Jets, sprites, climate change, high power lasers, orbital electrical socket, electrical breakdown, Impulsar, launching of objects by laser, high power lasers, optical breakdown, shock waves, conductivity of dust plasma, optical breakdown
The document discusses the layers of the atmosphere, including the thermosphere, which is the hottest layer where satellites orbit, and the exosphere, the outermost layer extending into space. It describes how the thermosphere is heated by radiation and cosmic waves, which cause molecules to break apart and create plasma. Auroras occur in the ionosphere, a layer composed of ions, when charged particles from the sun collide with ions, making the air glow. The ionosphere also reflects radio waves around the world like a mirror, though radio waves can be disturbed by solar activity.
This document provides an overview of the space environment and its effects on satellites. It discusses several factors in space including solar activity and radiation, the solar wind, solar flares, cosmic rays, and Earth's magnetic fields. It describes how these factors can cause satellite charging through plasma bombardment and the photoelectric effect. If a charge builds up, it can lead to sudden electrostatic discharges that damage satellite hardware and cause electrical problems. The space environment is complex and dynamic, and understanding its effects is important for satellite design and operation.
This document proposes utilizing updraft systems to sustainably generate electrical power by taking advantage of the latent heat released when atmospheric water vapor condenses. It discusses how water vapor in the atmosphere contains a significant amount of energy, comparable to 1,200 cubic km of fuel oil. This energy can be partially harvested through systems like vortex engines to not only lift water and initiate precipitation but also generate non-polluting electrical power. Enhancing tropospheric convection through these means could help mitigate global warming by more effectively transporting heat from the lower to upper atmosphere.
Hollow earth, contrails & global warming calculations lectureMarcus 2012
http://marcusvannini2012.blogspot.com/
http://www.marcusmoon2022.org/designcontest.htm
Shoot for the moon and if you miss you'll land among the stars...
This document proposes research into using focused shockwaves to achieve high temperatures, with potential applications in plasma physics, nanomaterials, and sonochemistry. It discusses using sonoluminescence from an imploding bubble to launch a spherical shockwave, which could theoretically become infinitely strong if focused to a point. However, achieving a perfectly spherical shockwave is challenging. Various concepts are described for how shockwave focusing could be used to generate ultrahigh temperatures and pressures, including for initiating nuclear fusion reactions. Overall, the document explores how intensified shockwaves may enable new areas of scientific inquiry.
The document discusses streamer theory, which overcomes some limitations of Townsend's theory in explaining electric breakdown. Streamer theory proposes that a single avalanche can develop directly into a spark discharge due to the effects of space charge fields and photoionization. As electrons move rapidly through the gas, they leave behind a trail of slower positive ions, enhancing the electric field in front and behind the avalanche head. This leads to further avalanches and the formation of a streamer discharge between the electrodes. Meek provided a quantitative model to estimate the electric field needed to transform an avalanche into a streamer.
On the electrophonic generation of audio frequency sound by meteorsSérgio Sacani
Recorded for centuries, people can hear and see meteors nearly concurrently. Electromagnetic
energy clearly propagates at the speed of light and converts to sound (called electrophonics) when coupled
to metals. An explanation for the electromagnetic energy source is suggested. Coma ions around the meteor
head can easily travel across magnetic field lines up to ~120 km. The electrons, however, are tied to magnetic
field lines, since they must gyrate around the field above ~75 km. A large ambipolar electric field must be
generated to conserve charge neutrality. This localized electric field maps to the E region then drives a large
Hall current that launches the electromagnetic wave. Using antenna theory and following, a power flux of
over 108 W/m2 at the ground is found. Electrophonic conversion to sound efficiency then needs to be only
0.1% to explain why humans can hear and see meteors nearly concurrently.
The document discusses the layers of the atmosphere, including the thermosphere, which is the hottest layer where satellites orbit, and the exosphere, the outermost layer extending into space. It describes how the thermosphere is heated by radiation and cosmic waves, which cause molecules to break apart and create plasma. Auroras occur in the ionosphere, a layer composed of ions, when charged particles from the sun collide with ions, making the air glow. The ionosphere also reflects radio waves around the world like a mirror, though radio waves can be disturbed by solar activity.
This document provides an overview of the space environment and its effects on satellites. It discusses several factors in space including solar activity and radiation, the solar wind, solar flares, cosmic rays, and Earth's magnetic fields. It describes how these factors can cause satellite charging through plasma bombardment and the photoelectric effect. If a charge builds up, it can lead to sudden electrostatic discharges that damage satellite hardware and cause electrical problems. The space environment is complex and dynamic, and understanding its effects is important for satellite design and operation.
This document proposes utilizing updraft systems to sustainably generate electrical power by taking advantage of the latent heat released when atmospheric water vapor condenses. It discusses how water vapor in the atmosphere contains a significant amount of energy, comparable to 1,200 cubic km of fuel oil. This energy can be partially harvested through systems like vortex engines to not only lift water and initiate precipitation but also generate non-polluting electrical power. Enhancing tropospheric convection through these means could help mitigate global warming by more effectively transporting heat from the lower to upper atmosphere.
Hollow earth, contrails & global warming calculations lectureMarcus 2012
http://marcusvannini2012.blogspot.com/
http://www.marcusmoon2022.org/designcontest.htm
Shoot for the moon and if you miss you'll land among the stars...
This document proposes research into using focused shockwaves to achieve high temperatures, with potential applications in plasma physics, nanomaterials, and sonochemistry. It discusses using sonoluminescence from an imploding bubble to launch a spherical shockwave, which could theoretically become infinitely strong if focused to a point. However, achieving a perfectly spherical shockwave is challenging. Various concepts are described for how shockwave focusing could be used to generate ultrahigh temperatures and pressures, including for initiating nuclear fusion reactions. Overall, the document explores how intensified shockwaves may enable new areas of scientific inquiry.
The document discusses streamer theory, which overcomes some limitations of Townsend's theory in explaining electric breakdown. Streamer theory proposes that a single avalanche can develop directly into a spark discharge due to the effects of space charge fields and photoionization. As electrons move rapidly through the gas, they leave behind a trail of slower positive ions, enhancing the electric field in front and behind the avalanche head. This leads to further avalanches and the formation of a streamer discharge between the electrodes. Meek provided a quantitative model to estimate the electric field needed to transform an avalanche into a streamer.
On the electrophonic generation of audio frequency sound by meteorsSérgio Sacani
Recorded for centuries, people can hear and see meteors nearly concurrently. Electromagnetic
energy clearly propagates at the speed of light and converts to sound (called electrophonics) when coupled
to metals. An explanation for the electromagnetic energy source is suggested. Coma ions around the meteor
head can easily travel across magnetic field lines up to ~120 km. The electrons, however, are tied to magnetic
field lines, since they must gyrate around the field above ~75 km. A large ambipolar electric field must be
generated to conserve charge neutrality. This localized electric field maps to the E region then drives a large
Hall current that launches the electromagnetic wave. Using antenna theory and following, a power flux of
over 108 W/m2 at the ground is found. Electrophonic conversion to sound efficiency then needs to be only
0.1% to explain why humans can hear and see meteors nearly concurrently.
Corona is the phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an overhead transmission line caused by ionization of the air around conductors. When the potential gradient at conductor surfaces exceeds 30 kV/cm, free electrons in the air gain enough velocity to dislodge electrons from neutral molecules, causing an avalanche ionization effect. This cumulative ionization results in either corona formation or sparking between conductors. Factors that affect the corona onset voltage include line voltage, conductor size, spacing between conductors, and atmosphere.
£££ Jack Oughton - Planetary Science Presentation 03 - A Brief Guide To Terre...Jack Oughton
The document discusses the Earth's magnetic field and magnetic polar reversals. It explains that the field is generated by convection currents in the Earth's liquid outer core, known as the geodynamo. The magnetic poles have changed positions many times throughout history, as evidenced by the magnetic orientations locked in ancient lava and rock. While a reversal takes thousands of years, the magnetic field does not disappear completely during this process. The current field protects life on Earth from solar radiation.
Light is an electromagnetic wave that does not require a medium and travels transverse to the direction of propagation. The electromagnetic spectrum includes all wavelengths of light, which travel at the speed of light in a vacuum or slower in materials. While light behaves as a wave, this document will focus on the direction of the wave, or ray, and how the intensity of light decreases with the inverse square of the distance from the source.
This document discusses various topics relating to physical geography and temperature, including:
- The electromagnetic spectrum and how different wavelengths of light refract differently.
- The greenhouse effect and how gases like carbon dioxide and methane trap heat.
- The various controls on temperature, including latitude, proximity to water, cloud cover, urbanization and more.
- How water moderates temperature through processes like evaporation and its higher specific heat.
- Different types of heat transfer and how phase changes in water absorb or release heat.
Lightning is caused by the accumulation of electrical charges in clouds. Positive charges collect near the upper edges of clouds and negative charges near the lower edges. When the positive and negative charges meet between clouds or between clouds and the ground, it produces streaks of bright light called lightning. Lightning conductors are used to protect buildings by providing a safe path for electricity to travel from the lightning strike into the ground without harming the structure. Earthquakes are caused by movements of the Earth's tectonic plates and can cause damage. Areas with fault lines between plates are more prone to earthquakes. The Richter scale is used to measure the magnitude and destructive power of earthquakes. Protective measures during an earthquake include hiding under stur
Nuclear fusion involves fusing together light atomic nuclei such as hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium to release energy. It requires extremely high temperatures to fuse atomic nuclei together, which plasma confinement techniques aim to achieve. Fusion promises a virtually limitless and carbon-free source of energy, but producing self-sustaining fusion reactions requires solving significant technical challenges and has yet to be achieved on a commercial scale.
The document summarizes the key concepts of nuclear fusion as an energy source. It discusses how fusion works by combining light atoms at high temperatures and pressures to release energy. It also outlines some of the major challenges of fusion like maintaining the superheated plasma long enough for reactions to occur. The document then describes the major components of a fusion reactor, including magnetic confinement to contain the plasma away from the walls of the reactor. It concludes by noting fusion has potential benefits but significant technological challenges remain before it can be achieved on a commercial scale.
Nuclear fusion is the process of forcing together atomic nuclei to produce energy and involves using extremely high temperatures over 100 million Kelvin to fuse hydrogen atoms together. Successful nuclear fusion requires achieving and maintaining high plasma density and confinement through magnetic fields to contain the hot plasma long enough for fusion reactions to occur at significant rates and has been achieved at experimental facilities like JET in the UK and JT60 in Japan which have produced over 16 megawatts and 5.4 megawatts respectively through magnetic confinement fusion since the 1980s.
The document summarizes the history of superconductivity research over the past 100 years. It describes key discoveries and theorists who contributed to the field, including Heike Kamerlingh Onnes who discovered superconductivity in 1911. It also discusses the development of theories like the BCS theory of superconductivity in the 1950s and developments in high-temperature superconductivity in the 1980s. The document is authored by David Quesada and outlines his own educational background and research focusing on effects of the density of states on superconductivity properties.
The document discusses the Earth's magnetic field. It is generated by the dynamo effect in the Earth's liquid outer core. As the liquid core circulates due to convection, electric currents and magnetic fields are created. These fields are recorded in ancient rock crystals over 4 billion years old. The tilted magnetic field interacts with the solar wind and magnetosphere to protect the Earth by deflecting charged particles.
In this presentation we have discused three different type of nuclear reactions in detailed. These all reactions itself are of different type. Laser fusion is a nuclear fusion reaction followed by LASER. Fusion hybrid is combined reaction of fusion and fission process. Cold fusion is a experiment to make possible nuclear reaction which required millions of degree temperature at room temp.
This document provides an overview of various natural phenomena including lightning, earthquakes, electric charge, and related topics. It discusses how lightning occurs as a discharge between electrically charged regions. Earthquakes are caused by the movement of tectonic plates deep underground. Electric charge is a physical property that causes objects to experience force in electromagnetic fields, and there are positive and negative types of charge. Instruments like electroscopes and seismographs can be used to detect electric charge transfer and seismic waves from earthquakes. Protection methods are outlined for safety during lightning storms and earthquakes.
Presentation Bubble Power Technology with sonofusionabhikalmegh
Bubble Power is the non-technical name for a nuclear fusion reaction to occur inside extraordinarily large collapsing gas bubbles created in a liquid during acoustic cavitation. The more technical name is sonofusion.
Nuclear fusion is the process by which lighter atomic nuclei fuse together to form heavier nuclei, releasing enormous amounts of energy. It is the process that powers stars like our Sun by fusing hydrogen into helium. Researchers are working to develop fusion as an energy source on Earth by containing and heating hydrogen isotopes to fuse in reactors such as tokamaks using magnetic and inertial confinement. Fusion reactors could provide safe, sustainable, and virtually limitless clean energy but developing viable commercial fusion power remains an engineering challenge that requires overcoming high costs and achieving breakeven where energy output exceeds energy input.
The document discusses solar flares, including how they occur due to magnetic reconnection on the sun's surface, their stages of development, their recorded effects on Earth including disrupting telegraph systems in 1859, potential impacts such as damaging electronics and electrical infrastructure, challenges predicting them, and recommendations for preparing like having backup power sources and fuel.
The Sun is a normal G2 star located at the center of our solar system. It has a diameter of 1.39 million km and contains over 99% of the mass in the system. The Sun's core generates energy through nuclear fusion, converting hydrogen to helium, and this energy radiates outward through convection and radiation to power life on Earth. It has an 11-year solar cycle where its magnetic field and sunspot activity fluctuate.
This document provides an overview of nuclear energy and fusion. It discusses the sources of energy, including the sun and fossil fuels. It then focuses on nuclear energy, explaining that it comes from the potential energy of particles inside atomic nuclei. It describes both nuclear fission, which occurs when heavy nuclei split, and nuclear fusion, which involves light nuclei fusing. Key facilities for nuclear research like JET and ITER are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of a lecture on fundamental renewable energy supply. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences or less:
The lecture covers energy balance of the Earth, solar radiation principles, wind energy principles, and is given on Wednesdays from 10:20-11:50 in Room 208. Solar energy provides over 99.9% of the energy converted on Earth, with the sun's radiation passing through the atmosphere and being weakened through processes like diffusion and absorption before reaching the Earth's surface. The document discusses various aspects of solar radiation in detail, including the spectral range, direct and diffuse radiation, and radiation levels on tilted surfaces oriented towards the sun.
The document summarizes lightning phenomenon and describes various types of lightning strikes and their effects. It discusses lightning protection methods for structures. Key points:
1. Lightning is a sudden discharge between clouds or between clouds and the ground. It can cause significant damage to structures and injury.
2. There are different types of ground lightning strikes depending on the direction of charge. The most common is negative cloud-to-ground lightning.
3. Effects of lightning include thermal, acoustic, luminous, electrodynamic, and indirect effects from surges. Protection methods aim to safely conduct lightning currents to ground.
The document discusses solar radiation and its interaction with the Earth's atmosphere. It begins by defining different types of electromagnetic radiation and properties like wavelength. It then discusses how solar radiation is affected by passing through the atmosphere, including being scattered, absorbed, or reflected. Key concepts covered include the solar spectrum, atmospheric selective absorption, air mass, and relationships between the sun and earth like variations in solar intensity due to the tilt of the Earth's axis. Diagrams are provided to illustrate solar angles and time definitions.
Corona is the phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an overhead transmission line caused by ionization of the air around conductors. When the potential gradient at conductor surfaces exceeds 30 kV/cm, free electrons in the air gain enough velocity to dislodge electrons from neutral molecules, causing an avalanche ionization effect. This cumulative ionization results in either corona formation or sparking between conductors. Factors that affect the corona onset voltage include line voltage, conductor size, spacing between conductors, and atmosphere.
