by its automation. The Home Automation Systems not only benefit the employed population but it also helps the disabled and elderly population.The vision of the system is to provide an efficient based system to control everyday home appliances. The system offers users an easy & effective means of controlling their various home appliances.
The document describes a clap switch, which is a switch that can turn an electrical circuit on or off through the detection of sound from clapping. It works by using a microphone to pick up the sound of clapping and converting it into an electrical signal, which is then amplified and used to trigger a flip-flop circuit connected to a relay to switch the circuit. The advantages are that it allows controlling devices remotely through sound and eliminates the need for manual switches, while the disadvantages are that clapping can be cumbersome and the circuit may activate to unwanted sounds without proper filtering.
We provide you Project Cell Phone Detector.You can choose the best of your choice and interest from the list of topics we suggested. All new project ideas that are appearing focuses to improve the knowledge of Engineering students.
https://www.elprocus.com
Visit our page to get more ideas on Project Report Format for Final Year Engineering Students these ideas developed by professionals.
Elprocus provides free verified electronic projects kits around the world with abstracts, circuit diagrams, and free electronic software. We provide guidance manual for Do It Yourself Kits (DIY) with the modules at best price along with free shipping.
This document describes an automatic street light circuit that uses a light dependent resistor (LDR) to sense light levels and control a relay that switches the street light on and off. When it is light outside, the resistance of the LDR is low, which keeps a transistor on and prevents the relay from activating. At night, when light levels drop, the LDR's resistance increases, which allows the transistor to turn off and energizes the relay to power the street light. The circuit uses additional components like a voltage regulator, fuse, resistors and transistors to regulate power and control the switching of the relay based on the LDR's light sensing.
This document describes an automatic street light circuit designed by students Abhishek and Ajith Kumar at Kalasalingam University. The circuit uses a light dependent resistor and transistors to sense when it is nighttime and turn on a street light. It includes a block diagram and circuit diagram. The components used are a relay, voltage regulator, fuse, light dependent resistor, resistors, transistors, battery, and lamp. When it is dark, the resistance of the light dependent resistor increases, which turns on the transistor and energizes the relay to power the street light. This circuit automatically switches the light on at night and off during the day to prevent wasting electricity.
This circuit can switch a light, fan, or radio on and off through the sound of a clap. It uses a condenser microphone to detect clapping sounds and convert them to electrical signals, which are then amplified by transistors and used to toggle a relay. The relay acts as an electronic switch to power the connected device. This allows appliances to be controlled remotely through hand clapping, which can benefit elderly or mobility-impaired users.
Protection against over voltage under voltage using oampAnkan Biswas
This document summarizes an over voltage and under voltage protection circuit. The circuit uses a transformer, diodes, capacitor, resistors, potentiometers, zener diodes, transistors, and a relay to protect electrical appliances from high or low voltage. It works by using the transistors and relay to cut off power when the voltage exceeds safe thresholds. This protects appliances from damage caused by voltage fluctuations. The project was created by seven students and is intended to prevent the damage to electrical equipment that occurs every year due to over and under voltage issues.
The document describes an automatic street light circuit that uses a light dependent resistor (LDR) to sense light levels and control a relay that switches a light on and off. When it is dark, the resistance of the LDR increases, which causes a transistor to turn on and energize the relay, powering the light. During the day when it is light outside, the LDR's resistance decreases and the transistor turns off, cutting power to the light. Key components of the circuit include an LDR, transistors, a relay, resistors, and a battery power supply. The circuit can be used to automatically switch any light on at night and off during the day based on light level changes.
The document describes a shadow intruder alarm circuit that uses a light dependent resistor (LDR). The circuit can detect movement of a person near it based on changes in light/shadow falling on the LDR, and trigger an alarm. It has applications for security at shops, warehouses, and homes. The circuit works by sounding an alarm when the LDR resistance increases due to a shadow blocking light on it. This allows the circuit to detect intruders without needing an aligned light beam. The document provides details on the components used in the circuit like the LDR, transistor, resistors, capacitors, and relay. It also gives background information on LDRs and their applications in security and other devices.
