The document discusses various types of species interactions, including mutualism, commensalism, protocooperation, and negative interactions such as parasitism and predation. It explains how organisms benefit or are harmed through these interactions, highlighting examples such as mycorrhizal associations and egg parasitism. The document emphasizes the ecological importance of these relationships in sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem health.

1. MONTH AND YEAR

2. ABEEHA SARFRAZ
TAYYABA JAVED
FAIZAN AZAM

3. • Positive interaction
• Mutualism
• Commensalism
• Protocooperation
• Negative interaction
• Exploitation
• Social Parasitism
• Parasitism
• Predation
• Amensalism
• Competition

4. Definition
:
Population help one another and either one or both the species are befitted.
This benefit may be regarding the food,shelter, substratum or transport.
Cooperative relationships between species that result in better growth,reproduction and
survival for atleast one species without affecting the other.
1.Mutualism
2.Commensalism
3.Photocorporation

5. Mutualism is an obligatory positive interspecific
interaction that is strongly beneficial to both
species. In past it was termed sybiosis.
In this case, both of the species derive benefit and
there exists a close and often permanent and
obligatory contact which is more or less essential for
survival each.
In this type, two populations enter into some sort of
physiological exchange and resuted in coevolution
of both species.

6. Certain insects such as bees,moths,butterflies,
etc.and birds derive food from the nectar, pollen, and
in return bring about cross poliination.

7. They form examples of mutation where
contact is close and permanent as well as
obligatory.
The body of lichens is made up of a matrix
formed by a fungus, within the cells of
which an algae is embedded. The fungus
makes available the moisture and minerals
to the algae , which prepare food by
photosynthesis.
In nature, neither of the two can grow alone
independently. They tend to grown
abundantly on bare rock surface.

8. Fruticose
Lichen
and
Crustose Lichen

9. SYMBOITIC NITROGEN FIXATION:
• Bacterium Rhizobium forms nodules in the roots of the
leguminous plants and lives symbiotically with the host.
• Bacteria gets a protective space to live in and derive
prepared food from the roots of higher plants and in
return fix gaseous nitrogen.
• The leguminous plants use this nitrogen in the protein
synthesis.
• Nitrogen fixation like association also occur in root
nodules of Alnus, Casuarina, Cycadcease,
Podocarpus,etc.

11. • In mychorrizal association, tree root become infested with fungal hyphae.
• The fungi give their food fom the tree roots and their hyphae supply water
and minerals that they absorb from the soil much like the roots hairs of
trees.
• Its is believed that the fungus also regulates the pH.
• Mychorrhizae may be on the surface of the roots(ectotrophic) or inside
between the cells of the roots (endotrophic). Ectotrophic mychorrhizae are
common in nature on pines, oaks, beech and endotrophic.
• The other similar roots associations are met with actinomycetesin form of
nodules and with some blue green algae such as Anabena and Nostoc
forming coralloid roots of Cycas.
• Both of these kinds of associations are connected with nitrogen fixation by
microscopic organisms present in the roots.
Mychorrhiza:

13. • Form symbiotic relationships with
approximately 85% of plant families.
• Pair with most commercially produced
plants, including green, leafy,and fruiting
or flowering plants.
• Penetrate into the root cortex and form
nutrient exchange structures within the
root cells (arbuscules,vessicles,etc).
Endomycorrhizal
Fungi:

14. • Form symbiotic relationships with about
10% of plant families.
• Mainly pair with conifers and many
American hardwoods.
• Do not penetrate into the root cell wlls,
but from a sheath around the root, and
nutrient exchange structures known as a
"Hartig net".
Ectomycorrhizal
Fungi:

15. COMMENSALISM:
It is a type of relationship in which one organism is benefited while the other is no
significant effect on it. Commensalism is a long-term biological
interaction(symbiosis) in which members of one species gain benefits while those
of the other species neither benefit nor are harmed. This is in contrast with
mutualism, in which both organisms benefits from each other ; amensalism,
where one is harmed while the other is unaffected.

16. Commensalism in
Plants:
• Epiphytes: grow upon another plant
for support.
• Example: Spanish mosses, ferns,
cacti, orchids, bromelaids.
• Ex: Spanish Moss and Bromeliad
together.