£££ Jack Oughton - Planetary Science Presentation 03 - A Brief Guide To Terre...Jack Oughton
The document discusses the Earth's magnetic field and magnetic polar reversals. It explains that the field is generated by convection currents in the Earth's liquid outer core, known as the geodynamo. The magnetic poles have changed positions many times throughout history, as evidenced by the magnetic orientations locked in ancient lava and rock. While a reversal takes thousands of years, the magnetic field does not disappear completely during this process. The current field protects life on Earth from solar radiation.
Light is an electromagnetic wave that does not require a medium and travels transverse to the direction of propagation. The electromagnetic spectrum includes all wavelengths of light, which travel at the speed of light in a vacuum or slower in materials. While light behaves as a wave, this document will focus on the direction of the wave, or ray, and how the intensity of light decreases with the inverse square of the distance from the source.
This document discusses various topics relating to physical geography and temperature, including:
- The electromagnetic spectrum and how different wavelengths of light refract differently.
- The greenhouse effect and how gases like carbon dioxide and methane trap heat.
- The various controls on temperature, including latitude, proximity to water, cloud cover, urbanization and more.
- How water moderates temperature through processes like evaporation and its higher specific heat.
- Different types of heat transfer and how phase changes in water absorb or release heat.
Lightning is caused by the accumulation of electrical charges in clouds. Positive charges collect near the upper edges of clouds and negative charges near the lower edges. When the positive and negative charges meet between clouds or between clouds and the ground, it produces streaks of bright light called lightning. Lightning conductors are used to protect buildings by providing a safe path for electricity to travel from the lightning strike into the ground without harming the structure. Earthquakes are caused by movements of the Earth's tectonic plates and can cause damage. Areas with fault lines between plates are more prone to earthquakes. The Richter scale is used to measure the magnitude and destructive power of earthquakes. Protective measures during an earthquake include hiding under stur
Nuclear fusion involves fusing together light atomic nuclei such as hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium to release energy. It requires extremely high temperatures to fuse atomic nuclei together, which plasma confinement techniques aim to achieve. Fusion promises a virtually limitless and carbon-free source of energy, but producing self-sustaining fusion reactions requires solving significant technical challenges and has yet to be achieved on a commercial scale.
The document summarizes the key concepts of nuclear fusion as an energy source. It discusses how fusion works by combining light atoms at high temperatures and pressures to release energy. It also outlines some of the major challenges of fusion like maintaining the superheated plasma long enough for reactions to occur. The document then describes the major components of a fusion reactor, including magnetic confinement to contain the plasma away from the walls of the reactor. It concludes by noting fusion has potential benefits but significant technological challenges remain before it can be achieved on a commercial scale.
Nuclear fusion is the process of forcing together atomic nuclei to produce energy and involves using extremely high temperatures over 100 million Kelvin to fuse hydrogen atoms together. Successful nuclear fusion requires achieving and maintaining high plasma density and confinement through magnetic fields to contain the hot plasma long enough for fusion reactions to occur at significant rates and has been achieved at experimental facilities like JET in the UK and JT60 in Japan which have produced over 16 megawatts and 5.4 megawatts respectively through magnetic confinement fusion since the 1980s.
The document summarizes the history of superconductivity research over the past 100 years. It describes key discoveries and theorists who contributed to the field, including Heike Kamerlingh Onnes who discovered superconductivity in 1911. It also discusses the development of theories like the BCS theory of superconductivity in the 1950s and developments in high-temperature superconductivity in the 1980s. The document is authored by David Quesada and outlines his own educational background and research focusing on effects of the density of states on superconductivity properties.
The document discusses the Earth's magnetic field. It is generated by the dynamo effect in the Earth's liquid outer core. As the liquid core circulates due to convection, electric currents and magnetic fields are created. These fields are recorded in ancient rock crystals over 4 billion years old. The tilted magnetic field interacts with the solar wind and magnetosphere to protect the Earth by deflecting charged particles.
In this presentation we have discused three different type of nuclear reactions in detailed. These all reactions itself are of different type. Laser fusion is a nuclear fusion reaction followed by LASER. Fusion hybrid is combined reaction of fusion and fission process. Cold fusion is a experiment to make possible nuclear reaction which required millions of degree temperature at room temp.
This document provides an overview of various natural phenomena including lightning, earthquakes, electric charge, and related topics. It discusses how lightning occurs as a discharge between electrically charged regions. Earthquakes are caused by the movement of tectonic plates deep underground. Electric charge is a physical property that causes objects to experience force in electromagnetic fields, and there are positive and negative types of charge. Instruments like electroscopes and seismographs can be used to detect electric charge transfer and seismic waves from earthquakes. Protection methods are outlined for safety during lightning storms and earthquakes.
Presentation Bubble Power Technology with sonofusionabhikalmegh
Bubble Power is the non-technical name for a nuclear fusion reaction to occur inside extraordinarily large collapsing gas bubbles created in a liquid during acoustic cavitation. The more technical name is sonofusion.
Nuclear fusion is the process by which lighter atomic nuclei fuse together to form heavier nuclei, releasing enormous amounts of energy. It is the process that powers stars like our Sun by fusing hydrogen into helium. Researchers are working to develop fusion as an energy source on Earth by containing and heating hydrogen isotopes to fuse in reactors such as tokamaks using magnetic and inertial confinement. Fusion reactors could provide safe, sustainable, and virtually limitless clean energy but developing viable commercial fusion power remains an engineering challenge that requires overcoming high costs and achieving breakeven where energy output exceeds energy input.
The document discusses solar flares, including how they occur due to magnetic reconnection on the sun's surface, their stages of development, their recorded effects on Earth including disrupting telegraph systems in 1859, potential impacts such as damaging electronics and electrical infrastructure, challenges predicting them, and recommendations for preparing like having backup power sources and fuel.
The Sun is a normal G2 star located at the center of our solar system. It has a diameter of 1.39 million km and contains over 99% of the mass in the system. The Sun's core generates energy through nuclear fusion, converting hydrogen to helium, and this energy radiates outward through convection and radiation to power life on Earth. It has an 11-year solar cycle where its magnetic field and sunspot activity fluctuate.
This document provides an overview of nuclear energy and fusion. It discusses the sources of energy, including the sun and fossil fuels. It then focuses on nuclear energy, explaining that it comes from the potential energy of particles inside atomic nuclei. It describes both nuclear fission, which occurs when heavy nuclei split, and nuclear fusion, which involves light nuclei fusing. Key facilities for nuclear research like JET and ITER are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of a lecture on fundamental renewable energy supply. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences or less:
The lecture covers energy balance of the Earth, solar radiation principles, wind energy principles, and is given on Wednesdays from 10:20-11:50 in Room 208. Solar energy provides over 99.9% of the energy converted on Earth, with the sun's radiation passing through the atmosphere and being weakened through processes like diffusion and absorption before reaching the Earth's surface. The document discusses various aspects of solar radiation in detail, including the spectral range, direct and diffuse radiation, and radiation levels on tilted surfaces oriented towards the sun.
The document summarizes lightning phenomenon and describes various types of lightning strikes and their effects. It discusses lightning protection methods for structures. Key points:
1. Lightning is a sudden discharge between clouds or between clouds and the ground. It can cause significant damage to structures and injury.
2. There are different types of ground lightning strikes depending on the direction of charge. The most common is negative cloud-to-ground lightning.
3. Effects of lightning include thermal, acoustic, luminous, electrodynamic, and indirect effects from surges. Protection methods aim to safely conduct lightning currents to ground.
The document discusses solar radiation and its interaction with the Earth's atmosphere. It begins by defining different types of electromagnetic radiation and properties like wavelength. It then discusses how solar radiation is affected by passing through the atmosphere, including being scattered, absorbed, or reflected. Key concepts covered include the solar spectrum, atmospheric selective absorption, air mass, and relationships between the sun and earth like variations in solar intensity due to the tilt of the Earth's axis. Diagrams are provided to illustrate solar angles and time definitions.
The document discusses concepts related to solar radiation, including:
1. The objectives are to review properties of solar radiation, determine the theoretical upper limit of solar radiation at Earth's surface, and determine the sun's position and beam radiation direction on surfaces of various orientations.
2. Solar radiation transfers energy via electromagnetic waves from the sun to Earth within 8 minutes.
3. Radiation is defined by its wavelength, with the sun emitting most strongly in the visible light spectrum.
4. Factors like atmospheric composition and clouds influence the solar radiation that reaches Earth's surface.
The document discusses solar activity and space weather. It explains that the sun and other stars are powered by nuclear fusion reactors in their cores, which produce helium and tremendous amounts of energy. Sunspot numbers indicate internal solar activity and output, which varies in an 11-year cycle. Solar flares and coronal mass ejections are both indicative of the sun's dynamic environment, though they differ in nature and scale - flares are short-lived events while CMEs are larger ejections of magnetized gas. Space weather can affect life on Earth through interactions with the ionosphere, producing phenomena like auroras and sudden ionospheric disturbances visible in radio signal data.
The document discusses several key topics related to solar radiation and its interaction with the Earth's atmosphere:
1. It describes the electromagnetic spectrum of solar radiation, noting that most of the Sun's emission is in the invisible infrared spectrum.
2. It explains atmospheric effects like scattering, absorption, and reflection that influence the amount and wavelength of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. Clouds play a major role by reflecting a large portion of radiation.
3. Gases in the atmosphere selectively absorb different wavelengths based on the orbital structures of their atoms, with most absorption occurring in the long-wavelength infrared range where the Earth emits.
The document discusses solar radiation and its properties. It begins by outlining the objectives of the lecture, which are to review properties of solar radiation, determine the theoretical upper limit of solar radiation at Earth's surface, and determine the position of the sun and direction of beam radiation on surfaces of various orientations. It then provides information on electromagnetic radiation, the solar radiation spectrum, atmospheric effects on incoming solar radiation like scattering, absorption, and reflection. Key concepts discussed include irradiance, irradiation, insolation, and the selective absorption of the atmosphere. Information is also provided on sun-Earth relationships like seasonal variations and equations for solar time and the hour angle.
The document defines and describes different types of overvoltages that can occur on power systems, including temporary, transient, lightning, and switching overvoltages. It explains that overvoltages are caused by both internal factors like switching and insulation failures, as well as external lightning strikes. The mechanism of lightning is then described in detail, including how charge separation in storm clouds leads to the formation of stepped leaders and streamers, completing an ionized conductive path between the cloud and earth.
This document discusses radio wave propagation through the ionosphere. It begins by outlining the syllabus which includes factors affecting propagation such as the ground wave, ionosphere effects, refraction, reflection, skip distance and fading. It then discusses these factors in more detail over 3 pages, explaining ground wave propagation, the structure of the ionosphere consisting of E, F1, F2 and D layers, and how radio waves are refracted and reflected by the ionosphere to allow communication beyond line of sight.
Electricity occurs naturally and can be produced through friction. Benjamin Franklin conducted experiments that demonstrated lightning is a form of electricity. Static electricity is produced when two materials are rubbed together, causing an imbalance of electric charges. Lightning results from the buildup and discharge of large amounts of electric charges between clouds or between clouds and the ground, producing flashes of light and sounds of thunder due to rapid heating and cooling of air.
PHY 1301, Physics I 1 Course Learning Outcomes forajoy21
PHY 1301, Physics I 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VII
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
7. Describe fundamental thermodynamic concepts.
7.1 Explain the various heat transfer mechanisms with practical examples.
7.2 Recognize the ideal gas law and apply it to daily life.
7.3 Describe the relationship between kinetic energy and the Kelvin temperature.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
7.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Unit VII PowerPoint Presentation
7.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Unit VII PowerPoint Presentation
7.3
Unit Lesson
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Unit VII PowerPoint Presentation
Required Unit Resources
Chapter 13: The Transfer of Heat, pp. 360–379
Chapter 14: The Ideal Gas Law and Kinetic Theory, pp. 380–400
Unit Lesson
UNIT VII STUDY GUIDE
Heat Mechanism and Kinetic Theory
PHY 1301, Physics I 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
The Three Methods to Transfer Heat
The above image illustrates the three heat transfer methods. The sun heats the Earth by radiation, the
surface of the Earth heats the air by conduction, and the warm air rises by convection.
What is heat? Heat is energy that moves from a high-temperature object to a low-temperature object. Its unit
is the Joule (J), but sometimes it is measured with the kilocalorie (kcal). The conversion factor between the
two units is 1 kcal = 4186 J. The transfer of heat is processed by the following mechanisms.
Conduction is the process in which heat is transferred through a material. The atoms or molecules in a hotter
part of the material have greater energy than those in a colder part of the material, and thus the energy is
transferred from the hotter place to the colder place. Notice that the bulk motion of the material has nothing to
do with this process. You can easily find examples of conduction. A radiator in your house is one of them. If
you put an object on the radiator, the object will become warmer. Another example is when you pour the
brewed hot coffee into a cold cup; the heat from the hot coffee makes the cup itself hot.
The heat Q conducted during a time t through a bar of length L and cross-sectional area A is expressed as
Q = kA (dT) t / L. Here, k is thermal conductivity, and it depends on the substance; dT is the temperature
difference between the higher temperature and the lower temperature of the bar.
Convection is the process in which heat is transferred by the bulk motion of a fluid. According to the ideal gas
law for constant pressure, the volume (V) is proportional to the temperature (T). V increases as T increases,
and the density decreases within the constant mass. Warm air rises and cooler air goes down; this circulation
makes the energy transported. The generated energy from the center of the sun is transported by convection
near the photosphere. Cool gas sinks while bubbles of hot gas rise. There is a patchwork patte ...
The document discusses properties of electromagnetic waves including speed, frequency, wavelength and their relationships. It describes different types of electromagnetic waves across the electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves to gamma rays. Key details are provided on their characteristics such as typical wavelength ranges, how they are produced and examples of applications. The document also discusses magnetars, which are neutron stars with extremely powerful magnetic fields that can produce giant eruptions emitting gamma rays.
Lightning occurs when the lower part of a cloud becomes negatively charged and the earth becomes positively charged by induction, forming a capacitor. For a lightning discharge to occur between the cloud and earth, the air must break down when the electric field reaches 10 kV/cm due to the high moisture content and low pressure in storm clouds. A pilot streamer ionizes the air as it travels from the cloud to earth at 0.16 m/μs, branching into a stepped leader of 50 m segments that reaches earth in microseconds. A return stroke then moves rapidly up the already ionized path, neutralizing the cloud's negative charge in a bright flash. Additional charged regions in the cloud can produce dart leaders through the path in hot
The Sun is a typical star composed of gas held together by gravity that produces energy through nuclear fusion. It is around 5 billion years old and will become a red giant in approximately 10 billion years, expanding and consuming the inner planets. The Sun emits electromagnetic radiation across all wavelengths, with visible light making up 40% of its output. Its internal structure can be studied through helioseismology, which observes oscillations on its surface to learn about conditions in its interior.
The document discusses different types of energy sources including conventional, non-conventional, renewable, and non-renewable sources. It describes various conventional sources such as fossil fuels including coal, petroleum, and natural gas. It also discusses non-conventional sources like solar, wind, and nuclear energy. Hydroelectric power generation using hydroelectric power plants, dams, and different types of water turbines like Pelton, Francis, and Kaplan turbines are explained. Other renewable sources such as solar, wind, biomass, and geothermal energy are also summarized along with their working mechanisms and examples.