Surge arresters and surge suppressors are devices used to protect transformers and other electrical equipment from high voltage surges caused by lightning or switching. Surge arresters are used in high voltage systems to divert surges to ground, limiting the voltage. They contain metal oxide varistors that conduct current during surges but are otherwise insulators. Surge suppressors are similar devices used in low voltage electronics to short surges to ground. Both work to block unwanted voltages from damaging protected equipment like transformers.
This document describes a security alarm system that uses various sensors including a light dependent resistor (LDR). The system uses an LDR circuit that triggers an alarm when a person's shadow falls on the LDR, blocking the light. The circuit uses common electronic components like an LDR, timer IC NE555, capacitors, resistors, and a transformer. It provides intrusion detection with benefits of low cost and energy efficiency compared to other security systems.
This document provides answers to various electrical engineering questions. It explains that ELCBs cannot work properly if the neutral input is not grounded because it needs the return current path to detect faults. It distinguishes between MCBs and MCCBs based on their current ratings and types of protection. It also describes why earth pins are thicker than other pins in plugs and why delta-star transformers are used for lighting loads.
The document provides information on protective relays:
1. It discusses the requirements, essential qualities, and classification of protective relaying which is used to protect electrical equipment and remove faulty elements.
2. Zones of protection are established around each system element to disconnect any faulty element.
3. Overcurrent, differential, and other types of relays are described along with their working principles. Relays provide fault indication and protection for generators, transformers, transmission lines and other equipment.
This document describes an automatic light circuit that uses a light dependent resistor to sense light levels and control a bulb. During the day, the LDR has low resistance which keeps a transistor off and the bulb off. At night, the LDR's resistance rises, turning the transistor on which activates a relay and turns the bulb on without needing a switch. It aims to prevent unnecessary energy loss by automatically turning lights on and off based on ambient light levels.
This document describes an electronic bicycle lock circuit that uses a tone generator integrated circuit and other components to create an alarm if the security loop connecting the two input jacks is broken. The circuit is powered by a 9V battery and includes a key lock switch and other passive components. When assembled on a PCB and housed in an enclosure, it can be mounted on a bicycle to replace an existing lock and prevent theft. The electronic bicycle lock provides security with optional cable length and is easy to use.
This document describes a student project to develop a solar-powered LED street lighting system with adjustable intensity control. The system uses a microcontroller to provide different light intensities at night based on traffic levels to save energy. Key hardware components include solar panels, batteries, LED lights, a MOSFET transistor for intensity control via pulse-width modulation, and an Arduino microcontroller. The project aims to provide energy-efficient street lighting while allowing intensity adjustment based on time of night and traffic conditions.
The document describes an automatic street light circuit that uses a light dependent resistor (LDR) to sense light levels and switch a relay that controls a light bulb. When light levels are high during the day, the LDR allows current to flow through a transistor, keeping the relay switched on and the bulb off. At night when light levels drop, the LDR restricts current and switches the transistor off, switching the relay off and turning the bulb on. The circuit automatically controls the light bulb based on ambient light without needing manual operation.
This document describes a smart home system that uses a DTMF decoder to control home appliances by phone. It consists of an IC circuit that decodes tones from a mobile phone and uses them to operate a relay that controls appliances. It lists the key components as an LED, relay, voltage regulator, crystal oscillator, battery, resistors, ULN-2003 chip, and capacitors. It then provides more details on how each component works, including descriptions of LEDs, relays, voltage regulators, crystal oscillators, batteries, resistors, the ULN-2003 chip, capacitors, and printed circuit boards.
This document describes an automatic night lamp circuit that uses a light dependent resistor to detect low light levels and activate a relay switch to turn on lights. The circuit includes a power supply, resistor, transistor, relay, switch, operational amplifier, and light dependent resistor. When it gets dark, the resistance of the light dependent resistor decreases and allows the transistor to power the relay, which switches on lights connected to it. This allows lights to automatically turn on at night without needing a person to switch them on, saving energy by only powering the lights when it is dark.