17. • This is less extreme sort of interaction than mutualism in which the interaction is
clearly beneficial to both species, allowing the equilibrium populations levels. The
association is not an obligatory one. Both populations are capable of surviving in their
natural environment on their own.
• The term syntrophism is applied to the interaction of two or more population that
supply each other nutritional needs.
• Syntrophism may allow microbial population to perform activities, such as the
synthesis of a product , that neither population could perform alone.
• The synergistic activities of two microbial population may allow completion of a
metabolic pathway that otherwise could not completed. A classic example is exihibited
by Enterococcus faecalis and Escherichia coli.
• Neither organism alone is able to covert arginine to putrescine. E.faecalis is able to
convert arginine ornithine,which can be then utilized by the E.coli population to
produce putrescine.
PROTOCOOPERATION
:

18. Photocooperation
in Ants and Aphids

19. 2. Negative
Interaction:
Exploitation:
In this one species harm the other by making its direct or indirect use of
support , shelter or food.
The following are the types:
• Social
Parasitism:
It describes the exploitation of one species by
another, for various advantages. Egg parasitism : old world cuckoos and brown
headed cowbirds of north America, both do not build nests of their own rather
deposit their eggs in nests of other species.
Brood parasitism: Indian koel and crow.

20. Parasitism:
• Organisms which live on or within the body of the other organisms host and derive
their food from them. Most of the parasite harm their host.
• Parasitism is of two types:
• Ectoparasitism: parasites that lives on the external surface of the host.
• Example: Lices on human body do not enter on human body but gets its food.
Cuscuta is non green plant grows on other greeen plants. It derives all nutrients
from green plants.
• Endoparasitism: parasites that live inside the body of the host.
• example: Malarial Parasite which enters human bodyby a mosquito bite and causes
infection, so that person suffer from malaria.

21. Endoparasites
Ectoparasites
• Ectoparasites refer to
a parasite that lives on its host.
• Live on the surface of the host.
• Temprary, intermittent or
permanent.
• Either hemiparasites or
holoparasites.
• Respiration is aerobic.
• Lack wings
• Cause less damage to the host.
• E.g. mosquito, leach,louse,
and mite etc.
• Endoparasite refers to a
parasite that lives inside its host.
• Live inside the host.
• Parmanent parasites inside the
host.
• Holoparasites
• Respiration is anaerobic.
• Lack digestive tracts.
• May even cause the death of
the host.
• E.g. roundworms,tapeworms,
and trematodeand
protozoans.

22. Predation:
In this catagory generally the predator
feeds on the prey spices by killing it. The
predator-prey interactions are of short
durations and the predator usually larger
than prey. The predator species derive
nutrition from prey spices.
Example: Nematode trapping fungi.

23. A Predatory Sac Fungus:
Arthrobotrys captures and feeds on roundworms: rings on the hyphae constrict and entrap the
worms,then hyphae grow into the captive and digest it.

24. Amensalism:
In this interaction one participant is harmed while the other remains neutral
(neither benefit nor loss).
One participant usually produces toxic substances or chemicals which harm
the organisms closely associatedwith it.
Ex: The antibiotic producing strains of Penicillium species especially
Penicillium notatum which supress the growth of most bacteria (gram +ve).

25. • One disadvantaged, other unaffected.
• The bread mould Penicillium is a
common example.Penicillium secrete
penicillium, a chemical that kills
bacteria.
• A second example is the black walnut
tree, which secretes a chemical that
harms or kills some species of
neighbouring plants, from its roots.
Amensalism:

26. Competition:
This involves the competition among different organism for limited
available resources. This competition out to be good for one animal and
bad for other. This competition can be interspecies also. In this inferior one
will be eliminated eventually.
Example of interspecies competition:
Dolphins go along together and play with each other but when its time to
eat, all dolphins have to compete for a meal.
Interaction betweeen fungi and bacteria.

27. Fungal and Bacterial
Competition:
• Additional reasons fungi can outcompete bacteria
• Fungi secrete acid as part of their feeding system
• Slow bacterial growth
• Some fungi secrete antibiotics that poison
bacteria
• Example: Penicillium

28. Relationship Self Opponents
Harm
Neutral
Harm
Benefit
Harm
Harm
Neutral
Benefit
Harm
Benefit
Benefit
Benefit
Amensalism
Commensalism
Competition
Mutualism
Parasitism
Predation
Impact of symbiotic
relationships on organisms