A thunderstorm cell forms when warm, moist air rises rapidly and condenses into water droplets. As the air continues rising, the water droplets grow into ice crystals which fall, drawing air down in a downdraft. This cycle of updrafts and downdrafts traps positive and negative charges separately. When the voltage becomes high enough, lightning discharges occur as stepped leaders that move in zig-zags from the cloud to the ground, followed by a return stroke of negative charges dumping into the ground. The process repeats with dart leaders along the existing path.
http://www.ces.fau.edu/nasa/mod
ule-2/how-greenhouse-effect-
works.php
This figure shows the blackbody spectra of Earth and sun. The incoming radiation from
the sun is much more intense (Y-axis) than that of outgoing radiation from the Earth
because the energy emitted from a blackbody is proportionate to its temperature to the
fourth (σT4) – i.e. the sun emits a far greater amount of energy than the Earth. Incoming
solar radiation is shortwave (X-axis, wavelength in microns) and in the wavelength range
of ultraviolet and visible radiation (shown as the rainbow spectrum of colors). Outgoing
Earth’s radiation is long wave and and is in the range of infrared radiation (shown in red).
Below the blackbody spectra, molecules in the atmosphere, known as greenhouse gases,
interfere with incoming and outgoing radiation. For instance, ozone (O3) in the
stratosphere absorbs some of incoming radiation and is known as the ozone layer. That
said, greenhouse gases (N2O, O3, CO2, and H2O) mainly interfere with outgoing radiation.
Let’s talk about the molecular motion of these greenhouse gases to understand the
greenhouse effect.
Molecular Motions and the Greenhouse Gases H2O and CO2
2349cm-1 667cm-1
Here are the physical causes (molecular motion) of the greenhouse effect. But first… it
may be a bit chunky, so sit back, take a deep breath!
Gas molecules can absorb or emit radiation in the infrared range in two different
ways. One way is by changing the rate at which the molecules rotate. The theory of
quantum mechanics describes the behavior of matter on a microscopic scale – that is,
the size of molecules and smaller. According to this theory, molecules can rotate only
at certain discrete frequencies as if vibrations of a piano string in that they tend to be
at specific “ringing” frequencies. (The rotation frequency is the number of revolutions
that a molecule completes per second.) The molecule can absorb incident wave
(energy), if this incident wave has just the right frequency.
This frequency of the radiation that can be absorbed or emitted depends on the
molecule’s structure. The H2O molecule is constructed in such a manner that it
absorbs infrared radiation of wavelengths of about 12 micrometers and longer. This
interaction gives rise to a very strong absorption feature in Earth’s atmosphere called
the H2O rotation band. As shown in the previous slide, virtually 100 % of infrared
radiation longer than 12 micrometers is absorbed with a combination of CO2 and H2O.
(By the way, the H2O rotation band extends all the way into the microwave region of
the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e. above a wavelength of 1000 micrometer, which is
why a microwave oven is able to heat up anything that contains water.)
Molecular Motions and the Greenhouse Gases H2O and CO2
2349cm-1 667cm-1
The second way in which molecules can absorb or emit infrared radiation is by changing
the amplitude at which they vibrate. Molecules ...
1) The plasma universe model views electro-magnetism as an important force shaping the universe alongside gravity. It sees galaxies and larger structures as forming through plasma filamentation processes rather than solely through gravitational collapse.
2) It proposes that the cosmic microwave background radiation is caused by synchrotron radiation from electrons spiraling around magnetic field lines rather than being leftover radiation from the Big Bang.
3) Stars form within galaxies in this model through the same plasma filamentation and condensation processes as the larger structures, and the model can potentially explain the observed density profiles and expansion of the visible universe through a process involving the separation and explosive interactions of primordial matter and antimatter regions.
The Sun is our solar system's sole source of light and heat. It is a common star that is a ball of gas held together by gravity. Nuclear fusion reactions at its core power the Sun and produce immense amounts of energy. Pressure from these reactions balances gravitational forces to maintain the Sun's spherical shape. Analysis of pressure waves detected on the Sun's surface has revealed details about its internal structure, such as temperature decreasing with distance from the core. Energy is transported to the surface through radiation in the core and convection in the outer layers, visible as "granules" on the photosphere. The Sun also has an atmosphere including the chromosphere, transition region, and million-degree corona. Occasionally, magnetic activity on the
Similar to High Power Lasers and New Applications (20)
A Novel Method for Prevention of Bandwidth Distributed Denial of Service AttacksIJERD Editor
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attacks became a massive threat to the Internet. Traditional
Architecture of internet is vulnerable to the attacks like DDoS. Attacker primarily acquire his army of Zombies,
then that army will be instructed by the Attacker that when to start an attack and on whom the attack should be
done. In this paper, different techniques which are used to perform DDoS Attacks, Tools that were used to
perform Attacks and Countermeasures in order to detect the attackers and eliminate the Bandwidth Distributed
Denial of Service attacks (B-DDoS) are reviewed. DDoS Attacks were done by using various Flooding
techniques which are used in DDoS attack.
The main purpose of this paper is to design an architecture which can reduce the Bandwidth
Distributed Denial of service Attack and make the victim site or server available for the normal users by
eliminating the zombie machines. Our Primary focus of this paper is to dispute how normal machines are
turning into zombies (Bots), how attack is been initiated, DDoS attack procedure and how an organization can
save their server from being a DDoS victim. In order to present this we implemented a simulated environment
with Cisco switches, Routers, Firewall, some virtual machines and some Attack tools to display a real DDoS
attack. By using Time scheduling, Resource Limiting, System log, Access Control List and some Modular
policy Framework we stopped the attack and identified the Attacker (Bot) machines
Hearing loss is one of the most common human impairments. It is estimated that by year 2015 more
than 700 million people will suffer mild deafness. Most can be helped by hearing aid devices depending on the
severity of their hearing loss. This paper describes the implementation and characterization details of a dual
channel transmitter front end (TFE) for digital hearing aid (DHA) applications that use novel micro
electromechanical- systems (MEMS) audio transducers and ultra-low power-scalable analog-to-digital
converters (ADCs), which enable a very-low form factor, energy-efficient implementation for next-generation
DHA. The contribution of the design is the implementation of the dual channel MEMS microphones and powerscalable
ADC system.
Influence of tensile behaviour of slab on the structural Behaviour of shear c...IJERD Editor
-A composite beam is composed of a steel beam and a slab connected by means of shear connectors
like studs installed on the top flange of the steel beam to form a structure behaving monolithically. This study
analyzes the effects of the tensile behavior of the slab on the structural behavior of the shear connection like slip
stiffness and maximum shear force in composite beams subjected to hogging moment. The results show that the
shear studs located in the crack-concentration zones due to large hogging moments sustain significantly smaller
shear force and slip stiffness than the other zones. Moreover, the reduction of the slip stiffness in the shear
connection appears also to be closely related to the change in the tensile strain of rebar according to the increase
of the load. Further experimental and analytical studies shall be conducted considering variables such as the
reinforcement ratio and the arrangement of shear connectors to achieve efficient design of the shear connection
in composite beams subjected to hogging moment.
Gold prospecting using Remote Sensing ‘A case study of Sudan’IJERD Editor
Gold has been extracted from northeast Africa for more than 5000 years, and this may be the first
place where the metal was extracted. The Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS) is an exposure of Precambrian
crystalline rocks on the flanks of the Red Sea. The crystalline rocks are mostly Neoproterozoic in age. ANS
includes the nations of Israel, Jordan. Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Yemen, and Somalia.
Arabian Nubian Shield Consists of juvenile continental crest that formed between 900 550 Ma, when intra
oceanic arc welded together along ophiolite decorated arc. Primary Au mineralization probably developed in
association with the growth of intra oceanic arc and evolution of back arc. Multiple episodes of deformation
have obscured the primary metallogenic setting, but at least some of the deposits preserve evidence that they
originate as sea floor massive sulphide deposits.
The Red Sea Hills Region is a vast span of rugged, harsh and inhospitable sector of the Earth with
inimical moon-like terrain, nevertheless since ancient times it is famed to be an abode of gold and was a major
source of wealth for the Pharaohs of ancient Egypt. The Pharaohs old workings have been periodically
rediscovered through time. Recent endeavours by the Geological Research Authority of Sudan led to the
discovery of a score of occurrences with gold and massive sulphide mineralizations. In the nineties of the
previous century the Geological Research Authority of Sudan (GRAS) in cooperation with BRGM utilized
satellite data of Landsat TM using spectral ratio technique to map possible mineralized zones in the Red Sea
Hills of Sudan. The outcome of the study mapped a gossan type gold mineralization. Band ratio technique was
applied to Arbaat area and a signature of alteration zone was detected. The alteration zones are commonly
associated with mineralization. The alteration zones are commonly associated with mineralization. A filed check
confirmed the existence of stock work of gold bearing quartz in the alteration zone. Another type of gold
mineralization that was discovered using remote sensing is the gold associated with metachert in the Atmur
Desert.
Reducing Corrosion Rate by Welding DesignIJERD Editor
This document summarizes a study on reducing corrosion rates in steel through welding design. The researchers tested different welding groove designs (X, V, 1/2X, 1/2V) and preheating temperatures (400°C, 500°C, 600°C) on ferritic malleable iron samples. Testing found that X and V groove designs with 500°C and 600°C preheating had corrosion rates of 0.5-0.69% weight loss after 14 days, compared to 0.57-0.76% for 400°C preheating. Higher preheating reduced residual stresses which decreased corrosion. Residual stresses were 1.7 MPa for optimal X groove and 600°C
Router 1X3 – RTL Design and VerificationIJERD Editor
Routing is the process of moving a packet of data from source to destination and enables messages
to pass from one computer to another and eventually reach the target machine. A router is a networking device
that forwards data packets between computer networks. It is connected to two or more data lines from different
networks (as opposed to a network switch, which connects data lines from one single network). This paper,
mainly emphasizes upon the study of router device, it‟s top level architecture, and how various sub-modules of
router i.e. Register, FIFO, FSM and Synchronizer are synthesized, and simulated and finally connected to its top
module.
Active Power Exchange in Distributed Power-Flow Controller (DPFC) At Third Ha...IJERD Editor
This paper presents a component within the flexible ac-transmission system (FACTS) family, called
distributed power-flow controller (DPFC). The DPFC is derived from the unified power-flow controller (UPFC)
with an eliminated common dc link. The DPFC has the same control capabilities as the UPFC, which comprise
the adjustment of the line impedance, the transmission angle, and the bus voltage. The active power exchange
between the shunt and series converters, which is through the common dc link in the UPFC, is now through the
transmission lines at the third-harmonic frequency. DPFC multiple small-size single-phase converters which
reduces the cost of equipment, no voltage isolation between phases, increases redundancy and there by
reliability increases. The principle and analysis of the DPFC are presented in this paper and the corresponding
simulation results that are carried out on a scaled prototype are also shown.
Mitigation of Voltage Sag/Swell with Fuzzy Control Reduced Rating DVRIJERD Editor
Power quality has been an issue that is becoming increasingly pivotal in industrial electricity
consumers point of view in recent times. Modern industries employ Sensitive power electronic equipments,
control devices and non-linear loads as part of automated processes to increase energy efficiency and
productivity. Voltage disturbances are the most common power quality problem due to this the use of a large
numbers of sophisticated and sensitive electronic equipment in industrial systems is increased. This paper
discusses the design and simulation of dynamic voltage restorer for improvement of power quality and
reduce the harmonics distortion of sensitive loads. Power quality problem is occurring at non-standard
voltage, current and frequency. Electronic devices are very sensitive loads. In power system voltage sag,
swell, flicker and harmonics are some of the problem to the sensitive load. The compensation capability
of a DVR depends primarily on the maximum voltage injection ability and the amount of stored
energy available within the restorer. This device is connected in series with the distribution feeder at
medium voltage. A fuzzy logic control is used to produce the gate pulses for control circuit of DVR and the
circuit is simulated by using MATLAB/SIMULINK software.
Study on the Fused Deposition Modelling In Additive ManufacturingIJERD Editor
Additive manufacturing process, also popularly known as 3-D printing, is a process where a product
is created in a succession of layers. It is based on a novel materials incremental manufacturing philosophy.
Unlike conventional manufacturing processes where material is removed from a given work price to derive the
final shape of a product, 3-D printing develops the product from scratch thus obviating the necessity to cut away
materials. This prevents wastage of raw materials. Commonly used raw materials for the process are ABS
plastic, PLA and nylon. Recently the use of gold, bronze and wood has also been implemented. The complexity
factor of this process is 0% as in any object of any shape and size can be manufactured.
Spyware triggering system by particular string valueIJERD Editor
This computer programme can be used for good and bad purpose in hacking or in any general
purpose. We can say it is next step for hacking techniques such as keylogger and spyware. Once in this system if
user or hacker store particular string as a input after that software continually compare typing activity of user
with that stored string and if it is match then launch spyware programme.
A Blind Steganalysis on JPEG Gray Level Image Based on Statistical Features a...IJERD Editor
This paper presents a blind steganalysis technique to effectively attack the JPEG steganographic
schemes i.e. Jsteg, F5, Outguess and DWT Based. The proposed method exploits the correlations between
block-DCTcoefficients from intra-block and inter-block relation and the statistical moments of characteristic
functions of the test image is selected as features. The features are extracted from the BDCT JPEG 2-array.
Support Vector Machine with cross-validation is implemented for the classification.The proposed scheme gives
improved outcome in attacking.
Secure Image Transmission for Cloud Storage System Using Hybrid SchemeIJERD Editor
- Data over the cloud is transferred or transmitted between servers and users. Privacy of that
data is very important as it belongs to personal information. If data get hacked by the hacker, can be
used to defame a person’s social data. Sometimes delay are held during data transmission. i.e. Mobile
communication, bandwidth is low. Hence compression algorithms are proposed for fast and efficient
transmission, encryption is used for security purposes and blurring is used by providing additional
layers of security. These algorithms are hybridized for having a robust and efficient security and
transmission over cloud storage system.
Application of Buckley-Leverett Equation in Modeling the Radius of Invasion i...IJERD Editor
A thorough review of existing literature indicates that the Buckley-Leverett equation only analyzes
waterflood practices directly without any adjustments on real reservoir scenarios. By doing so, quite a number
of errors are introduced into these analyses. Also, for most waterflood scenarios, a radial investigation is more
appropriate than a simplified linear system. This study investigates the adoption of the Buckley-Leverett
equation to estimate the radius invasion of the displacing fluid during waterflooding. The model is also adopted
for a Microbial flood and a comparative analysis is conducted for both waterflooding and microbial flooding.
Results shown from the analysis doesn’t only records a success in determining the radial distance of the leading
edge of water during the flooding process, but also gives a clearer understanding of the applicability of
microbes to enhance oil production through in-situ production of bio-products like bio surfactans, biogenic
gases, bio acids etc.
Gesture Gaming on the World Wide Web Using an Ordinary Web CameraIJERD Editor
- Gesture gaming is a method by which users having a laptop/pc/x-box play games using natural or
bodily gestures. This paper presents a way of playing free flash games on the internet using an ordinary webcam
with the help of open source technologies. Emphasis in human activity recognition is given on the pose
estimation and the consistency in the pose of the player. These are estimated with the help of an ordinary web
camera having different resolutions from VGA to 20mps. Our work involved giving a 10 second documentary to
the user on how to play a particular game using gestures and what are the various kinds of gestures that can be
performed in front of the system. The initial inputs of the RGB values for the gesture component is obtained by
instructing the user to place his component in a red box in about 10 seconds after the short documentary before
the game is finished. Later the system opens the concerned game on the internet on popular flash game sites like
miniclip, games arcade, GameStop etc and loads the game clicking at various places and brings the state to a
place where the user is to perform only gestures to start playing the game. At any point of time the user can call
off the game by hitting the esc key and the program will release all of the controls and return to the desktop. It
was noted that the results obtained using an ordinary webcam matched that of the Kinect and the users could
relive the gaming experience of the free flash games on the net. Therefore effective in game advertising could
also be achieved thus resulting in a disruptive growth to the advertising firms.