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
Optimizing Gradle Builds - Gradle DPE Tour Berlin 2024Sinan KOZAK
Sinan from the Delivery Hero mobile infrastructure engineering team shares a deep dive into performance acceleration with Gradle build cache optimizations. Sinan shares their journey into solving complex build-cache problems that affect Gradle builds. By understanding the challenges and solutions found in our journey, we aim to demonstrate the possibilities for faster builds. The case study reveals how overlapping outputs and cache misconfigurations led to significant increases in build times, especially as the project scaled up with numerous modules using Paparazzi tests. The journey from diagnosing to defeating cache issues offers invaluable lessons on maintaining cache integrity without sacrificing functionality.
Discover the latest insights on Data Driven Maintenance with our comprehensive webinar presentation. Learn about traditional maintenance challenges, the right approach to utilizing data, and the benefits of adopting a Data Driven Maintenance strategy. Explore real-world examples, industry best practices, and innovative solutions like FMECA and the D3M model. This presentation, led by expert Jules Oudmans, is essential for asset owners looking to optimize their maintenance processes and leverage digital technologies for improved efficiency and performance. Download now to stay ahead in the evolving maintenance landscape.
Applications of artificial Intelligence in Mechanical Engineering.pdfAtif Razi
Historically, mechanical engineering has relied heavily on human expertise and empirical methods to solve complex problems. With the introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis (FEA), the field took its first steps towards digitization. These tools allowed engineers to simulate and analyze mechanical systems with greater accuracy and efficiency. However, the sheer volume of data generated by modern engineering systems and the increasing complexity of these systems have necessitated more advanced analytical tools, paving the way for AI.
AI offers the capability to process vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and make predictions with a level of speed and accuracy unattainable by traditional methods. This has profound implications for mechanical engineering, enabling more efficient design processes, predictive maintenance strategies, and optimized manufacturing operations. AI-driven tools can learn from historical data, adapt to new information, and continuously improve their performance, making them invaluable in tackling the multifaceted challenges of modern mechanical engineering.
Comparative analysis between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquapon...bijceesjournal
The aquaponic system of planting is a method that does not require soil usage. It is a method that only needs water, fish, lava rocks (a substitute for soil), and plants. Aquaponic systems are sustainable and environmentally friendly. Its use not only helps to plant in small spaces but also helps reduce artificial chemical use and minimizes excess water use, as aquaponics consumes 90% less water than soil-based gardening. The study applied a descriptive and experimental design to assess and compare conventional and reconstructed aquaponic methods for reproducing tomatoes. The researchers created an observation checklist to determine the significant factors of the study. The study aims to determine the significant difference between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquaponics systems propagating tomatoes in terms of height, weight, girth, and number of fruits. The reconstructed aquaponics system’s higher growth yield results in a much more nourished crop than the traditional aquaponics system. It is superior in its number of fruits, height, weight, and girth measurement. Moreover, the reconstructed aquaponics system is proven to eliminate all the hindrances present in the traditional aquaponics system, which are overcrowding of fish, algae growth, pest problems, contaminated water, and dead fish.
Null Bangalore | Pentesters Approach to AWS IAMDivyanshu
#Abstract:
- Learn more about the real-world methods for auditing AWS IAM (Identity and Access Management) as a pentester. So let us proceed with a brief discussion of IAM as well as some typical misconfigurations and their potential exploits in order to reinforce the understanding of IAM security best practices.
- Gain actionable insights into AWS IAM policies and roles, using hands on approach.
#Prerequisites:
- Basic understanding of AWS services and architecture
- Familiarity with cloud security concepts
- Experience using the AWS Management Console or AWS CLI.
- For hands on lab create account on [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
# Scenario Covered:
- Basics of IAM in AWS
- Implementing IAM Policies with Least Privilege to Manage S3 Bucket
- Objective: Create an S3 bucket with least privilege IAM policy and validate access.
- Steps:
- Create S3 bucket.
- Attach least privilege policy to IAM user.
- Validate access.
- Exploiting IAM PassRole Misconfiguration
-Allows a user to pass a specific IAM role to an AWS service (ec2), typically used for service access delegation. Then exploit PassRole Misconfiguration granting unauthorized access to sensitive resources.
- Objective: Demonstrate how a PassRole misconfiguration can grant unauthorized access.
- Steps:
- Allow user to pass IAM role to EC2.
- Exploit misconfiguration for unauthorized access.
- Access sensitive resources.
- Exploiting IAM AssumeRole Misconfiguration with Overly Permissive Role
- An overly permissive IAM role configuration can lead to privilege escalation by creating a role with administrative privileges and allow a user to assume this role.
- Objective: Show how overly permissive IAM roles can lead to privilege escalation.
- Steps:
- Create role with administrative privileges.
- Allow user to assume the role.
- Perform administrative actions.
- Differentiation between PassRole vs AssumeRole
Try at [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
Use PyCharm for remote debugging of WSL on a Windo cf5c162d672e4e58b4dde5d797...shadow0702a
This document serves as a comprehensive step-by-step guide on how to effectively use PyCharm for remote debugging of the Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL) on a local Windows machine. It meticulously outlines several critical steps in the process, starting with the crucial task of enabling permissions, followed by the installation and configuration of WSL.
The guide then proceeds to explain how to set up the SSH service within the WSL environment, an integral part of the process. Alongside this, it also provides detailed instructions on how to modify the inbound rules of the Windows firewall to facilitate the process, ensuring that there are no connectivity issues that could potentially hinder the debugging process.
The document further emphasizes on the importance of checking the connection between the Windows and WSL environments, providing instructions on how to ensure that the connection is optimal and ready for remote debugging.
It also offers an in-depth guide on how to configure the WSL interpreter and files within the PyCharm environment. This is essential for ensuring that the debugging process is set up correctly and that the program can be run effectively within the WSL terminal.
Additionally, the document provides guidance on how to set up breakpoints for debugging, a fundamental aspect of the debugging process which allows the developer to stop the execution of their code at certain points and inspect their program at those stages.
Finally, the document concludes by providing a link to a reference blog. This blog offers additional information and guidance on configuring the remote Python interpreter in PyCharm, providing the reader with a well-rounded understanding of the process.
VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE. VFDs are widely used in industrial applications for...PIMR BHOPAL
Variable frequency drive .A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is an electronic device used to control the speed and torque of an electric motor by varying the frequency and voltage of its power supply. VFDs are widely used in industrial applications for motor control, providing significant energy savings and precise motor operation.
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ABSTRACT
House security system protects the house from the attacks of burglars and trespassing from
strangers. Considering the fact that your home is not only your place of privacy but also a store
for your valuable belongings, it is very important to protect it from trespassers and burglars.
The circuit used a laser torch powered by 3V power-supply for generating a laser beam. A
combination of plain mirrors M1 through M6 is used to direct the laser beam around the house to
form a net. The laser beam is directed to fall on an LDR that forms part of the receiver unit. Any
interruption of the beam by a thief/trespasser will result into energization of the alarm. The 3V
power-supply circuit is a conventional full-wave rectifier-filter circuit. Any alarm unit that
operates on 230V AC can be connected at the output.
By the arrangement, house security system energizes the alarm informing about the bulgur and
helps up to take the required steps.
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INTRODUCTION
Our home is one of the top places that make you feel tranquil, secure, and serene. Our home is
also a possible target for attacks from burglars and trespassing by strangers. Considering the fact
that our home is not only your place of privacy but also a store for our valuable belongings, it is
very important to protect it from trespassers. Luckily, with the level of state-of-the-art
technologies available these days, we have plenty of hi-tech options for protecting our home.
And one home security option that has really stood out from the crowd is none other than the
house security system.
Here is a low-cost, invisible laser circuit to protect our house from thieves or trespassers. A laser
pointer torch, which is easily available in the market, can be used to operate this device.
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COMPONENTS
A laser torch
3v power supply
Plain mirrors
Light dependent resistors (LDR)
Step down transformer (X1 and X2)
6v relays
Transistor
Diodes
Switches
Smoothing capacitor
Alarm
COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
A LASER TORCH
Light from a laser torch is used as the carrier in the circuit. The laser torch can transmit light up
to a distance of about 500metres.
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3V POWER SUPPLY
The 3v power supply circuit is a convectional full-wave rectifier-filter circuit.
A full-wave rectifier
is a device that has two or more diodes arranged so that load current flows in the same direction
during each half cycle of the ac supply.
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The transformer supplies the source voltage for two diode
rectifiers, D1 and D2. This power transformer has a center-tapped, high-voltage secondary
winding that is divided into two equal parts (W1 and W2). W1 provides the source voltage for
D1, and W2 provides the source voltage for D2. The connections to the diodes are arranged so
that the diodes conduct on alternate half cycles.