Hardware Analysis of Resonant Frequency Converter Using Isolated Circuits And...IJERD Editor
-LLC resonant frequency converter is basically a combo of series as well as parallel resonant ckt. For
LCC resonant converter it is associated with a disadvantage that, though it has two resonant frequencies, the
lower resonant frequency is in ZCS region[5]. For this application, we are not able to design the converter
working at this resonant frequency. LLC resonant converter existed for a very long time but because of
unknown characteristic of this converter it was used as a series resonant converter with basically a passive
(resistive) load. . Here, it was designed to operate in switching frequency higher than resonant frequency of the
series resonant tank of Lr and Cr converter acts very similar to Series Resonant Converter. The benefit of LLC
resonant converter is narrow switching frequency range with light load[6] . Basically, the control ckt plays a
very imp. role and hence 555 Timer used here provides a perfect square wave as the control ckt provides no
slew rate which makes the square wave really strong and impenetrable. The dead band circuit provides the
exclusive dead band in micro seconds so as to avoid the simultaneous firing of two pairs of IGBT’s where one
pair switches off and the other on for a slightest period of time. Hence, the isolator ckt here is associated with
each and every ckt used because it acts as a driver and an isolation to each of the IGBT is provided with one
exclusive transformer supply[3]. The IGBT’s are fired using the appropriate signal using the previous boards
and hence at last a high frequency rectifier ckt with a filtering capacitor is used to get an exact dc
waveform .The basic goal of this particular analysis is to observe the wave forms and characteristics of
converters with differently positioned passive elements in the form of tank circuits.
Simulated Analysis of Resonant Frequency Converter Using Different Tank Circu...IJERD Editor
LLC resonant frequency converter is basically a combo of series as well as parallel resonant ckt. For
LCC resonant converter it is associated with a disadvantage that, though it has two resonant frequencies, the
lower resonant frequency is in ZCS region [5]. For this application, we are not able to design the converter
working at this resonant frequency. LLC resonant converter existed for a very long time but because of
unknown characteristic of this converter it was used as a series resonant converter with basically a passive
(resistive) load. . Here, it was designed to operate in switching frequency higher than resonant frequency of the
series resonant tank of Lr and Cr converter acts very similar to Series Resonant Converter. The benefit of LLC
resonant converter is narrow switching frequency range with light load[6] . Basically, the control ckt plays a
very imp. role and hence 555 Timer used here provides a perfect square wave as the control ckt provides no
slew rate which makes the square wave really strong and impenetrable. The dead band circuit provides the
exclusive dead band in micro seconds so as to avoid the simultaneous firing of two pairs of IGBT’s where one
pair switches off and the other on for a slightest period of time. Hence, the isolator ckt here is associated with
each and every ckt used because it acts as a driver and an isolation to each of the IGBT is provided with one
exclusive transformer supply[3]. The IGBT’s are fired using the appropriate signal using the previous boards
and hence at last a high frequency rectifier ckt with a filtering capacitor is used to get an exact dc
waveform .The basic goal of this particular analysis is to observe the wave forms and characteristics of
converters with differently positioned passive elements in the form of tank circuits. The supported simulation
is done through PSIM 6.0 software tool
Amateurs Radio operator, also known as HAM communicates with other HAMs through Radio
waves. Wireless communication in which Moon is used as natural satellite is called Moon-bounce or EME
(Earth -Moon-Earth) technique. Long distance communication (DXing) using Very High Frequency (VHF)
operated amateur HAM radio was difficult. Even with the modest setup having good transceiver, power
amplifier and high gain antenna with high directivity, VHF DXing is possible. Generally 2X11 YAGI antenna
along with rotor to set horizontal and vertical angle is used. Moon tracking software gives exact location,
visibility of Moon at both the stations and other vital data to acquire real time position of moon.
“MS-Extractor: An Innovative Approach to Extract Microsatellites on „Y‟ Chrom...IJERD Editor
Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR), also known as Microsatellites, have been extensively used as
molecular markers due to their abundance and high degree of polymorphism. The nucleotide sequences of
polymorphic forms of the same gene should be 99.9% identical. So, Microsatellites extraction from the Gene is
crucial. However, Microsatellites repeat count is compared, if they differ largely, he has some disorder. The Y
chromosome likely contains 50 to 60 genes that provide instructions for making proteins. Because only males
have the Y chromosome, the genes on this chromosome tend to be involved in male sex determination and
development. Several Microsatellite Extractors exist and they fail to extract microsatellites on large data sets of
giga bytes and tera bytes in size. The proposed tool “MS-Extractor: An Innovative Approach to extract
Microsatellites on „Y‟ Chromosome” can extract both Perfect as well as Imperfect Microsatellites from large
data sets of human genome „Y‟. The proposed system uses string matching with sliding window approach to
locate Microsatellites and extracts them.
Importance of Measurements in Smart GridIJERD Editor
- The need to get reliable supply, independence from fossil fuels, and capability to provide clean
energy at a fixed and lower cost, the existing power grid structure is transforming into Smart Grid. The
development of a smart energy distribution grid is a current goal of many nations. A Smart Grid should have
new capabilities such as self-healing, high reliability, energy management, and real-time pricing. This new era
of smart future grid will lead to major changes in existing technologies at generation, transmission and
distribution levels. The incorporation of renewable energy resources and distribution generators in the existing
grid will increase the complexity, optimization problems and instability of the system. This will lead to a
paradigm shift in the instrumentation and control requirements for Smart Grids for high quality, stable and
reliable electricity supply of power. The monitoring of the grid system state and stability relies on the
availability of reliable measurement of data. In this paper the measurement areas that highlight new
measurement challenges, development of the Smart Meters and the critical parameters of electric energy to be
monitored for improving the reliability of power systems has been discussed.
Study of Macro level Properties of SCC using GGBS and Lime stone powderIJERD Editor
The document summarizes a study on the use of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and limestone powder to replace cement in self-compacting concrete (SCC). Tests were conducted on SCC mixes with 0-50% replacement of cement with GGBS and 0-20% replacement with limestone powder. The results showed that replacing 30% of cement with GGBS and 15% with limestone powder produced SCC with the highest compressive strength of 46MPa, meeting fresh property requirements. The study concluded that this ternary blend of cement, GGBS and limestone powder can improve SCC properties while reducing costs.
Generating privacy-protected synthetic data using Secludy and MilvusZilliz
During this demo, the founders of Secludy will demonstrate how their system utilizes Milvus to store and manipulate embeddings for generating privacy-protected synthetic data. Their approach not only maintains the confidentiality of the original data but also enhances the utility and scalability of LLMs under privacy constraints. Attendees, including machine learning engineers, data scientists, and data managers, will witness first-hand how Secludy's integration with Milvus empowers organizations to harness the power of LLMs securely and efficiently.
Salesforce Integration for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions A...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on integration of Salesforce with Bonterra Impact Management.
Interested in deploying an integration with Salesforce for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
Monitoring and Managing Anomaly Detection on OpenShift.pdfTosin Akinosho
Monitoring and Managing Anomaly Detection on OpenShift
Overview
Dive into the world of anomaly detection on edge devices with our comprehensive hands-on tutorial. This SlideShare presentation will guide you through the entire process, from data collection and model training to edge deployment and real-time monitoring. Perfect for those looking to implement robust anomaly detection systems on resource-constrained IoT/edge devices.
Key Topics Covered
1. Introduction to Anomaly Detection
- Understand the fundamentals of anomaly detection and its importance in identifying unusual behavior or failures in systems.
2. Understanding Edge (IoT)
- Learn about edge computing and IoT, and how they enable real-time data processing and decision-making at the source.
3. What is ArgoCD?
- Discover ArgoCD, a declarative, GitOps continuous delivery tool for Kubernetes, and its role in deploying applications on edge devices.
4. Deployment Using ArgoCD for Edge Devices
- Step-by-step guide on deploying anomaly detection models on edge devices using ArgoCD.
5. Introduction to Apache Kafka and S3
- Explore Apache Kafka for real-time data streaming and Amazon S3 for scalable storage solutions.
6. Viewing Kafka Messages in the Data Lake
- Learn how to view and analyze Kafka messages stored in a data lake for better insights.
7. What is Prometheus?
- Get to know Prometheus, an open-source monitoring and alerting toolkit, and its application in monitoring edge devices.
8. Monitoring Application Metrics with Prometheus
- Detailed instructions on setting up Prometheus to monitor the performance and health of your anomaly detection system.
9. What is Camel K?
- Introduction to Camel K, a lightweight integration framework built on Apache Camel, designed for Kubernetes.
10. Configuring Camel K Integrations for Data Pipelines
- Learn how to configure Camel K for seamless data pipeline integrations in your anomaly detection workflow.
11. What is a Jupyter Notebook?
- Overview of Jupyter Notebooks, an open-source web application for creating and sharing documents with live code, equations, visualizations, and narrative text.
12. Jupyter Notebooks with Code Examples
- Hands-on examples and code snippets in Jupyter Notebooks to help you implement and test anomaly detection models.
Best 20 SEO Techniques To Improve Website Visibility In SERPPixlogix Infotech
Boost your website's visibility with proven SEO techniques! Our latest blog dives into essential strategies to enhance your online presence, increase traffic, and rank higher on search engines. From keyword optimization to quality content creation, learn how to make your site stand out in the crowded digital landscape. Discover actionable tips and expert insights to elevate your SEO game.
Trusted Execution Environment for Decentralized Process MiningLucaBarbaro3
Presentation of the paper "Trusted Execution Environment for Decentralized Process Mining" given during the CAiSE 2024 Conference in Cyprus on June 7, 2024.
HCL Notes and Domino License Cost Reduction in the World of DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-and-domino-license-cost-reduction-in-the-world-of-dlau/
The introduction of DLAU and the CCB & CCX licensing model caused quite a stir in the HCL community. As a Notes and Domino customer, you may have faced challenges with unexpected user counts and license costs. You probably have questions on how this new licensing approach works and how to benefit from it. Most importantly, you likely have budget constraints and want to save money where possible. Don’t worry, we can help with all of this!
We’ll show you how to fix common misconfigurations that cause higher-than-expected user counts, and how to identify accounts which you can deactivate to save money. There are also frequent patterns that can cause unnecessary cost, like using a person document instead of a mail-in for shared mailboxes. We’ll provide examples and solutions for those as well. And naturally we’ll explain the new licensing model.
Join HCL Ambassador Marc Thomas in this webinar with a special guest appearance from Franz Walder. It will give you the tools and know-how to stay on top of what is going on with Domino licensing. You will be able lower your cost through an optimized configuration and keep it low going forward.
These topics will be covered
- Reducing license cost by finding and fixing misconfigurations and superfluous accounts
- How do CCB and CCX licenses really work?
- Understanding the DLAU tool and how to best utilize it
- Tips for common problem areas, like team mailboxes, functional/test users, etc
- Practical examples and best practices to implement right away
This presentation provides valuable insights into effective cost-saving techniques on AWS. Learn how to optimize your AWS resources by rightsizing, increasing elasticity, picking the right storage class, and choosing the best pricing model. Additionally, discover essential governance mechanisms to ensure continuous cost efficiency. Whether you are new to AWS or an experienced user, this presentation provides clear and practical tips to help you reduce your cloud costs and get the most out of your budget.
Driving Business Innovation: Latest Generative AI Advancements & Success StorySafe Software
Are you ready to revolutionize how you handle data? Join us for a webinar where we’ll bring you up to speed with the latest advancements in Generative AI technology and discover how leveraging FME with tools from giants like Google Gemini, Amazon, and Microsoft OpenAI can supercharge your workflow efficiency.
During the hour, we’ll take you through:
Guest Speaker Segment with Hannah Barrington: Dive into the world of dynamic real estate marketing with Hannah, the Marketing Manager at Workspace Group. Hear firsthand how their team generates engaging descriptions for thousands of office units by integrating diverse data sources—from PDF floorplans to web pages—using FME transformers, like OpenAIVisionConnector and AnthropicVisionConnector. This use case will show you how GenAI can streamline content creation for marketing across the board.
Ollama Use Case: Learn how Scenario Specialist Dmitri Bagh has utilized Ollama within FME to input data, create custom models, and enhance security protocols. This segment will include demos to illustrate the full capabilities of FME in AI-driven processes.
Custom AI Models: Discover how to leverage FME to build personalized AI models using your data. Whether it’s populating a model with local data for added security or integrating public AI tools, find out how FME facilitates a versatile and secure approach to AI.
We’ll wrap up with a live Q&A session where you can engage with our experts on your specific use cases, and learn more about optimizing your data workflows with AI.
This webinar is ideal for professionals seeking to harness the power of AI within their data management systems while ensuring high levels of customization and security. Whether you're a novice or an expert, gain actionable insights and strategies to elevate your data processes. Join us to see how FME and AI can revolutionize how you work with data!
GraphRAG for Life Science to increase LLM accuracyTomaz Bratanic
GraphRAG for life science domain, where you retriever information from biomedical knowledge graphs using LLMs to increase the accuracy and performance of generated answers
A Comprehensive Guide to DeFi Development Services in 2024Intelisync
DeFi represents a paradigm shift in the financial industry. Instead of relying on traditional, centralized institutions like banks, DeFi leverages blockchain technology to create a decentralized network of financial services. This means that financial transactions can occur directly between parties, without intermediaries, using smart contracts on platforms like Ethereum.
In 2024, we are witnessing an explosion of new DeFi projects and protocols, each pushing the boundaries of what’s possible in finance.
In summary, DeFi in 2024 is not just a trend; it’s a revolution that democratizes finance, enhances security and transparency, and fosters continuous innovation. As we proceed through this presentation, we'll explore the various components and services of DeFi in detail, shedding light on how they are transforming the financial landscape.
At Intelisync, we specialize in providing comprehensive DeFi development services tailored to meet the unique needs of our clients. From smart contract development to dApp creation and security audits, we ensure that your DeFi project is built with innovation, security, and scalability in mind. Trust Intelisync to guide you through the intricate landscape of decentralized finance and unlock the full potential of blockchain technology.
Ready to take your DeFi project to the next level? Partner with Intelisync for expert DeFi development services today!
Digital Marketing Trends in 2024 | Guide for Staying AheadWask
https://www.wask.co/ebooks/digital-marketing-trends-in-2024
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Azure API Management to expose backend services securely
High Power Lasers and New Applications
1. International Journal of Engineering Research and Development
e-ISSN: 2278-067X, p-ISSN: 2278-800X, www.ijerd.com
Volume 11, Issue 03 (March 2015), PP.34-50
34
High Power Lasers and New Applications
Victor V. Apollonov
A. M. Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Vavilov str.38, Moscow, 119991, Russia
Keywords:- Jets, sprites, climate change, high power lasers, orbital electrical socket, electrical breakdown,
Impulsar, launching of objects by laser, high power lasers, optical breakdown, shock waves, conductivity of
dust plasma, optical breakdown.
I. DIFFERENT TYPE OF LIGHTNING
Lightning is the electrical spark discharge, which is manifested, usually, by the bright flash of light and
by its accompanying thunder. Electrical nature of lightning was opened in studies of the American physicist B.
Franklin, according to idea of which was carried out the experience on the extraction of electricity from the
thunderstorm cloud. With this problem also dealt famous Russian scientists: M. Lomonosov and G. Rikhman.