During one alternation of the secondary voltage, the
polarities are as shown in fig. The source for D2 is the voltage induced into the lower half of the
secondary winding of the transformer (W2). At the specific instant of time shown in the figure,
the anode voltage on D2 is negative, and D2 cannot conduct. Throughout the period of time
during which the anode of D2 is negative, the anode of D1 is positive. Since the anode of D1 is
positive, it conducts, causing current to flow through the load resistor in the direction shown by
the arrow.
A full-wave rectifier
uses only one-half of the transformers winding at a time. The transformer secondary rated
current should be 1.2 times the DC current of the power supply. The transformer secondary
voltage should be approximately 0.8 times the DC voltage of the unregulated power supply per
side of the center tap or the transformer should be 1.6 times V DC center tapped.
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PLAIN MIRRORS
A plane mirror is a mirror with a plane reflective surface. For light rays striking a plane mirror,
the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. A collimated beam of light does not spread
out after reflection from a plane mirror.
A combination of plain mirrors M1 through M6 is used to direct the laser beam around the
house to form a net. The laser beam is directed to finally fall on an LDR that forms part of the
receiver unit.
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Plain mirror
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS
LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor circuits.
Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1000 000 ohms, but when
they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically.
when the torch is turned on, the
resistance of the LDR falls, allowing current to pass through it.
Two cadmium sulphide (cdS) photoconductive cells with spectral responses
similar to that of the human eye. The cell resistance falls with increasing light intensity.
Applications include smoke detection, automatic lighting control, batch counting and burglar
alarm systems.
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GUIDE TO SOURCE ILLUMINATIONS:
Light source Illumination (Lux)
Moonlight __________________________________ 0.1
60W bulb at 1m ______________________________ 50
1W MES bulb at 0.1m ________________________ 100
Fluorescent lighting __________________________ 500
Bright sunlight ____________________________ 30,000
ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS:
Dimensions
Voltage, ac or dc peak ______________________ 100V
Current ___________________________________ 5mA
Power dissipation at 25°C _________________ 50mW*
Operating temperature range _________ -25°C +75°C
*Derate linearly from 50mW at 25°C to 0W at 75°C.
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SPECTRAL RESPONSE:
STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary
winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic
field throughthe secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive
force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
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If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and
electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load.
In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the
primary voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the
number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows:
By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current
(AC)voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepped down" by
making Ns less than Np.
In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around
a ferromagnetic core, air-core transformers being a notable exception.
Transformers range in size
from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units
weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of power grids. All operate with the
same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies have
eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in
nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains") voltage.
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SPECIFICATIONS:
For sending unit:
Primary voltage - 230v ac
Secondary voltage - 3v-03v, 100mA
For receiving unit
Primary voltage-230v ac
Secondary voltage- 6v-0-6v,300mA
6V RELAYS
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current
can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw (changeover)
switch contacts as shown in the diagram.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the
first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains
circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is
magnetic and mechanical.
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The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be
as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot
provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger
value required for the relay coil.
Relays are usuallly SPDT or DPDT but they can have many
more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily
available. Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the
pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be obvious and it
may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they
are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you
must connect a protection diode across the relay coil.
The Needfor Transient Suppression:
When an electromechanical relay is de-energized rapidly by a mechanical
switch or semiconductor, the collapsing magnetic field produces a substantial voltage transient in
its effort to disperse the stored energy and oppose the sudden change of current flow. A 12VDC
relay, for example, may generate a voltage of 1,000 to 1,500 volts during turn-off. With the
advent of modern electronic systems, this relatively large voltage transient has created EMI,
semiconductor breakdown, and switch wear problems for the design engineer. It has thus become
common practice to suppress relay coils with other components which limit the peak voltage to a
much smaller level.
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Types of Transient Suppression Utilized with Relays:
The basic techniques for suppression of transient voltages from relay coils are shown in Figure 1.
As observed here, the suppression device may be in parallel with the relay coil or in parallel with
the switch used to control the relay. It is normally preferred to have the suppression parallel to
the coil since it can be located closer to the relay (except in the case of PC board applications
where either may be used).
When the suppression is in parallel with the relay coil a bilateral
transient suppressor diode that is similar in V-I characteristics to two zener diodes connected
cathode to cathode (or anode to anode).
Effects of Coil Suppression on Relay Dynamics and Life:
Even though the use of coil suppression is becoming more significant, relays are
normally designed without taking the dynamic impact of suppressors into account. The optimum
switching life (for normallyopen contacts) is therefore obtained with a totally unsuppressed relay
and statements of rated electrical life are usually based on this premise. The successful
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"breaking" of a DC load requires that the relay contacts move to open with a reasonably high
speed. A typical relay will have an accelerating motion of its armature toward the unenergized
rest position during drop-out. The velocity of the armature at the instant of contact opening will
play a significant role in the relay's ability to avoid "tack welding" by providing adequate force
to break any light welds made during the "make" of a high current resistive load (or one with a
high in-rush current). It is the velocity of the armature that is most affected by coil suppression.
If the suppressor provides a conducting path, thus allowing the stored energy in the relay's
magnetic circuit to decay slowly, the armature motion will be retarded and the armature may
even temporarily reverse direction. The reversing of direction and re-closing of the contacts
(particularly when combined with inductive loads) often leads to random, intermittent "tack
welding" of the contacts such that the relay may free itself if operated again or even jarred
slightly.
Based upon the impact on armature motion and optimizing for normally open contacts,
the best suppression method is to use a silicon transient suppressor diode. This suppressor will
have the least effect on relay dropout dynamics since the relay transient will be allowed to go to
a predetermined voltage level and then permit current to flow with a low impedance. This results
in the stored energy being quickly dissipated by the suppressor. Transient suppressor diodes are
available as bi-directional components and permit the relay to be non polarized when installed
internally. Note that if a uni-directional transient suppressor is used, a rectifier diode must be
placed in series with it to block normal current flow and it has little advantage over the use of a
zener diode. The transient suppressor should be selected such that its pulse energy rating exceeds
any anticipated transient such as coil turn-off or motor "noise" found in the application.
SPECIFICATIONS:
6V,100 ohm, c/o relay
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TRANSISTORS
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is
composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external
circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current
flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much
more than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some
transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of
modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems.
There are two types of
transistors, which have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit. Abipolar
transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base terminal
(that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current
between the collector and emitter terminals.
PNP:
The other type of BJT is the PNP, consisting of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two
layers of P-doped material. A small current leaving the base is amplified in the collector output.
That is, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter.
The arrows in
the NPN and PNP transistor symbols are on the emitter legs and point in the direction of
the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.
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A mnemonic device for
the remembering the symbol for a PNP transistor is pointing in (proudly), based on the arrows in
the symbol and the letters in the name. That is, the PNP transistor is the BJT transistor that is
"pointing in".
Transistor as a switch:
.
Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-power applications such
as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates.
In a grounded-emitter
transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises the base and
collector current rise exponentially, and the collector voltage drops because of the collector load
resistor. The relevant equations:
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VRC = ICE × RC, the voltage across the load (the lamp with resistance RC)
VRC + VCE = VCC, the supply voltage shown as 6V
If VCE could fall to 0 (perfect closed switch) then Ic could go no higher than VCC / RC, even with
higher base voltage and current. The transistor is then said to be saturated. Hence, values of input
voltage can be chosen such that the output is either completely off,] or completely on. The
transistor is acting as a switch, and this type of operation is common in digital circuits where
only "on" and "off" values are relevant.
DIODES
In electronics, a diode is a type of two-terminal electronic component with a nonlinear current–
voltage characteristic. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline
piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube
diode (now rarely used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with
two electrodes: a plate and a cathode.
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction
(called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction
(the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check
valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating
current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.
However,
diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on–off action. Semiconductor
diodes do not begin conducting electricity until a certain threshold voltage is present in the
forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forward biased). The voltage drop
across a forward biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function of
temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or voltage reference.
Semiconductor diodes
have nonlinear electrical characteristics, which can be tailored by varying the construction of
their P–N junction. These are exploited in special purpose diodes that perform many different
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functions. For example, diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits
from high voltage surges (Avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers
(varactor diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT
diodes), and to produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance,
which makes them useful in some types of circuits.