Lightning had been fixed besides the Earth on the surface of other planets: Venus, Jupiter, Saturn and Uranium.
The average length of lightning 2-5 km, some discharges stretch in the atmosphere up to the distance to 150
km. Let us pause more in detail at the process of the appearance of lightning. Most frequently the lightning
appears in the rain clouds, due to that they are called thunderstorm. Sometimes lightning can be formed in the
layered - rain clouds, and also with the volcanic eruptions, the tornado and the dust storms. Usually are
observed the linear lightning, which relate to the so-called electrode-less discharges, since they begin and end in
the accumulations of the charged particles. This determines them some, until now, to not so clearly explained
properties, which distinguish lightning from the discharges between the electrodes. Thus, lightning do not occur
shorter than several hundred meters; they appear in the electric fields considerably of weaker than field with the
inter-electrode discharges; the collection of the charges, transferred by lightning, occurs for thousands of a
second from huge number of small and well isolated from each other particles, located in the volume of several
km3
. The process of the development of lightning in the thunderstorm clouds is most studied, in this case the
lightning can pass to clouds themselves - intra-cloud lightning, and they can strike into the earth - ground-based
lightning. For the appearance of lightning it is necessary that in the relatively small, but not less than the certain
critical, the volume of cloud was formed the electric field with the tension, sufficient for the beginning of the
electrical discharge ~ of 1 MV/m, and in the substantial part of the cloud there would be a field with the average
tension, sufficient for maintaining the discharge ~ of 0,1- 0,2 MV/m. In the lightning the electrical energy of
cloud is converted into the thermal and the light. The process of the development of ground-based lightning
consists of several stages. At the first stage in the zone, where electric field reaches critical value, begins the
impact ionization, created by at first free electrons, always existing in a small quantity in air, which under the
action of electric field acquire significant speeds in the direction to the earth and, colliding with the molecules,
which compose air, they ionize them. Thus, appear the electron avalanches, which pass in the thread of
electrical discharges - streamers, which are the well conducting channels, which, merging, give beginning to the
bright thermo-ionized channel with the high conductivity - to stepped leader of lightning. The motion of leader
to the earth's surface occurs by steps into several ten meters with a speed of ~ 50 000 000 meters in second,
after which its motion stops by several ten microseconds, and glow strongly weakens; then in the subsequent
stage leader again moves by several ten meters. Bright glow covers in this case all passed steps; then follow
again stoppage and weakening of glow. These processes are repeated during the motion of leader to the earth's
surface with a average speed of 200 000 meters per second. The field strength at his end is strengthened in
proportion to the advance of leader to the earth also under its action from the objects protruding on the earth's
surface the reciprocal streamer, which is connected with the leader, is ejected. This special feature of lightning
is used for creating the lightning rod. In the final stage on ionized by leader channel follow reverse (from
bottom to top), or main thing, discharge of lightning, which is characterized by currents from ten to hundreds of
thousands of amperes, by the brightness, which noticeably exceeds the brightness of leader, and with the high
speed of advance, which at first reaches to ~ 100 000 kilometers per second, while in the end of that being
decreasing to ~ 10 000 kilometers per second. the temperature of channel with the main discharge can exceed
25 000 °C. The length of the channel of lightning can be from 1 to 10 km, diameter - several centimeters. After
pulse advancing of ionization current of channel and its glow are weakened. In the final stage the current of
lightning can last the hundredth and even tenths it flogged, reaching hundred and thousands of amperes. Such
lightning are called protracted, they most frequently cause fires. Main discharge discharges the part of the cloud
frequently only. The charges, located on high altitudes, can give beginning to new arrow-shaped leader, who
moves continuously with a speed of thousands of kilometers in second. The brightness of its glow is close to the
2. High Power Lasers and New Applications
35
brightness of stepped leader. When arrow-shaped leader reaches the earth's surface, follows the second main
attack, similar to the first. Usually lightning includes several repeated discharges, but their number can reach
also several ten. The duration of repeated lightning can exceed 1 s. The displacement of the channel of repeated
lightning by wind creates the so-called strip lightning - luminous strip. With the entry of lightning directly into
the soil is possible the formation of the unique mineral of fulgurite, which is, in essence, the sintered quartz
sand. Intra-cloud lightning include usually only leader stages; their length varies from 1 to 150 km. The portion
of intra-cloud lightning grows in proportion to displacement to the equator, changing from 0,5 in the temperate
latitudes to 0,9 in the equatorial strip. The passage of lightning is accompanied by changes in the electrical and
magnetic pour on and by the radio emission, by the so-called atmospheric disturbances. The kill probability by
the lightning of ground-based object grows in proportion to an increase in its height and with an increase in the
electrical conductivity of soil on the surface or at a certain depth. The action of lightning conductor is based on
these factors. If in the cloud there is an electric field, sufficient for maintaining the discharge, but insufficient
for its appearance, the role of the initiator of lightning can carry out long wire cable, products of the combustion
of the engine of aircraft or rocket. Specifically, thus sometimes " provoke” lightning in the layered - rain and
cumulus congestus clouds.
For the illustration of enormous power engineering of the lightning and the significant frequency of
their repetition on the terrestrial globe let us give article from the British press about “ Marakaibo`s lighthouse”
(Venezuela).
There are more than three million discharges of lightning i.e. more than thousand for each second
occurs each day in the world. The greatest frequency of discharges occurs in the tropical and subtropical zones
of the terrestrial globe, the enumeration of these record places following: Ale hook in Columbia (270 days in
the year with the lightning); Tororo in Uganda (274 days); Bogor in Java in Indonesia (283 days). Completely
extraordinary light storm occurs in Venezuela in the mouth of Katatumbo river, that falls into Marakaibo Lake.
This spectacle can be seen at night during more then ten hours of one hundred eighty days of the year. Light
show occurs exclusively in the complete silence because of the intercloud discharges nature at the high up to
10km altitude. Sky is illuminated due to that bright flashes of approximately 300 times an hour, that comprises
more than one million electrical discharges in the year with the current strengths from 100 to 400 thousand
ampere each. These discharges are visible from the ocean for many tens of kilometers and during many
centuries were used by seafarers as the natural lighthouse, which was called “The Lighthouse of Marakaibo”.
Mixing cold wind from the Andes with the hot and humid air, which is risen from the swampy earth's surface in
the environments Marakaibo is the major factor, which creates this unique phenomenon. Air being risen from
the surface of swamps in essence consists of methane, which appears due to rotting of plants. Each flash of
lightning could illuminate all lamps of South America. Now all depends on humanity which must find the
method of the domestication of this enormous energy.
II. CAPACITOR “EARTH - CLOUD”
Why does thunder and it does sparkle lightning? In the clouds are accumulated the electric
charges, which leads to the breakdown of air, which is accompanied by the flash of light and by the formation
of shock acoustic wave. By other words, thunder and lightning are the manifestation of atmospheric electricity
existence. The fundamental connection of thunderstorm phenomena with the electricity for two and one-half of
century was reliably confirmed by numerous studies of geophysicists, meteorologists, specialists on lightning
protection. However, qualitative jump in the improvement of the methods of observations in the recent two
decades led to the unexpected discoveries in the study of thunderstorm clouds, lightning, orbital scale of
atmospheric electrical chain. It is similar, that the splash of interest in the problems of atmospheric electricity
survived now will make it necessary to glance differently at the mechanisms of shaping of electric field and its
role in the dynamics of atmosphere and ionosphere of the Earth. The heart of atmospheric electrical machine -
thunderstorm cloud, is more precise, the totality of simultaneously “working” thousands of thunderstorms,
distributed in the lower part of the atmosphere - to troposphere. Thunderstorm cloud lives not too for long -
from the hour to several hours. But for the change to some thunderstorms come others, forming in the
troposphere on the proximity. Contemporary satellite measurements, and also ground-based systems of the
registration of lightning give to researchers the sufficiently reliable maps of the allocation of frequencies of
lightning flashes over the Earth's surface. Flash rate above the surface of ocean on the average to the order is
lower than above the continents in the tropics. The reason for this asymmetry is the intensive convection in the
continental regions, where the land effectively heated by solar radiation. The quick ascent of thoroughly heated
saturated by moisture air contributes to the formation of powerful convective clouds of vertical development, in
upper part of which the temperature lower than ~40°C. In the result are formed the particles of ice, soft hail,
hail, whose interaction against the background of the rapid ascending current leads to the separation of charges.
Cloud height in case of big water surface in average lower than above the continents, and the processes of
electrization is less effective above the ocean. In lately is discussed another factor - difference in the
3. High Power Lasers and New Applications
36
concentrations of the aerosols above the ocean and the continents. Since aerosols serve as the condensation
nuclei, necessary for forming the particles in the supercooled air, their abundance above the land increases the
probability of the strong electrization of cloud. The quantitative analysis of this factor requires detailed
experiments. Approximately 78% of all lightning are recorded between 30 ° S. and 30 ° N. The maximum value
of the average density of the number of flashes per unit of the earth's surface exceeds 80 1/km2
is observed in
Africa (Ruanda). Entire pond of Kongo river with area about 3 mln. km2
it regularly demonstrates the greatest
lightning activity, although other equatorial centers abound with thunderstorms. It seemed that the significant
contribution to the global thunderstorm activity the centers of thunderstorm of subtropics and middle latitudes
give. Some of them, for example in North Argentina and Paraguay, lead on the rate of lightning flashes. The
study of the regional special features of statistics requires further improvement of the satellite and ground
environment of mapping thunderstorms. these studies intensively are conducted in the connection with the
realization of lightning activity as the important factor of the climate of planet, which sensitively reacts to
changes in the temperature, humidity, radiation conditions and the composition of the atmosphere. The progress
in studies of atmospheric electricity is connected, first of all, with the study of the mechanisms of generation
and dissipation of electrical energy in the atmosphere. Main problem here - the so-called electrical dynamo: the
generation of quasi-stationary electric field and space charge in the moving weakly conductive medium.
Already in simplest formulation of the problem of dynamo is manifested its important special feature - very
wide interval of time-spatial scales. So that on the scale in several kilometers would arise the electric field,
compared in the value with the breakdown of ~30 kV/cm for dry air under the standard conditions, necessary
that the random traffic of charges with the collisions of cloud solid or liquid particles would lead to the matched
effect of the addition of micro-currents into the macroscopic current of the completely high value (several
amperes), sufficient for the rapid (tens of seconds ) process of the separation of charges. It is evident from the
experience that in the ripe thunderstorm cell the lightning the discharges occur with the enviable regularity -
each 15-20 s, i.e. the mechanism of charging acting in the cloud is very effective, although the average electric
charge density rarely exceeds several nCl/m3
. As showed the measurements of electric field on the earth's
surface , and also inside the cloud medium (on the balloons, the aircraft and the rockets), in the typical
thunderstorm cloud “main” negative charge - on the average several ten coulomb - occupies the interval of
heights, which corresponds to temperatures from -10 to -25°C. “Basic” positive charge composes also several
ten coulomb, but it is located above basic negative; therefore the large part of the lightning discharges the
cloud- earth returns to the earth negative charge. In the lower part of the cloud frequently is revealed smaller in
the value the positive charge of ~10 Cl. For explaining the 3-layer structure of field and charge in thunderstorm
cloud described above is examined the set of the mechanisms of the separation of charges. They depend on such
factors as temperature, phase composition of medium, spectrum of the sizes of cloud particles. The dependence
of the value of the charge from the electric field transferred for one collision is very important. From this
parameter it is accepted to subdivide all mechanisms into the induction and the non-inductive. For the first class
of mechanisms the charge q depends on value and direction of external electric field and is connected with the
polarization of the interacting particles. Non-inductive of the charge exchanges between the being encountered
particles in the explicit form on the field strength does not depend. In spite of the abundance of different
microphysical mechanisms of electrization, now many authors consider the main thing non-inductive of charge
exchanges with the collisions of small with the sizes from ones to tens of micrometers of the crystals of ice and
particles of soft hail with the dimensions of the order of several millimeters. In the experiments was established
the presence of the characteristic value of a temperature, at which the sign of charge q reverses, points of
reverse, which lies usually between -15 and -20°C. Specifically, this special feature made this mechanism so
popular, since taking into account the typical temperature profile in the cloud it explains the 3-layer structure of
the distribution of the charge density. Recent experiments showed, however that many thunderstorm clouds
possess an even more complex structure of space charge. Is especially interesting mesoscale, which means the
horizontal scales from ten to hundreds of kilometers, the convective systems, which serve as the important
source of thunderstorm activity. Their characteristic feature is the presence of the united electrical structure,
which includes the region of intensive convection and extended, sometimes to several hundred kilometers the
stratified region. In the region of stratification the ascending currents sufficiently weak, but the electric field has
steady multilayer structure. Near the zero isotherm here are formed sufficiently narrow, with thickness into
several hundred meters, and the stable layers of space charge, mainly critical for the high lightning activity of
mesoscale convective systems. A question about mechanism and laws governing the formation of the layer of
positive charge in the environment of the zero isotherm remains debatable. As other examples of the work of
electrical dynamo serve electrization and discharge phenomena with the dust and snowy storms, with the
volcanic eruptions, nuclear explosions in the atmosphere, in the technological processes, connected with mixing
of aerosol flows, for example in the flour-grinding and cement industry. The presence of powerful convective
and turbulent flows in the thunderstorm clouds, and also the given above cases of electrization indicate that
interaction of the large charged particles with the sizes of 0.1-10 mm with the particles of micrometer size in the
4. High Power Lasers and New Applications
37
moving conducting gas medium plays important role for the electrical dynamo. The poly-phase and multi-flow
nature of medium brings in the final sum to the effective transformation of mechanical energy into the
electrical. The problem of the initiation of lightning discharge remains one of sharp and unites entire complex of
questions.
Briefly let us pause at two of them. First, as measurements on the balloons , the rockets and the aircraft
showed, the maximum tension of electric field in the thunderstorm clouds does not exceed usually 2 kV/cm,
which is substantially lower than the threshold of the breakdown of dry air at the heights in question, the
composing value order 10 kV/cm. In the thunderstorm cloud, however, the discharge is developed in the humid
air, which contains the particles of different size. Natural to assume that the threshold the field is reached in the
compact spatial domain, for example, on the scale less than 10 m or generally on the microscale because of field
strengthening on the particles, and to the sufficiently short period, so that the usual sensors of field do not
ensure that required three-dimensional - time resolution with the registration. The development of the avalanche
of the fast , so-called running away electrons with energy on the order of 1 MeV can serve as the alternative
explanation to initiation of spark in the sufficiently weak field. Such electrons can be accelerated in the field of
cloud because of a drop in brake power with an increase in the energy of particle. The threshold of the
development of avalanche almost is by an order lower than the usual threshold of the breakdown of dry air;
therefore when the seeding particles of the high energy are present, which are supplied by cosmic rays, the
development of avalanche in the cloud can give birth to the localized region of high conductivity, capable of
initiating spark. In the second place, the classical theory of gas discharge does not make it possible to explain
the rapid passage of cloud medium into the conducting state at the preliminary stage of lightning. Recently the
new scenario of this stage had been proposed and investigated, it is connected with the reaching by the cloud of
the regime of the self-organized criticality. In the model of electrical cells with the significant dimension of ~1-
30 m and with that randomly growing in the space and the time by potential the separate small-scale breakdown
between the pair of cells is capable to cause “chain reaction " of intra-cloud micro-discharges - is developed the
stochastic process “of the metallization” of intra-cloud medium. This model describes well the experimentally
observed special features of the preliminary stage of the lightning discharge, in that number dynamics of micro-
discharges and characteristic of radio emission. The study of thunderstorm phenomena includes experiments on
the artificial initiation of lightning - trigger lightning. In order to cause the discharge in the atmosphere under
the thunderstorm cloud, the rocket, which leaves after itself in the regime of a deficiency in the oxidizer a
significant quantity of soot conducting electricity is used. As it proved to be, initiation occurs with the
sufficiently high tension of field on the earth's surface under the cloud - not less than 5-10 kV/m. The for the
first time classical diagram of the initiation of discharges with the wire pulling after the rocket was realized in
1960 from onboard of research vessel. From those times about thousands of successful experiments are carried
out; physics of the ascending and arrow-shaped leaders , the return shock, mechanism of the sudden
strengthening of the luminosity of lightning channel because of the sharp current amplification was in detail
investigated because of them. Today are opened new possibilities for control of lightning discharges, in that
number with the aid of lasers. Thus, powerful lasers are capable of organizing the extensive plasma cylinders in
air, which could initiate and direct the lightning discharges similar to metallic wire in the trigger lightning and
conducting channels from the products of the combustion of special geodetic rockets. Ch.Wilson has indicated
in 1925 to the possibility of accelerating the electrons to the relativistic energies in the field of thunderstorm
cloud. This hypothesis was confirmed during our days: on the generation of relativistic particles and quanta of
high-frequency emission in the atmosphere, which correlate with the thunderstorm activity, a whole series of
experiments testifies. Thus, measurements on the balloons revealed an anomalous increase in the intensity of X-
ray and gamma-radiation more than to two or three orders in the course approximately of minute with the
maximum of spectrum in the region 50-60 keV. Ground observations also revealed the intensive flashes of X-
radiation with the energy of quanta into several hundred keV, whose appearance coincided with molding of the
leader of lightning flash and the arrow-shaped leader of trigger lightning. Finally, for the latter several years
were published the results of observations from the satellites of the splashes of the gamma- quanta MeV- foot
level, X-ray and ultraviolet radiation of atmospheric origin. For explaining these phenomena in a number of
works are drawn the phenomena mentioned above new for the atmospheric electrodynamics, and precisely: the
generation of the running away electrons and breakdown on the running away electrons. Energetic quanta can
arise from of the bremsstrahlung of the fast electrons, which interact with the molecules of air. Models describe
different situations, including the development of the avalanche of fast electrons when the extensive air shower
of cosmic rays is present, and breakdown on the running away electrons in the strong field of the stepped leader
of lightning. One should note that an increase in the number of fast electrons in the field of thunderstorm cloud
with the presence of extensive air shower is accompanied by the generation of a large quantity of second
particles, and this leads to the generation of the current pulses and radio emission. If energy of primary particle
is sufficiently great (1017
-1019
eV), the short (several microseconds) pulse of radio emission can have the
enormous energy (to 1 MeV), which explains the appearance of the so-called narrow bipolar pulses, observed
5. High Power Lasers and New Applications
38
sometimes during ground-based and satellite measurements and correlating with the thunderstorm activity. The
formation of such intensive current pulses is of interest both for understanding of the mechanism of the
generation of lightning and for studying the cosmic rays of super high energies. It is interesting that the
presence of the cellular structure of electric field in the thunderstorm cloud with the amplitude, which exceeds
the threshold “of running away”, proves to be essential for the process of accelerating the electrons to the
relativistic energies. The randomly oriented electrical cells together with the acceleration sharply increase the
time of life of relativistic electrons in the cloud because of the diffusion nature of their trajectories. This makes
it possible to explain the significant duration of the splashes of X-ray and gamma-radiation and the nature of
their interrelation with the lightning flashes. The role of cosmic rays for the atmospheric electricity they must
explain experiments on a study of their correlation with the studied thunderstorm phenomena.
III. CAPACITOR “CLOUD - IONOSPHERE”
[1] The powerful pulse to the study of atmospheric electricity at the very end XX of century gave
observations of the discharge phenomena in the middle atmosphere – Sprites and Jets (Fig.1,2), which correlate
with the thunderstorm activity, each day where the region of glow stretches to 85-90 km above the earth, and
flash duration comprises from ones to tens of milliseconds, elves, who stretch to the heights - 70-90 km with the
duration less than 100 s and jet - discharges, which start from the upper part of the cloude and which are
extended at times to the mesospheric heights with a speed of about 100 km/s. Registration of high-altitude
discharges and diagnostics of their characteristics are complicated because of the short time of life and sporadic
nature of the lightning discharges. Partly therefore, until now the physical models of Sprites, Elves and Jets
remain the object of intensive discussions. Perhaps, the greatest information to the present time is accumulated
about Sprite. Jet and its physical examination is the most interesting stage of the work for the future.
The optical flash of Sprite in the mesosphere appears through several milliseconds after discharge
cloud (+) - the earth, sometimes at the removal several ten kilometers along horizontal from the channel of
lightning. Discharge ignites at a sufficiently high altitude, since the threshold of the breakdown of air falls with
the height exponentially, whereas the amplitude of the disturbances of electric field, which appear at the
moment of the powerful lightning flashes of capacitor “cloud - the earth”, decreases with the height much
slower - according to the power law, and at the heights approximately 75 km in the atmosphere exceeds the
threshold of breakdown. In the last decade the study of the high-altitude discharges in the atmosphere became
the extensive, intensively developing direction of geophysical electrodynamics. And although the stage of the
accumulation of data, that characterize the morphology of these phenomena, is by no means completed, already
it is possible to switch over to a study of the thinner special features of structure and dynamics of the high-
altitude discharges and their role in the orbital electrical chain and the balance of low components of the
atmosphere. Experiments and theoretical calculations show that these discharges must be considered as the part
of the dynamic process, which includes the formation of the structure of field and charge in the cloud and
lightning discharge to the earth. Widely are discussed different approaches to the simulation, including with the
attraction of the mechanism of the running away electrons. In the detail, was developed the model of the
generation of electric field in the middle atmosphere, which considers the special features of the charge
distribution and its dynamics in orbital scale the convective systems, which serve as the basic sources of
positive discharges to the earth. The physical model had been developed, which makes it possible to describe
fine structure and dynamics of Sprite. Sprite is represented as the network of micro-discharges - streamers - and
as the self-sustaining process in the external field. Together with metallizing process of thunderstorm cloud
mentioned above, we have here one additional example to self-organizing, when the dynamics of high-altitude
discharge is caused by reaching the threshold of the so-called directed flow, which characterizes the formation
of the branched conducting channels, which overlap entire length of Sprite. Immediate prospects in the study of
the high-altitude discharges in the atmosphere are connected with conducting of the coordinated ground-based
and space experiments, and also with the development of the new methods of diagnostics of the parameters of
high-altitude discharges, in that number with the use of possibilities of radio-wave and laser diagnostics.
Electrical field of the atmosphere is very variable. The tension of the vertical component of field, which usually
much more than horizontal reaches several kV/m with the saggings, the ground-winds and the thunderstorm
cloudiness. Therefore is introduced the concept of conditions grow prettier weather, that correspond to wind
speed not more than 6 m/s into the absence of any kind of sediments, hoarfrost, fog, lower cloudiness. But even
under these conditions near the earth's surface there is an electric field by tension approximately 150 V/m, along
which in the weakly conducting air flows the electric current with the density several pa/m2
. This field changes
in the time and the space, the fluctuations relative to average value can comprise from ones to tens of percent.
The measurements of electric field, current and conductivity under the conditions grow prettier weather they
serve as the powerful means of the study of the electrical state of the atmosphere. However, to use it is possible,
having only learned to divide global i.e. planetary scale, orbital - with the scale of the order of the height of
neutral atmosphere 100 km and the local disturbances of the electrical parameters. The latter, in their turn, are
6. High Power Lasers and New Applications
39
directly connected both with the changes in the ionic- aerosol composition and with the dynamics of medium. In
studies it was established that the boundary layer of the atmosphere is characterized by the presence of the
aeroelectrical structures, which are manifested in the pulsations of electric field with the power-law spectra
short-term with the periods from ones to several hundred seconds. The electrodynamics of fog is of special
interest. Full-scale observations showed that under the conditions of fog in the frequency band 10-2
- 1 Hz also
realize the power-law spectra of the pulsations of field, but the intensity of pulsations increases more than by
the order in the comparison with the conditions grow prettier weather, which is explained by the diffusion
charging of drops in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. The results it is structural - temporary analysis they
made it possible to isolate two forms of the electrical state of fog, the first of which is characterized by the
formation of intensive aeroelectrical structures, and the second - by chaotic structural - temporary variations in
the field and current.
Fig.1. Photo of “Sprite”
Fig.2, Photo of “Jet”
IV. ORBITAL SOCKET
Electricity grow prettier weather is inseparably connected with the thunderstorm electricity it
composes the part of the distributed current outline - the orbital electrical socket (OES) of the atmosphere. As
the physical cause for formation OES in the atmosphere serves a sharp increase in the conductivity of air with
7. High Power Lasers and New Applications
40
the height. Near the earth's surface the conductivity of air is very small and comprises (2-3)·10-14
S/m, which
corresponds to the concentration of light ions of approximately 103
cm-3
. With an increase in the height because
of an increase in the ionization level, determined to 40 km by galactic cosmic rays, and it is above - by the
ultraviolet and X-radiation of the sun, conductivity grows almost exponentially with the characteristic scale of 6
km. Already at the height of lower boundary of the ionosphere (about 80 km) it increases to more than 10 orders
in the comparison with the troposphere. The conductivity of the earth in the surface layer, and all the more
water in the ocean also exceeds the conductivity of the boundary layer of the atmosphere to 10-12 orders. Thus,
the constantly functioning thunderstorm generators prove to be concentrated in the sufficiently narrow weakly
conducting layer between the earth's surface and the ionosphere. Frequently with the simplified description OES
the earth's surface and lower boundary the ionosphere (70- 80 km. ) they are considered as the facings one
additional gigantic spherical capacitor of the orbital scale, which is discharged in the regions grow prettier
weather it is charged in the regions of thunderstorm activity. In this case the quasi-stationary currents of
charging are not locked completely to the earth near the thunderstorm clouds, but partially “they are involved”
into the superincumbent region of high conductivity and spread on the ionosphere. It is considered that the
precisely quasi-stationary currents in the first turn "bear responsibility " for the maintenance of a potential
difference of ~350 kV between the Ionosphere and the Earth. Since the upper part of the majority of
thunderstorm clouds has positive charge, the potential of the ionosphere also proves to be positive, and in the
regions grow prettier weather electric field directed downward, causing thus the conduction currents , which
close OES. If the action of generators ceased, a potential difference between the earth's surface and the
ionosphere would disappear in the time not more than 10 min. The orbital electric generator, caused by the
nonmonolithic nature of the rotation of the plasma sheath of planet, can serve together with the thunderstorm
generators, the potentially important source of atmospheric electricity. In order to understand in the components
the mechanism of work OES and its role in the system solarly - terrestrial connections, to be dismantled at is
three-dimensional - to temporary dynamics, are necessary the complex experiments, which include the high-
precision measurements of electric field and current on the orbital scales and the measurements of the integral
activity of thunderstorm generators. For understanding of work OES are necessary the adequate models of
thunderstorm generators, which give the possibility to calculate quasi-stationary and pulse currents, and also the
contribution of generators to complete power engineering OES. The results of calculations show that the
contribution of mesoscale convective systems in OES can substantially exceed the contribution of single
thunderstorms. In spite of the significant disturbance of electric potential in the region of convection, which
reaches hundred megavolts, the basic contribution to the complete vertical current and structure pour on and
currents in the environment of mesoscale convective systems are determined by region stratifications. Taking
into account last experimental data and based on them theoretical estimations was created new description OES
as the open dissipation system, supported in the state of dynamic equilibrium by the entering it energy flow, in
the first turn of radiant energy of the sun. It is established that electrical energy is generated predominantly in
the regions of the reduced atmospheric pressure and in the zones of cold fronts and comprises in average 5·1013
George, that two orders higher than energy, concentrated in the orbital spherical capacitor the earth- ionosphere.
The average speed of the dissipation of electrical energy 4·1011
W exceeds the speed of the dissipation of energy
in the tectonic and magmatic processes and is characterized OES as completely dynamic system with the very
short time of the renovation of electrical energy. The process of the transformation of energy in the atmosphere
is accompanied by the generation of the dissipative structures of different scales, in the detail of convective
systems and aeroelectrical structures, that clearly it is possible to visualize in the form the global processes of
the accumulation of electrical energy and its dissipation in the atmosphere. On the basis of higher than
aforesaid, in the near time the study of power engineering of the atmosphere, structure and dynamics OES will
remain one of the vital problems of atmospheric electricity.
V. TO THE SPACE BY LASER LIGHT
LJE is substantially more economical than traditional chemical-propellant engines. In the initial stage
of flight as the working medium adapts atmospheric air, and beyond the limits of the atmosphere the
insignificant onboard reserve of gas or easily sublimated substance. In this case specific expenditures for the
launch of loads into space can be reduced to 5000-10000 rub/kg, which is approximately 100 times less in the
comparison with the contemporary scale of world prices. Especially, the possibility of maintaining the orbital
parameters at the assigned level with the aid of the same laser system, intended for the starting, can be evaluated
very highly.
In the present time the set of works on the study of LJE designing possibility is under very intensive
realization. Within the framework project “Lightcraft” the intensive developments of such systems are
conducted in USA, Germany and Japan. So, in November 2000 year American company “Lightcraft
Technologies” successfully conducted model tests of rocket, which rose to the height -70 m during 12,7 s. under
the action of exhaust jet, which appears under the effect of powerful laser emission. In the experiments the low-
8. High Power Lasers and New Applications
41
frequency 20Hz CO2- laser with output power 10 kW was used, which in the present time is under upgrading to
the level of the output power - 100kW. Mechanical impulse appeared due to ablation of special polymeric
material from the concave surface of the reflector, located in the tail end of the rocket, where the laser beam
pulses were accepted.
In the beginning of 1973 in the USSR under scientific guidance of Acad. A. M. Prokhorov the work on
the study of possibility of LJE designing was conducted. The reflector, located in the tail of the rocket
prototype, concentrated the obtained radiation in air and ensured micro-burst that the reactive thrust was
created. The successful results of different models of the reflectors tests, which were at the same time the laser
light receivers, had been obtained. One should note that all experiments pointed out above were conducted with
the use of electric discharge CO2- lasers with power up to 10 kW, while for the injection into orbit of different
highly and technologically effective equipment (global network connections, Internet, photo-monitoring of
Earth surface, debris cleaning) the radiated power substantially higher is required Thus, for example, for KA
launching with the weight 1000 kg the laser with power not less than 10-15 MW is necessary. This laser at
present time can be the gas-dynamic laser (GDL) only, since only in this case the laser technology in the
significant measure intersects the rocket technology, which in 50 years moved sufficiently well in the creation
of super-power gas generators and it makes it possible to pose similar problems. Furthermore, the laser must
work in P-P regime with the high frequency of the repetition of short pulses for the exception of the process of
laser emission screening entering by the plasma, which appears with the engine work, and so for an increase in
the work effectiveness [ 3 ]. In the opinion of specialists - classical missileman - LJE can find an effective use in
creation of cheap single-stage means of nano- and micro-satellites launch with mass in the gap 5- 50 kg, which
according to the opinion of experts tomorrow will compose the fundamental basis of commercial launch
program. In the first stage of flight KA at the heights up to 30 km as the working medium in the engine the
usage of atmospheric air is intended, and then to inject satellite into orbit the onboard reserve of the special fuel
- ablating substance- in the quantities not exceeding 15-20% of the KA started weight is needed.
The experience of powerful lasers creation is accumulated in the A. M. Prokhorov General Physics
Institute of RAS, in the NPO “Energomash” after V. P. Glushko and other organizations of Russia. In OOO
“Energomashtechnika” during last few years very successful experimental studies of P-P regime in the powerful
and well developed continuous laser systems were conducted. This makes it possible to approach the
experimental realization of super-power P-P laser source on the basis of gas-dynamic principle and LJE in the
composition of light carrier with control system. The forthcoming complex of works must become major step
toward the future starting of super-lightweight KA into low near Earth orbit. The realization of project will
make it possible to create highly economical LJE of reusable starting for the removal of the payloads of wide
designation into space. The key advantage of new approach is connected with the fact that the source of kinetic
energy and payload are untied in the space and launching weight KA can be lowered to the payload weight
only. An even greater K. E. Tsiolkovskii foretold, that the starting KA of future will be achieved with the aid of
the electromagnetic waves directed from the external energy source, laser at that time was not known to the
World at all. The great interest of scientists and specialists, as they confirmed few last symposium in this field
of research, was connected with the successful solution in our country of the problem of powerful lasers
creation with high repetition rate (50-100 kHz) of pulses of short duration (150-250 ns). This is what very
recently wrote “the father of laser reactive motion” Arthur Kantrowits:
“Dear Victor, thanks for the pleasure given to read your articles from the last symposium on the
motion with the aid of laser energy which are now accessible for the scientific community. I already thought
above your works and I count that these remarkable ideas on the quasi-stationary wave, about the light-
detonation waves, about the matrix of reflectors those introduced into your new examination are very important
for the development of theory and technology of motion with the aid of the light. With great admiration I do
control the development of the laser starting in the world and in Russia in particular. I hope that after your
publications the significant activity in the field of laser engine creation and its applications will be stimulated. It
would be very interestingly and further hear about the progress in this hot field of research. Thanks for your
energetic contribution and be healthy.
A. Kantrowits”.
High-frequency P-P mode of laser operation is developed and tested on the base of powerful CO2 –
GDL, Nd YAG with lamp pumping and can be successfully used for other types of the powerful lasers, such as:
HF/DF, Nd YAG with LD pumping, COIL and CO. The results of computer modeling for high repetition rate
P-P lasers are presented in our review. The data of modeling are dependable on the characteristics of media,
way of pumping, resonator geometry, and many other parameters of the laser under consideration [4].
9. High Power Lasers and New Applications
42
1.СOIL ,P-P mode starts at frequencies > 20 kHz.,Depth of modulation -100% starts at frequencies > 100
kHz.,Pulse duration < 250 ns. Ratio: P peak. / Paver. = 100 -1000.
2.HF/DF ,P-P mode starts at frequencies > 100 kHz.,Depth of modulation -100% starts at frequencies > 250
kHz.,Pulse duration < 150 ns. Ratio: P peak. / Paver. = 1000 -10000.
3.Nd YAG ,P-P mode starts at frequencies > 4 kHz.,Depth of modulation -100% starts at frequencies > 40
kHz.,Pulse duration < 250 ns. Ratio: P peak. / Paver. = 100 -1000.
4.CO ,P-P mode starts at frequencies > 10 kHz.,Depth of modulation -100% starts at frequencies > 100
kHz.,Pulse duration < 250 ns. Ratio: P peak. / Paver. = 100 -1000.
At present time the project of the GDL with an output power of 20 MW with the varied high-frequency
structure of emission is located in the stage of active study in our country. Meaningful results on a notable
increase in the effectiveness of laser energy use in the developed mode of emission, which made it possible
according to our estimations to pass from tens of kg pay-load to a hundreds, or even a thousand kg are obtained.
So, one should note that the works in this region, on the basis of their large prospect for different applications,
already begun in Germany, Japan, England, France, China, S. Korea, Brazil and a number of others the
countries. In this case, practically all participants of that works note the chosen position of GDL as the most
promising system from the point of view of its scalability on the basis of the rocket technology to the level of
several ten megawatts and other parameters, important for this kind of applications.
To the present time two directions, in which the possibility of applying the laser emission in the
aerospace tasks is investigated: launching to the space orbit light KA, reduction of aerodynamic drag of the
flying bodies, which move in the atmosphere with the high speed were formed. In the problem of developing
LJE the generated by P-P laser emission is focused by reflector near the rear end of KA and the periodically
repetitive laser sparks are created. Sparks generate shock waves, which transfer the part of their mechanical
pulse to the reflector, located near the tail of the rocket. As the characteristic of the previous years the gas-
discharge laser systems had demonstrated the pulse repetition frequency, which was limited by the time of gas
exchange in the discharge zone in the range of 100 - 300 Hz. For achievement high average power - 10 MW for
this rate of operation it should be necessary to use laser pulses with the energy about 100 kJ. With the reduced
air pressure, for example for the height more than 15 km, long living plasma sphere, created by each pulse,
occupies practically entire volume of reflector, which leads to the screening of the subsequent pulses into the
course ~ of 10 ms. Technical difficulty of that method of energy extraction for the laser is also a very strong
impact loads with such a high energy of pulses. The use of high energy pulses with the small repetition
frequency and, consequently, with the very high peak power is limited also by optical breakdown as on the
route, so on the surface of reflector. The method proposed by us is the way of overcoming all that difficulties on
the indicated basis: usage of laser emission with short duration of pulse and high pulse repetition frequency and
mechanism of generated by OPD shock waves resonant association. Under that conditions of LJE energy of
laser pulse with the short duration (100ns.) effectively (95%) can be absorbed and converted (~ 30%) into shock
waves. In addition to this it is shown that the specific thrust can be increased several times due to the artificial
transformation of radial component of shock waves into the longitudinal one. There are many other advantages
of high repetition rate P-P lasers should be mentioned here as well [5]. They are:
1. Much higher efficiency of energy extraction from a media and conversion into laser light,
which is important for high aperture lasers scale up;
2. Plasma screening effect decreasing due to the decreasing of laser pulses duration and
increasing of number of pulses up to a few tens of kHz;
3. Decreasing of laser beam thermal defocusing due to the optimal temporal structure of laser
radiation;
4. Localization of energy deposition in space and time and elimination of stressed state of solids
under laser action due to replacement of melting by ablation;
5. Possibility of unrolled 3d geometry of breakdowns in space due to a very high repetition rate
generation of laser pulses, creation of optical, acoustical and electromagnetic fields far away of laser
source;
6. Much longer distances of optical breakdown conditions for the same optical systems;
VI. PARAMETERS FOR LJE
Laser emission is focused by the reflector, which can have a form of hemisphere or parabolic. In
Figure 1a the significant dimensions of reflector, focusing one spark, and also plasma zone, created by spark are
shown. Distance Ff must be little between the focal point and the reflector Ff /Rd < 0.2, which follows from the
condition of achieving the high value of the specific impulse of thrust. It follows in avoiding of the optical
breakdown on the reflector and of the conditions of transport that the beam must have large diameter on the
10. High Power Lasers and New Applications
43
reflector. If the intensity of emission exceeds the threshold of optical breakdown, then plasma front is extended
towards the ray, occurs heating and the ionization of air as a result of absorbing the laser emission. Since
intensity in the sharply focused ray rapidly decreases (shape factor), then already at the small distance from the
focus occurs the disruption of the light-detonation regime of the propagation of plasma front. Further, emission
is absorbed for a while in the decay plasma. It follows from the calculations carried out by us that for LJE the
greatest interest represents the pulses with the duration ~ of 0.2 s. Maximum energy of laser pulses is limited by
the condition for the achievement of a high efficiency in the use of laser emission for the thrust application. In
the free gas space the pulse transferred by shock wave is different from zero only at the small distances from the
burst center. The same data were observed also in the early experiments. For the reflector of parabolic form the
specific impulse is maximum ~ 550 Ns/J at the distance R1, equal with the short duration of the pulse of ~100-
200 ns, approximately, the tenth of a dynamic radius, or by another words, the distance, where the value of
pulse diminishes is approximately three times bigger. With the increase R1/Rd from ~ 0.1 to 0.33 the value J1 it
rapidly decreases ~ by 550 - 200 Ns/J. B the case LJE the possibility of using the low values R1/Rd it is limited
by the formation of the long-life plasma, whose characteristic radius is compared with the dimensions of
reflector. At the last stages of the thermal expansion of spark is formed plasma zone with the low density and
the high temperature ~ 8000 k0
the ionized gas. The contact boundary of hot region stops with the pressure
balance in the plasma and the surrounding gas. In the approximation of the spherical form of spark a radius of
plasma region at the pullout moment of pressure it is possible to obtain the estimation of a radius of plasma
formation for entire operating range of the pressures 0.1 - 1 atm. The ratio of a radius of plasma zone to a
dynamic radius in this case composes the value 0.15 - 0.25. This relation does not depend on energy and the gas
pressure. Moreover its value is located in the same range, where is attained the maximum the value of the
specific recoil momentum, created by shock wave. In the reflector, which has the form of hemisphere, the
maximum the specific impulse of the thrust has reached at R1/Rd 1. Let us give the values of a radius of
plasma formation and time of its formation for energy 105
J and the pressures of atmosphere 1 and 0.1 atm. The
parameters correspond: peak pulse power - 2107
W and to the pulse repetition frequency - 100 Hz, and also to
start and to the end of the stage of acceleration KA in the regime LJE. With pressure 1 atm. the size of plasma
sphere will be 25 cm. With the time of formation on the order of 1 ms, while at a pressure of the atmosphere -
0.1 atm. the size of plasma sphere will comprise already 50 cm with the time of formation - 2 ms. Cooling laser
plasma occurs due to the turbulent mixing with the cold surrounding gas. The characteristic time of this process
more than to the order exceeds the time of its formation. Here the spark with spherical form has been examined.
On the matter itself the spark in LJE has a form of cone with the large apex angle. This even more worsens
situation. With the specified conditions at the last stage of the expansion of spark can be formed the cumulative
jet, in which the gas moves in the direction to the reflector. Plasma ceases to be singly connected, taking the
form, similar to the torus. Thus, the use of a regime with the maximum pulse, presented in the early work of
many authors, it will be accompanied by the contact of plasma with the surface of reflector, which,
undoubtedly, will lead to its destruction.
(a) (b)
Fig.3 (a,b)
11. High Power Lasers and New Applications
44
1 – high rep.rate P-P laser radiation,
2 – back side of reflector-zone of laser pulses interaction,
2’ – side wall of reflector, 3 – cavern, 4 – OPD, 5 – Shock wave,
5’ – reflected shock wave, 6 – gas stream, 7 – plasma stream.
Figure 3. Scheme of reflector (a) and possible structure of matrix of reflectors (b) for LJE.
VII. SHOCK WAVES RESONANCE ASSOCIATION
The effect of resonance association separate shock waves into the low-frequency quasi-
stationary wave (QSW) in the general case consists in following. In continuous medium consecutively are
created periodic disturbances – shock waves, whose initial velocity is more than the speed of sound. If the speed
of the displacement of the field of pulsations is lower than the speed of sound in the medium, then shock waves
are united and are created BY SQ. Depending on the time-spatial structure of pulsations the mechanism is
manifested in the form the effects, basic property of which is the large length of high-pressure area. The
mechanism of shock waves association does not contain limitations to the type of medium and source of
pulsations, to its energy. Depending on the structure of pulsations QSW can have various forms.
The realization of mechanism kV makes it possible to remove the problems examined above: the
screening of emission and the thermal action of laser plasma in LJE. Furthermore, QSW makes it possible to
substantially increase the effectiveness of the use of laser emission in the calculation of an increase in the
specific thrusts by the unit of power. Let us determine requirements for energy and pulse repetition frequency of
P-P of the laser emission, which satisfy solution of this problem. In this case has the sense to examine two
methods, based on the use “spherical” and “flat” OPD. In both cases is formed flat short circuit the calculation
of the use of both the geometry OPD and the geometry of reflector, and also the organization of the process of
the introduction of energy of laser emission into the engine.
VIII. LJE FOR THE CASE OF MATRIX OF REFLECTORS
In the general case MR is represented in the figure 1b.The problem of developing LJE on the
basis of shock waves merging and P-P of laser emission with the high (to 100 kHz) pulse repetition frequency,
and also flight path control aid LJE it is decided with the use MR. The schematic of engine is collection from N
mono-reflectors. To MR brings by P-P the emission with the energy of the pulses q with the average power WC.
In the general case the elements MR are identical. MR creates matrix OPD, each of which is stabilized by the
air jet of the incident flow. A quantity of matrix elements in the general case determines the high-speed regime
of gas jet. In our case a quantity of elements in the matrix was N = 8.
In our calculation of power of laser emission was taken as the equal of 20MW, the pulse repetition rate
– 100 kHz, energy of each pulse in this case was equal 200J. Calculations showed that for the accepted for the
examination parameters in the case of normal atmospheric pressure the complete engine thrust will be equal to
100 thousand N, and at a pressure of the order of the tenth atmosphere its value will fall to the value - 36
thousand N.
The optimum gas flow speed for both cases proved to be equal to 2.5 km/s and 5.4 km/s respectively.
One should also note that the flight control is possible with the aid of the laser engine for the calculation of a
change in the thrust in the equivalent components MR. However, an increase in the number of elements MR is
accompanied by a significant increase in aerodynamic drag on the air ducts and the selected number of elements
is close to the optimum.
In the experiments the model of rocket with the laser engine was the cylinder with diameter ~ 8 cm,
with the length ~ 26 cm and with the weight 1.1 kg, suspended to four thin wires with total length of 1.1 m
(Fig.4). Construction allowed displacement only in the axial direction. On the chamber end is fixed the reflector
- change cylindrical cap. Laser emission was introduced into the camera through the lens with a focal length of
17 cm. The jet of argon was formed with the expiration from the high-pressure chamber through the opening
with a diameter of ~ 3 or 4 mm. The speed was regulated by the pressure of argon, which was given into the
camera on the flexible hose. The force, created by jet and shock waves, was transferred with the aid of the thin
(~ 0.2 mm) molybdenum wire to the load, which stands on the strain scale weights.
12. High Power Lasers and New Applications
45
Fig.4. Scheme of experimental setup.
OPD burnt in the flow, which was formed with the outflow of gas from the camera through the
opening in the reflector. OPD was created by P-P laser emission - f = 50 kHz and 100 kHz, in this case the
average radiated power comprised P ≈ 1200 W. Thrusts with f= 50 kHz, The V= 300 m/c it proved to be equal -
40 g., and with The V = 400 m/c - 69 g. The value of the thrust coupling coefficient has proved to be equal -
1.06 N/kW. Experiment confirmed that P-P laser emission creates stationary thrust with the very high coupling
coefficient - 1000 N/MW. A difference between the experimental results and theoretical estimations, whose
value >4500N/MW, is connected with the need for further optimization of the process of the introduction of
energy of laser into the plasma OPD.
IX. RESONANCE PROPERTIES OF THE SYSTEM “LASER - KA”
By important parameter in the estimation of the resonance properties of system “Laser -KA”
the ratio of the duration of laser pulse to the transit time of sound throughout the entire length of rocket appears.
In the practical sense there is greatest interest in the case, when uniform load under the action of laser pulse is
created throughout the entire length of rocket. If pulse has very short duration, then acceleration is non-
stationary, the length of that excited in KA waves are much less than the length of rocket. The case, when the
pulse duration and the transit time of acoustic wave are compared, corresponds to the resonant step-up of
waves.
Let us make the resonance properties of system for the laboratory experiences in the case of KA with
the mass - 20kg, the length of the rocket of equal - 200 cm, acceleration - 100 m/s2
. Average power of P-P
radiation - 4 MW, the energy of pulses generated with repetition rate - 200 Hz is equal - 20 kJ. Calculations
show that for small pulse repetition rate of P-P laser radiation the acceleration mode is accompanied by the
extremely strong dynamic structural loads KA. They have resonance nature, since the wavelength of
compression it is compared with the length KA. Furthermore, with an increase in the length KA about 4 m and
the repetition frequency of the laser pulses up to - 1 kHz the natural frequency of oscillation of rocket is equal to
pulse repetition rate of laser and we obtain the fulfillment of conditions of resonance. This is very dangerous,
since resonance loads can exceed the safety factor of rocket and it will be destroyed in the flight.
Thus, estimations show that the thermal contact of plasma with the reflector and strong dynamic loads
are inevitable with the low pulse repetition frequency. Situation is aggravated by the excitation of resonance
oscillations in the KA. These difficulties are surmounted only with the use of a method, based on the association
of shock waves [4].Calculations and experiment confirmed possibility of significant stationary thrusts designing
with the use P-P of emission with high pulse repetition frequency.
X. LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEM
From other side during the last 20 years in many laboratories of the World very interesting
studies of effective laser lightning protection system creation had been conducted. On the basis of pulsed laser
long enough laser spark can be created, which is able to connect thunderstorm cloud with the grounded iron
core - classical lightning rod. The maximum lengths - 16m of such highly controlled by the laser electrical
13. High Power Lasers and New Applications
46
discharge channel - have been obtained in Russia and in Japan with help of developed and produced in A. M.
Prokhorov GPI RAS pulsed CO2 lasers with the energy up to 0.5 kJ.
Later also we have demonstrated much longer laser spark, obtained with the aid of conical optics,
which has exposed much more advanced characteristics from the point of view of plasma channel conductivity
and very short time delay of its effective start. In our works for the first time the possibility to use as the single
wire connecting two resonant circuits by long laser spark, created with the help of conical optics, had been
suggested.
At present time among an enormous quantity of different type of lasers for electrical discharges
directed by the laser spark wide spectrum of application only two type of lasers are found as the most effective
for this particular task: pulsed sub-microsecond CO2 lasers and femtosecond (FS) solid state lasers.
Possibility of one or several parallel highly ionized channels creation, so called filaments, with a characteristic
diameter of 100 mkm. in the atmosphere along the direction of the laser beam propagation is the major feature
of FS lasers. With estimated value of electron densities of such a filaments (up to 1016
1/cm3)
and with
wavelength of the laser in the interval 0.5 - 1.0 mkm. plasma, practically, does not absorb laser emission. In this
case the length of channel is determined by the intensity of laser emission and in the case of energy of the FS
pulse ~ of 100 mJ can reach the length up to 150 m. The possibility of a considerable increase of filaments
length is connected with the application of unique super powerful FS laser systems with the energy about 1 J
and even more. Such a system in our days looks like a unique laboratory setup and hardly can be used for
commercial and other applications. Another limiting factor is a very high resistance of conducting channel
based on FS laser filaments. Characteristic value of resistance of such a channel is on the level of 0,1 Mohm/m
[4,7].
In the case of pulsed CO2 laser use in combination with classical spherical or conical optics the length
of spark channel is determined by the parameters the caustics of laser and that its part in which the intensity of
emission it exceeds threshold for the optical breakdown of air. The presence of intensity threshold is connected
with the special features of the mechanism of plasma formation where the avalanche multiplication of initial
“background” electrons in the field of laser emission take place. A vital difference in the geometry of spark in
the case of long pulse and spherical optics from the case with the FS lasers is the fact that the laser spark
occupies volume inside the caustic curve from the focal plane to the side of laser, since the laser radiation
cannot traverse self created plasma shield. In this case for the super long spark formation important to use CO2
laser pulses with traditional form, i.e., with short (50-100 ns) spike and long (1- 3 mks) tail [5]. Long tail
ensures the additional heating of laser plasma, moving along with the laser beam by expanding to the caustic
and, respectively, increasing the length of laser spark. The length of laser spark in several hundred meters has
been obtained even in the USSR with the aid CO2 laser with output energy ~ of 5 kJ and the classical form of
the pulse.
However, in the case of conical optics use the possibility of laser plasma channels formation of
substantially larger length does appear. According to our estimations the length of such a channels in the case of
conical optics in combination with pulse-periodic (P-P) CO2 lasers with an average power of 0.1 - 1 MW can
reach several kilometers. In this case the geometry of spark is completely different and the region “of collapse”
is determined by the diameter of the beam on the surface of conical mirror only and by the angle of
taper. Spherical optics plasma front moves in the direction of laser beam, i.e., from the surface of the focusing
mirror in outside, in this case different spatial domains in the section of laser beam form different sections of
plasma cylinder. Therefore the formation of very long laser sparks even with comparatively short lengths of
laser pulses is possible. The photo registration of spark showed that it consists of the set of the almost
contiguous between themselves elements, on the form resembling “Chinese cap” and located on the identical
distance from each other.
Thus, for the experiments conducting the electrical energy transfer between two resonant circuits,
situated on the distance not more than 100 m, it is possible to use both type of lasers. At the same time for
commercial energy transmission system creation the powerful high repetition rate P-P CO2 lasers appear more
promising, since they possess the substantially lower threshold of the optical breakdown in air and technically
are more advanced in scaling up of output power to many hundreds of kilowatts.
As has already been spoken above, the geometry of plasma cylinders for two types of laser was
completely different: the collection of thin filaments -FS laser or cellular single channel with more or less
uniform plasma - powerful sub-microsecond CO2. At the present time it is possible to assert that powerful pulse
CO2 laser and the mechanism of laser radiation breakdown of gas medium have the decisive advantages over
the FS ideology of the energy transfer by long lengths laser plasma channel.
First experiments carried out by our group with pulsed CO2 laser having the traditional form of lasing
in the beginning of 90th
were very much informative. By potential applied to “the ends” of laser spark (up to
600V) we have showed that the glow of laser plasma remains not more than 10 mks, at the same time the
14. High Power Lasers and New Applications
47
conductivity of laser plasma channel does exist considerably longer – up to 100 mks. High repetition rate P-P
laser emission is capable to solve the tasks of the reproduction of the conducting channel during long period of
time and to increase the conducting channel length significantly. The most essential drawback of the described
method is the fact that it cannot be directly used in vacuum, which means beyond the limits of the Earth's
atmosphere.
New method of the energy transfer and new approach to the transmitting channel formation are
directed toward essential simplification of electrical energy transfer methods, at the same time they can be
effectively applied to the non-conducting media conditions. Necessary result can be achieved due to the
“Impulsar” technology.
The energy transfer in this case is achieved because of the fact that in the construction of the focusing
system the source of the medium creation in the form of easily ionized substance, which forms the steam-gas
medium with low threshold of the breakdown, which is especially important in the case of insufficiently high
medium pressure or directly in the vacuum.
XI. NEW APPROACHES FOR A LONG CONDUCTIVE CHANNEL CREATION
The displacement of the optical focusing system in the media and interaction of P-P laser
radiation with energy in the focus of optical system sufficient for the breakdown ensures the formation of the
continuous current-conducting channel in the air medium due to its ionization, in this case. As calculations
show, the frequency band of laser pulses ensures the continuity of the formed current-conducting channel in the
appropriate speed range of the moving focusing system, which can be realized in this particular medium.
Actually, each pulse of the laser, with the help of focusing system can create a certain extensive region of
plasma, which applies to the relatively small section of space in the trajectory of the displacements of that
focusing system. If the repetition rate of pulses will follow each other with small frequency the displacements of
the plasma regions after focusing system will be something more similar to the dotted line. However, with
higher frequency, for example more than 10 kHz, and optimum for the medium speed the displacements of
ionization regions will no longer have breaks and the formed by this process conducting channel will be
continuous (fig.5).
Fig. 5. Time controlled evolution of trains in the space for F=20Hz, 50 сm/s and for
F=25kHz, 250 сm/s correspondingly.
However, after entering of moving optical system into much less density layers of the atmosphere and
further into the vacuum the problem of the scarcity of medium appears, which could complete a deficiency in
the ionized gas both as the source of conducting medium and the means of shock wave accumulation and
transfer to the object of the motion of necessary quantity of energy. For this case the moving optical system
15. High Power Lasers and New Applications
48
must be supplied with the source of medium creation in the environments of laser focus in the form of
sublimated under the action of incident laser radiation easily ionized substance, containing the nano-particles of
metal or substance, which under the action of laser emission ensures the synthesis of such a nano-particles. The
presence of easily ionized substance source, which due to the sublimation process under the action of laser
emission, makes it possible to form the current-conducting channel in the vacuum ensures the continuity of the
canal in this case. Presence of nano-particles of metal in the sublimated substance allows simultaneously with
improvement of channel conductivity conditions to increase the value of the specific impulse of thrust of laser
jet engine (LJE), containing mobile optical system and reservoir with the sublimated substance, which in the
essence with this use has determined the time of reaching the required length of electrical power transmission
channel [6].
The introduction of high voltage electrode into the current-conducting channel, formed by the moving
optical focusing system, allows, from one side, to stabilize the conducting channel of the required length and
direction and from the other side to transfer energy by this channel very effectively. In order to facilitate the
breakdown conditions of the medium in the optical system focal point with the appearance of not conducting
channel only but high energy shock wave as well, it is expedient to use the easily ionized substances, which
form the steam-gas medium as the source of medium creation with low breakdown threshold. The latter fact
makes it possible to decrease the requirements for the laser pulse breaking energy value.
The moving focusing system can be executed in the form the conical body or combination of cylinder
and cone, inverted by apex to the side of direction of its motion. In the end of moving system special optics is
established, which can be selected from the number of known optical systems, and ensuring the focusing of the
laser light, which falls down to the optical system at the certain distance from the surface. In the body of
moving system the sublimated under the action of laser emission easily ionized substance is placed, which
contains the nano-particles of metal or substance ensuring their synthesis. As the easily ionized substance wax,
paraffin, delrin (high-quality acetate homopolymer) and other polymeric substances can be used. The nano-
particles of metal can be of significant dimensions, for example 10-100 nm and can be prepared from the metals
such as aluminum, tin, copper, Na, K, Cs, lead and so on. The carbon-containing substances in the combination
with the alkali metals can be used as the substance, which makes it possible to synthesize the nano-particles of
metal or the metal-composite materials, which possess sufficiently high electrical conductivity. From the
literature they are well known - fullerenes on the basis of alkali metals, fullerenes on the base of coppers, which
demonstrate high-temperature superconductors properties with tc >of 140K. For obtaining the nano-crystalline
powder the plasma and laser methods of heating can be used. Thus, the nano-particles of carbides, oxides and
nitrides with the aid of the pulse laser heating of metals in the rarefied atmosphere of methane (in the case of
carbides), oxygen (in the case of oxides), nitrogen or ammonia (in the case of nitrides) were obtained. The pulse
laser evaporation of metals in the atmosphere of inert gas (He or Ar) and gas- reagent (O2, N2, NH3, CH4)
makes it possible to obtain the mixtures of the nano-crystalline oxides of different metals, oxcides, nitrides or
carbide - nitride mixtures. Composition and the size of nano-particles can be controlled by change in pressure
and composition of inert gas atmosphere and gas reagent, by power of laser pulse, temperature gradient during
the cooling process. Two reasons for the fine powder to be more conductive can be taken into account. One of
them is the strength of electric field increase due to the size and shape of the particles. Another one is the
concentration of particles in the dust plasma track of “Impulsar” [4,5]. The content of nano-particles in the
sublimated substance usually composes 10-15% of the mass. As the source of laser emission high repetition rate
P-P laser should be used. The moving focusing system is started directly from the earth's surface with the aid of
high repetition rate P-P laser emission with the energy sufficient for the medium breakdown in the focus of
optical system (Fig.6) .
As a result of laser radiation concentration in the relatively small volume the breakdown of medium
takes place. Air breakdown appears in the region of ionization, which applies to a certain distance following the
moving focusing system, and the shock wave, which gives to a moving system additional momentum, leading
to its acceleration. Upon the transfer of moving focusing system into rarefied layers of the atmosphere or open
space, breakdown and appearing in this case shock wave will be achieved in the easily ionized substance, which
the moving system has been supplied in advance. With the arrival of the moving focusing system up to the
assigned distance or on reaching by the current conducting channel the energy receiver it is necessary to place
the electrode of high voltage source into the canal and to ensure the energy transfer process. The conductivity of
channel proved to be sufficient for the discharge of capacitor bank to the ground just after reaching by the
moving optical set of the grounded electrode, located at the final point of lift.
16. High Power Lasers and New Applications
49
Fig. 6. Launch of vehicle by low rate P-P laser (Rep. rate -20Hz, P=10kW).
The results of dust plasma electrical breakdown tests are presented here without detailed explanation of
physical matter of experimental arrangements. The most simple and effective dust plasma production methods
were involved into our investigation. Best result of specific voltage for dust plasma breakdown was measured
for electrical Cu wire explosion approach. The results of dust plasma modeling are [10] :
7. P-P CO2 laser with train of pulses and total energy-20J. Dust particles size 50-250 nm and
concentration N=10 to the 10-12 power.
For dust plasma produced by laser ablation: paraffin wax + graphite or permalloy powder -300v/cm,
For nano-particles of Al, Fe, segnetoelectrics -350v/cm.
8. CO2 single pulse laser channel, produced by conical optics - 100 ohm/m, 100V/cm;
9. Long channel (filaments) produced by solid state laser - 0,1 Mohm/m, 7,5kV/сm;
10. Long channel produced by wire explosion - 10 оhm/m, 45-50V/сm;
11. Data for wire explosion channel, corresponding to the delays: 10mks -50mks - 75mks; 97V/сm-
124V/сm-166V/сm.
It should be mentioned here that min. resistance value is very much dependable on cross-section of
dust particles sheaf, concentration and size of particles, repetition rate of laser pulses, average power of laser,
gas pressure, humidity and many other parameters are involved.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion it is necessary to say several words about the interrelation of atmospheric electricity with the
formation of the composition of atmosphere and climate of planet. Many years were undertaken attempt at the
creation of the conducting channels of large length for studying the upper air and solution of special problems.
In this connection is of great interest the program “Impulsar” , which in the combination with the high-voltage
high-frequency Tesla`s source can be useful in the solution of the enumerated above problems. At the same time
one should say that as a result of the conducted investigations LJE is possible the passage to the solution of the
following completely interesting problems:
1. Creation of the interceptor of manmade space debris and other dangerous space objects, such as
asteroids, comets, meteorites and so on [9].
2. Launch of micro-objects with the super-high acceleration to the space;
3. Realization of orbital scale conducting channels for energy delivery from space to the ground [10,11].
17. High Power Lasers and New Applications
50
Powerful pulsed lasers are capable to create a large scale current conducting channels, which can be
located at the arbitrary distances from the source of radiation. Channel with the length about hundred of meters
can be achieved with low energy of single laser pulse. Beginning from the 70's, successful attempts of the
problems: interception of lightning bolts and blocking of over voltage waves on the electric power lines were
undertaken.
Successful developments of high repetition rate P-P powerful lasers technology and technology of
“Impulsar” system make it possible to foresee the possibility of well conducting channels realization with the
length up to several ten and hundred of kilometers for the purpose of energy transfer for significant distances,
creation of new and promising systems for the mastering of outer space power engineering and motivation for
significant contribution to be done on that basis to an essential improvements of the global ecology of our
planet.
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