A modern semiconductor diode is made of a
crystal of semiconductor like silicon that has impurities added to it to create a region on one side
that contains negative charge carriers(electrons), called n-type semiconductor, and a region on
the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called p-type semiconductor. The
diode's terminals are attached to each of these regions. The boundary within the crystal between
these two regions, called aPN junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. The crystal
conducts a current of electrons in a direction from the N-type side (called the cathode) to the P-
type side (called the anode), but not in the opposite direction. However, conventional current
flows from anode to cathode in the direction of the arrow (opposite to the electron flow, since
electrons have negative charge).
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SWITCHES
Switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting
the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.
The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or
more sets of electrical contacts. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either 'closed'
meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or 'open', meaning the
contacts are separated and the switch is nonconducting. The mechanism actuating the transition
between these two states (open or closed) can be either a "toggle" (flip switch for continuous
"on" or "off") or "momentary" (push-for "on" or push-for "off") type.
SPST
Single
pole,
single
throw
One-
way
Two-
way
A simple on-off switch: The two terminals are
either connected together or disconnected
from each other. An example is a light switch.
RESISTOR
A linear resistor is a linear, passive two-terminal electrical component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to
the voltage across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's
terminals to the intensity of current through the circuit is called resistance. This relation is
represented by Ohm's law:
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Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such
as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly
analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When
specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may
require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its
specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in
some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a
maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor
in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors
with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage
circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the
resistor.
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SMOOTHNING CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a device which stores electrical charge. In the simplest terms it can be thought of
as being similar to a rechargeable battery in that it stores power to be used at a later
time. Charging a capacitor is simply a matter of putting voltage across its legs until current stops
flowing
There are many uses of capacitors in renewable energy generation, however one of the
most important is in smoothing the output of a bridge rectifier after it has converted AC
electricity (typically generated by wind turbine generators etc) into DC (used to charge batteries
and power many low voltage devices).
BRIDGE RECTIFIER:
Alternating current (AC) electricity alternates - i.e. the voltage cycles
from a positive maximum to a negative maximum and back again repeatedly. When this
is rectified by a bridge rectifier all negative voltages are rectified into positive voltage as
shown below:
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If this direct current (DC) voltage is used to light an LED for example, then it would flash on and
off repeatedly. This is usually not considered to be desirable and there are many cases where a
fixed voltage is required. In these cases a smoothing capacitor is used.
The smoothing capacitor circuit shown above requires just one capacitor placed across the
output from the rectifier. As the output voltage increases, the capacitor is charged, and as the
output voltage falls back to zero, the capacitor releases its charge (stored energy). The resulting
voltage across the capacitor looks like this:
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CAPACITOR RATINGS:
Capacitors are rated according to their voltage and storage capacity. The larger the capacity of a
capacitor, the more charge it can store and the longer it will take to discharge. However, a very
large capacitor will take a long time to charge initially and so it will take a while before a
constant voltage is output. If the current drawn from the circuit is large, then the capacitor will
discharge quickly and the amount of ripple will increase.
If the voltage in the circuit is above the rated
voltage of the chosen capacitor, the capacitor will be damaged and may even explode. Therefore
it is essential to choose a capacitor with a voltage in excess of the maximum output voltage from
the bridge rectifiers.
CHOOSING A CAPACITOR:
Typically in renewable energy applications a 1000 micro
Farad (1000uF) capacity smoothing capacitor is chosen. These are available with a range of
voltage ratings including 10V (pictured above), 16V, 25V, 35V, 63V with higher voltage
capacitors costing more than those with lower voltage ratings.
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ALARM
Burglar (or intrusion), alarms are systems designed to detect unauthorized entry into a building
or area. They consist of an array of sensors, a control panel and alerting system, and
interconnections. Sensors detect intruders by many methods such as monitoring door and
window contacts, by passive infrared motion detectors, ultrasound, vibration, electric or
magnetic fields, or microwaves. Sensors may be directly wired to a control panel that provides
sensor power, or may communicate wirelessly.
Some alarm systems serve a single purpose of burglar or
fire protection. Combination systems provide both fire and intrusion protection. Intrusion alarm
systems may also be combined with closed-circuit television surveillance systems to
automatically record the activities of intruders, and may interface to access control systems for
electrically-locked doors. Systems range from small, self-contained noisemakers, to complicated,
multi-zoned systems with color-coded computer monitor outputs.
Burglar alarms (or perimeter security systems, perimeter detection
systems, Perimeter protection, intrusion detection systems and other terms for the same
thing) are used in residential, industrial, and commercial properties for protection against theft or
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property damage. Mobile alarm systems protect vehicles and their contents ("car alarms").
Prisons and military facilities use intrusion detection systems for security and control of access.
PHOTO-ELECTRIC BEAMS:
Photoelectric beam systems detect the presence of an intruder by
transmitting visible or infrared light beams across an area, where these beams may be obstructed.
To improve the detection surface area, the beams are often employed in stacks of two or more.
However, if an intruder is aware of the technology’s presence, it can be avoided. The technology
can be an effective long-range detection system, if installed in stacks of three or more where the
transmitters and receivers are staggered to create a fence-like barrier. Systems are available for
both internal and external applications. To prevent a clandestine attack using a secondary light
source being used to hold the detector in a ‘sealed’ condition whilst an intruder passes through,
most systems use and detect a modulated light source.
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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The block diagram of the unit shown in Fig. 1 depicts the overall
arrangement for providing security to a house. A laser torch powered by 3V power-supply is
used for generating a laser beam. A combination of plain mirrors M1 through M6 is used to
direct the laser beam around the house to form a net. The laser beam is directed to finally fall on
an LDR that forms part of the receiver unit as shown in Fig. 2. Any interruption of the beam by a
thief/trespasser will result into energization of the alarm. The 3V power-supply circuit is a
conventional full-wave rectifier-filter circuit. Any alarm unit that operates on 230V AC can be
connected at the output.
The receiver unit comprises two identical step-down transformers (X1
and X2), two 6V relays (RL1 and RL2), an LDR, a transistor, and a few other passive
components. When switches S1 and S2 are activated, transformer X1, followed by a full-wave
rectifier and smoothing capacitor C1, drives relay RL1 through the laser switch.
The laser beam
should be aimed continuously on LDR. As long as the laser beam falls on LDR, transistor T1
remains forward biased and relay RL1 is thus in energized condition. When a person crosses the
line of laser beam, relay RL1 turns off and transformer X2 gets energized to provide a parallel
path across N/C contact and the pole of relay RL1. In this condition, the laser beam will have no
effect on LDR and the alarm will continue to operate as long as switch S2 is on.
Note: LDR should be kept in a long pipe to protect it from other sources of light, and its total
distance from the source may be kept limited to 500 meters.
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ADVANCED SECURITY SYSTEMS
WIRELESS HOME ALARM SYSTEMS:
Wireless security systems are a better form of security systems that has got improved
technology. Standard Burglar Alarm is wired, whereas these wireless security systems works on
RF (radio frequency) waves, which are designed to sense the movements and would instantly
transmit signals to the control unit to notify the event of unauthorized entry. Once the signal is
received by the control unit, it will notify the home owner in a specific way. The signal
transmissions can occur to a maximum of 100 feet.
NETWORK SECURITY CAMERAS
They are a typical web camera that functions as a surveillance camera. Additionally, the NSC
connects to the computer network of the organization, providing real time feed of what is
happening in its facilities. Right now they are used in retail stores, depots, offices, and traffic and
weather control.
DRIVEWAY ALARMS
Wireless driveway alarms are an excellent addition to any alarm system that you may have at
your home. It alerts you before an intruder enters your home or activates your home security
system. Driveway sensor alarm monitors your driveway and alerts you of any incoming visitors
or intruders. If anyone enters your property or monitored area you will be alerted with a pleasant
chime.
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APPLICATIONS
To alert you when someone is around your home or office
It detects trespassers and alerts you by turning on light or alarms or sirens.
To safe guard against theft and bulgary.
At home or business when guests/ visitors are coming up through your way.
To safeguard your valuable belongings.
ADVANTAGES
LIMITATIONS
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES