This document provides an overview of managerial psychology and organizational behavior. It discusses the history and development of the fields, including early influences like scientific management theorists Taylor and Fayol. It outlines key concepts in organizational behavior like open systems theory and multidisciplinary approaches. The document also summarizes important studies in the development of the fields like the Hawthorne Studies from the 1920s-30s and how they highlighted the importance of social factors in workplace productivity.

1. Managerial Psychology
管理心理学
浙江大学心理与行为科学学院
浙江大学人力资源与战略发展研究中心
马剑虹
Tel: 13958159647 (H) 0571-8273337 (O)
Email: jhma@zju.edu.cn
® 浙江大学心理与行为科学学院 马剑虹教授

2. • 管理心理学：组织行为学
（ Organizational Behavior ）、工业与
组织心理学（ Industrial and
Organizational Psychology, I/O
Psychology ）
第一章
组织行为学绪论

3. 第一节、什么是组织行为学
What is Organizational
psychology
• Organizations have existed for as long as
people have to work together.
• Management : Man, property and
technology. 管理的对象：人、财、物

4. 一、组织行为学的目的 Why Study OB ？
理解
Understand
Organizational
events
组织行为学研究
OB Research
影响 预测
Influence Predict
Organizational Organizational
events events

5. 二、组织行为学的性质
5 Anchors of Organizational Behavior
多学科性
Multidisciplinary
Anchor
系统观
开放系统 Systematic
Open Systems Organizational Research
Anchor Behavior Anchor
Anchors
多层次分析
应变观
Multiple Levels
Contingency
of Analysis
Anchor
Anchor

6. 1 、开放的系统观 Open Systems Anchor of OB
Feedback Feedback
Subsystem Subsystem
Inputs Organization Outputs
Subsystem Subsystem

7. 2 、多学科性 Multidisciplinary
Anchor
• Understanding of OB needs knowledge
from disciplines of:
• 传统的学科：心理学、人类学、政治科学
、经济学、管理学、工业工程
• 新兴学科：
• 通信、信息系统、市场学

8. 3 、系统的研究 Systematic Research
Anchor
• 科学的方法： Scientific
• 定性研究和定量研究方法
• 纵向研究与横向研究
• 实验研究、现场研究、访谈

9. 4 、应变观 Contingency Anchor
• 反最优的理论
• 应变理论 : A particular action may
has different consequences in
differentsituations.
• It all depends

10. 5 、多层次分析 Multiple Levels of Analysis
Anchor
• 个体水平 Individual processes
• 团队水平 Team processes
• 组织水平 Organizational processes

11. 第二节、组织行为学的历史
• 管理的历史就是人类的历史；
• 自从有人类以来，就存在管理问题。但
管理形成为一门科学只有 100 多年的历
史。企业从手工业的作坊转变为现代化
的工厂， 管理也随之发生变化。
• 组织行为学是经济发展与管理演化的结
果

12. 一、 " 科学管理 "
• 19 世纪未至 20 世纪初
• 这个阶段的特点是管理真正形成为一门
科学。
• 主要代表人物：泰勒、法约尔、韦伯。

13. 1 、泰勒（ Frederick W. Taylor, 1856-1915 ）
• 美国人，工程师，科学管理之父。
• 效率的概念 ---- 标准化、时间 -- 动作分析
、计件工资、工作流程图等管理方法代替
了经验管理，对科学管理制度和方法的形
成起了极及重要的作用。
2 、法约尔 ( H e n ri F ayo l,
1 841 - 1 925)
法国人，现代经营管理之父
管理的职能
3 、马克斯 . 韦伯（ Max
We b e r, 1 864- 1 920 ）
德国人 , 组织理论之父

14. 二、心理技术学
• 心理技术学的名称最早由德国心理学家斯腾
(L· W· Stern) 于是 1903 年提出，但最早进行
心理技术学研究的是心理学家闵斯特伯格 (H
· Munsterberg) ，他在 1912 年出版的专著
《心理学与工业生产率》一书中阐述了用心
理测验选择合格工人、疲劳研究与劳动合理
化等问题。以后，心理技术学研究的基本方
向一直是解决人如何适应机器的问题，即管
理中的人—机关系问题。

15. 三、霍桑实验与“人际关系学派”
• 1924—1932 年，以哈佛大学著名心理学家
梅约 (Elten Mayo) 为首的一批学者在美国西
方电器公司所属的霍桑工厂进行的一系列实
验研究的总称称为霍桑实验。
梅奥（ G e o rg e Myao ， 1 880 －
1 949 ）
美国哈佛大学心理学家，原籍澳大利
亚的美国行为科学家
“ 在经营方法中 , 只要专业化的商业不考虑
人性和社会动机 , 我们也许可以认为罢工和怠工是
伴随工业出现的正常产物 .” —— 艾尔顿
· 梅奥

16. Hawthorne studies
• From 1924 to 1932, a series of experiments were done by
Elten Mayo from Harvard university at the Hawthorne
Works (a Western Electric manufacturing facility outside
Chicago).
• They were designed to see if workers at Hawthorne would
become more productive in higher levels of light.
• In the experiments, light intensity of work place was
altered to examine its effect on worker productivity
Workplace lighting
Productivity
(Physical factors)

17. Relay assembly experiments
• In one of the studies, experimenters chose two women as
test subjects and asked them to choose four other workers
to join the test group. Together the women worked in a
separate room over the course of five years (1927-1932)
assembling telephone relays. Some of the variables were:
• changing the pay rules so that the group was paid for
overall group production, not individual production
• giving two 5-minute breaks (after a discussion with them
on the best length of time), and then changing to two 10-
minute breaks (not their preference). Productivity
increased.
• providing food during the breaks
• shortening the day by 30 minutes (output went up);
shortening it more (output per hour went up, but overall
output decreased); returning to the first condition (where
output peaked).

18. • Results: Changing a variable usually
increased productivity, even if the
variable was just a change back to the
original condition.
• Conclusion: choosing one's own
coworkers, working as a group, being
treated as special, and having a
sympathetic supervisor were the real
reasons for the productivity increase.

19. Interviewing Program
• The workers were interviewed in
attempt to validate the Hawthorne
Studies. The participants were asked
about supervisory practices and
employee morale. The results proved
that upward communication in an
organization creates a positive attitude
in the work environment. The workers
feel pleased that their ideas are being
heard.

20. Bank wiring room experiments
• The purpose of the study was to find out how
payment incentives would affect group productivity.
The surprising result was that productivity actually
decreased. Workers apparently had become
suspicious that their productivity may have been
boosted to justify firing some of the workers later on.
• The study was conducted by Mayo and W. Lloyd
Warner between 1931 and 1932 on a group of
fourteen men who put together telephone switching
equipment. The researchers found that although the
workers were paid according to individual
productivity, productivity decreased because the men
were afraid that the company would lower the base
rate..

21. informal groups
• Detailed observation between the men revealed
the existence of informal groups or "cliques"
within the formal groups. These cliques
developed informal rules of behavior as well as
mechanisms to enforce them. The cliques
served to control group members and to
manage bosses; when bosses asked questions,
clique members gave the same responses, even
if they were untrue. These results show that
workers were more responsive to the social
force of their peer groups than to the control and
incentives of management.

22. Conclusions
• Braverman: What the studies really
showed was that the workplace was not
"a system of bureaucratic formal
organization on the Weberian model.
• The experiments criticized the
hypothesis of organization as merely
material systems. The productivity of
organization is it certainly depended on
the mental states of workers: their
beliefs, industrial relations, morale, etc.

23. 第三节 经济发展与组织行为学
经济的发展为组织行为学提供了广泛的前景
一、经济与管理的发展趋势
1 、全球化
2 、信息技术
3 、工作队伍的改变 Changing Workforce
4 、雇佣关系 Employment Relationship
5 、工作场所的伦理与价值管 Workplace Values
& Ethics

24. 1 、全球化
与世界其它地方的人员形成经济、社会和文化的联系
Economic, social, and cultural connectivity with people in
other parts of the world
经济全球化对组织的影响 :
 更大的有效性和知识资源 Greater efficiencies and
knowledge sources
 关于发展中国家经济的伦理问题 Ethical issues about
economies of developing countries
 新的组织结构和沟通 New organizational structures and
communication
 更大的工作队伍多样性 Greater workforce diversity
 更大的竞争压力，对员工更大的要求 More competitive
pressure, demands on employees

25. 2 、信息技术
员工和组织之间的时间和空间界限更模糊
Blurs temporal and spatial boundaries between employees and
organizations
工作与权力关系的重设计 Re-designs jobs and power
relationships
知识管理的价值更大 Increases value of knowledge
management
支持远程工作 Supports telecommuting
支持虚拟团队 Supports virtual teams

26. 3 、远程工作
（ Telecommuting ）
通过计算际网络在远程或家里工作 An alternative work
arrangement where employees work at home or remote site, usually
with a computer connection to the office
增加产出和自主权，减少压力和成本 Tends to increase
productivity and empowerment, reduce stress and costs
缺乏社会认可、社会互动带来的问题 Problems with
lack of recognition, lack of social interaction

27. 3 、工作队伍的改变
Changing Workforce
• Primary and secondary diversity -- but concerns
about distinguishing people by ethnicity
• Primary diversity represents personal characteristics
that influence an individual’s socialization and self
identity ---- gender, ethnicity, age, race, sexual
orientation, and mental/physical qualities.
• Secondary diversity are those features that we learn
or have some control over throughout our lives, such
as education, marital status, religion, and work
experiences;
• More women in workforce and professions
• Different needs of Gen-X (1946-1964), Gen-Y (after
1980) and baby-boomers (1965-1979)
• Diversity has advantages, but firms need to adjust

28. 5 、雇佣关系 Employment Relationship
就业力 Employability: replaces the implied
guarantee of lifelong employment in return
for loyaty.
 “New deal” employment relationship
 Continuously learn new skills
应变工作 Contingent work
 No contract for long-term employment
 Free agents, temporary-temporaries
 Minimum hours of work vary

29. Employability vs Job Security
Job Security Employability
• Lifetime job security • Limited job security
• Jobs are permanent • Jobs are temporary
• Company manages • Career self-
career management
• Low emphasis on skill • High emphasis on skill
development development

30. 6 、价值观与工作伦理
Workplace Values & Ethics
Values are long-lasting beliefs about what is important in
a variety of situations
 Define right versus wrong --guide our decisions
 Values relate to individuals, companies, professions,
societies, etc.
Importance values due to:
 Need to guide employee decisions and actions
 Globalization increases awareness of different values
 Increasing emphasis on applying ethical values
 Ethics -- study of moral principles or values

31. Values/Ethics at Tom’s of Maine
Tom and Kate Chappell have built Tom’s of
Maine, the personal health care products firm,
around the idea that businesses need to be
compatible with the personal values of their
employees.

32. 企业的社会责任
Corporate Social Responsibility
Corporate Social Responsibility
 Organization’s moral obligation toward
its stakeholders
Stakeholders
 Shareholders, customers, suppliers,
governments etc.
Triple bottom line philosophy
 Economic, Social & Environmental

33. 二、我国经济发展的挑战
1 、从机会驱动到管理驱动
2 、从劳动力的管理到知识管理与创
新
3 、从技术为本到以人为本
4 、从制度管理到文化管理：无为
5 、从粗放管理到精细管理

34. 三、知识管理
以取得组织生存和发展能力为目的的
，改进组织获取知识、分享知识、使用
知识的管理活动（ Any structured
activity that improves an organization’s
capacity to acquire, share, and use
knowledge for its survival and
success ）

35. 智力资本 Intellectual Capital
人的资本 由人产出和拥有的知识 Knowledge
Human Capital that people possess and generate
籍由系统和结构把握的知识
结构资本
Knowledge captured in systems
Structural Capital
and structures
关系资本 建立在客户、供应商等的满意基础上
Relationship 的价值 Values derived from satisfied
Capital customers, reliable suppliers, etc.

36. 知识管理过程
知识获取 知识共享 知识利用
Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge
acquisition sharing use
• 移植 Grafting • 沟通 • 明晰 Awareness
Communication
• 个体学习 Individual • 参与
learning • 实践性团体 Empowerment
Communities of
• 尝试 practice
Experimentation

37. 组织记忆 Organizational Memory
• 智力自本的保存 The storage and preservation of
intellectual capital
• 方式 Retain intellectual capital by:
 Keeping knowledgeable employees
 Transferring knowledge to others
 Transferring human capital to structural capital
• 组织不学习 Successful companies also unlearn ：
sometimes, it is appropriate for organizations to
selectively forget certain knowledge.

38. 第五章 需要与激励
Motivation Through Recognition
• Julie Hans holds up the award coupons that
Progress Energy employees give to one another as
recognition for their good work and support.
Recognition is one of the best ways to motivate
employees.

39. Challenges of Motivating Employees
• Layoffs, restructuring
– Damaged trust, commitment
• Flatter organizations
– Fewer supervisors to monitor performance
• Changing workforce
– Younger employees have different needs
– Diverse workforce

40. 第一节 需要与激励的概念
• 需要：人对某种目标的渴求与欲望。
• 缺乏理论：机体的缺乏状态。
• 动机：是行为的直接原因，指推动人去从事某
种活动，指引活动去满足一定需要的意图、愿
望和信念等。
• 激励：激发与鼓励，即激发人的动机，诱发人
的内驱力，使人朝着期望目标前进的活动过程
。

41. 动机 / 激励过程
• 人的某种需要从未满足状态转换到满足状
态，并产生新的需要的过程称为动机过程
。
心理 需要满足 新的
需要 动机 行动
紧张 紧张减除 需要

42. 第二节 需要理论
• Needs are deficiencies that energize or triger
behaviors to satisfy those needs.
Needs Hierarchy
Theory 一、需要层次理论
Needs Hierarchy Theory
Self-
Actualization • Maslow arranged five needs in a
Esteem
hierarchy
• Satisfaction-progression process
Belongingness • People who experience self-
actualization desire more rather
Safety than less of this need
• Not much support for Maslow’s
Physiological theory

43. 二、 ERG 理论
ERG Theory
Needs Hierarchy ERG
Theory Theory
• Alderfer’s model has
Self-
Actualization three sets of needs
Growth
• Adds frustration-
Esteem
regression process to
Belongingness Relatedness
Maslow’s model
• Somewhat more
Safety research support than
Existence Maslow’s theory
Physiological

44. 三、内驱力理论
Innate Drives Theory
• Need to take/keep objects and
Drive to Acquire experiences
• Basis of hierarchy and status
四
种 • Need to form relationships and
基 Drive to Bond social commitments
• Basis of social identity
本
的 • Need to satisfy curiosity and
内 Drive to Learn resolve conflicting information
驱 • Basis of self-actualization
力
• Need to protect ourselves
Drive to Defend • A reactive (not proactive) drive
• Basis of fight or flight

45. 内驱力与激励
Innate Drives and Motivation
• ---- Emotion Competence
• Emotional brain center (insular) relies
on innate drives to assign emotional
markers to incoming information
• Emotional markers influence rational
thoughts and become the conscious
sources of motivation ---- volition

46. 四、习得的需要理论
Learned Needs Theory
• Some needs are learned, not innate ：
• McClelland's Achievement Motivation
Theory
• David McClelland proposed three
secondary needs that he considered
particular sources of motivation.
– Achievement
– Affiliation
– Power

47. • 1 、 Need for achievement
– Desire for challenging and somewhat risky
goals, feedback, recognition
• Strong need for achievement people
– Take responsibility for results of behavior
– Willing to take calculated risks
– Set moderate achievement goals
– Prefer to set performance standards for
themselves
– Prefer non-routine tasks to routine assignments
– Welcome feedback about how well they are
doing

48. • 2 、 Need for affiliation
– Desire to seek approval, conform, and avoid
conflict
– Try to project a favorable self-image
• Strong Need for Affiliation people
– Focuses on "establishing, maintaining, and
restoring positive affective relations with others"
– Want close, warm interpersonal relationships
– Seek the approval of others, especially those
about whom they care
– Like other people, want other people to like
them, and want to be in the company of others.

49. • 3 、 Need for power
– Desire to control one’s environment
• Strong Need for Power people
– Focuses on "controlling the means of
influencing the behavior of another person”
– Having strong effects on other people
– Means of influence: anything available to
the person to control the behavior of
another
– Actively searches for means of influence

50. Personalized versus
socialized power
• Personalized power: use the power to
fulfill personal needs, e.g. to advance
their career or other personal interest;
• Socialized power: use the power to help
other, e.g. to improve society and
increase organizational effectiveness.

51. 五、赫茨伯格双因素理论
F·Herzberg’s Motivator – hygiene theory
• 使职工满意与不满意的因素是不相同的。
安全感
导致不满意的因素 地位
有激励作用的因素
与下属的关系
个人生活
与同事的关系
薪酬
工作条件
与上级的关系
监督
公司的政策
和管理
成长与发展
信任
责任
工作自身
认可
发生频率的百分比 成就
50% 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 %

52. Herzberg’s Motivation/Hygiene Theory
• 1966: Published Work and the Nature
of Man
• Identified two distinct job factors
– Motivators/Satisfiers (Job Content
factors/Growth needs): Used to
increase employee motivation
Frederick Herzberg
– Hygiene factors / Dissatisfiers (Job
Context factors/Hygiene factors):
Needs that must be met before the
satisfiers can be addressed

53. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Dissatisfiers
 Company policy and
administration
 Supervision
 Relationship with supervisor
 Work conditions
 Salary
• Hygiene factors  Relationship with peers
 Personal life
are necessary,  Relationship with subordinates
but not  Status
sufficient, for  Security
satisfaction
– Extrinsic factors;
context of work

54. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• Motivators - the sources of satisfaction
– Intrinsic factors; content of work
• Achievement
• Recognition
• Challenging or interesting work
• Responsibility
• Advancement

55. Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
Two distinct continua: one for satisfaction and one for
dissatisfaction
Traditional view
Satisfaction Dissatisfaction
Herzberg's view
Satisfaction No satisfaction
Motivators
No dissatisfaction Hygiene Factors Dissatisfaction

56. Criticisms of Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• The reliability of Herzberg’s
methodology is questioned
• No overall measure of satisfaction was
used
• The theory is inconsistent with previous
research

57. Implications of Needs Theories
Organizations need to support employees to
achieve a balance of their innate needs
People have different needs at different
times
Offer employees a choice of rewards
Do not rely too heavily on financial rewards

58. 六、期望理论
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
• 1964 年，美国心理学家弗鲁姆
（ V·Vroom ）在〈工作与激励 〉一书
中提出期望理论：
• The strength of a tendency to act in a
certain way depends on the strength of
an expectation that the act will be
followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the
individual.

59. 期望理论
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
期望 E-to-P 工具性 P-to-O 效价 Outcomes
Expectancy Expectancy & Valences
结果 Outcome 1
+ or -
绩效 结果 Outcome 2
努力 Effort + or -
Performance
结果 Outcome 3
+ or -

60. • 期望值：员工认为其努力能使他們成功
地达到工作目标的可能性
• 工具性：员工认为绩效可以带來特定结
果的可能性
• 价值：每一种结果的重要性
• 激励公式：
• 动机 = 效价 × 期望 (× 工具性 ?)
• （ M ＝ V×E×I ）

61. 增加期望
Increasing E-to-P Expectancy
培训 Train employees
选择能人 Select people with required
competencies
明确角色 Provide role clarification
提供资源 Provide sufficient resources
提供指导和反馈 Provide coaching and
feedback

62. 增加工具性
Increasing P-to-O Expectancy
 精确计量业绩 Measure
performance accurately
 明确好坏绩效的后果 Describe
outcomes of good and poor
performance
 明确绩效与奖励的关系 Explain how
rewards are linked to past
performance

63. 增加效价
Increasing Outcome Valences
 奖励的价值 Ensure that rewards are
valued
 个体化奖励 Individualize rewards
 减少负面结果 Minimize countervalent
outcomes

64. 七、目标设置理论
Goal Setting Theory
• E· Locke proposed the theory in 1968.
• Motivation roots in the goal-oriented
action 。 an employee what needs to be done and
 Goals tell
how much effort will need to be expended.
 Specific goals increase performance
 Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher
performance than do easy goals
 Feedback leads to higher performance than does
non-feedback.
 Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output
than does the generalized goal of “do your best.”
 The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal
stimulus.

65. Effective Goal Setting
具体 Specific
有关 Relevant
挑战性 Challenging 绩效
努力
Task
Task Effort
承诺 Commitment Performance
参与 Participation
反馈 Feedback

66. Goal Difficulty and Performance
High
Task Performance
Area of
Optimal
Goal
Difficulty
Low Moderate Challenging Impossible
Goal Difficulty

67. 有效的反馈
Characteristics of Effective Feedback
具体
Specific
可信 相关
Credible 有效的反馈 Relevant
Effective Feedback
频繁
及时
Sufficiently
Timely
frequent

68. 多角度反馈
Multisource (360-degree) Feedback
Supervisor
Project
Customer
leader
Co-worker Evaluated Co-worker
Employee
Subordinate Subordinate
Subordinate

69. 强化理论
Reinforcement Theory
• Behavior that is followed by positive
consequences will likely be repeated.
• 强化理论：个人的外在行为受到行为结果的
影响。
• 强化概念的发展：巴甫洛夫在条件反射研究
的基础上提出，“强化”是避免条件反射消
退和得以巩固的一种措施；斯金纳 (Skinner)
在操作条件反射研究的基础上提出“强化”
是增强某种行为、某种反应概率的手段，是
保持行为和塑造行为必不可少的关键因素。

70. Four types of reinforcement 强化类型
Both Positive and Negative reinforcements
increase the likelihood that the person will
repeat the behavior that led to it.
Positive reinforcement 正强化 : applying a
positive consequence to a behavior. 指通过出
现积极的结果而使某种行为得到增强或增加；
Negative reinforcement 负强化— removing
or withholding an undesirable consequence.
通过终止或取消令人不愉快的结果而使某种行
为得到增强或增加。

71.  Both Punishment and Extinction reduce the
possibility of behavior being repeated.
 Punishment 惩罚— administering an aversive
consequence. 通过某种令人不愉快的结果而
使某种行为得到终止的手段；
 Extinction 消退 – withdrawing or failing to
provide a reinforcing consequence. When this
occurs, motivation is reduced and the
behavior is extinguished, or eliminated. 当某
种令人愉快的结果被取消后，会使已经形成的
行为产生的可能性逐渐减少。

72. 强化程序
Reinforcement Schedule
• 强化程序通过时间和比率这两个维度进行组合
ratio 比 率 time 时
Fixed 固定比率（ Piece间 固定时间（ annual
rate ） salary ）
variable 变动比率 变动时间（ Exam,
（ Performance bonus ）
based ）

73. 八、组织公正
Organizational Justice
• Fairness and justice are closely related
with work motivation ；
• Studies of Organizational Justice take
two perspectives 组织公正研究主要方
向：
• Distribution fairness 分配公正：是否公
平地根据贡献分配收入 ---- Equity theory
；
• Procedure justice 程序公正：分配资源
的程序是否公正；

74. 公平理论
Equity Theory
• Equity theory was proposed by
Adams in 1967. The theory
suggests that people compare the
ratio of their own outcomes to Adams 公平公式
inputs against the outcome-to-input
ratio of some comparison person.
• 人的工作动机不仅受所得的绝对报
酬的影响，而且受到相对报酬的影
响。
• 提出运用 Adams 公平公式所进行
的“收”与“支”个人历史比较与
社会比较是人产生不公平感的源泉

75. 公平的概念
Elements of Equity Theory
•收入 / 付出比率 Outcome/input ratio
– inputs -- what employee contributes (e.g., skill)
– outcomes -- what employee receives (e.g., pay)
•与他人比较 Comparison other
– person/people against whom we compare our ratio
– not easily identifiable
•公平评价 Equity evaluation
– compare outcome/input ratio with the comparison
other

76. 奖励过渡与奖励不足
Overreward vs Underreward Inequity
他人
自己 You
Comparison
Other
奖励过渡 结果 Outcomes
结果 Outcomes
Overreward
Inequity 付出 Inputs 付出 Inputs
奖励不足 结果 Outcomes
Underreward 结果 Outcomes
Inequity
付出 Inputs 付出 Inputs

77. 不公平的结果
Consequences of Inequity
• Inequity causes dissatisfaction and
leads to an attempt to restore balance to
the relationship in the following ways:
Change inputs 改变付出
Change outcomes 改变收入
Change perceptions 改变知觉
Leave the field 离开
Act on the comparison other 影响他人
Change the comparison other 改变他人

78. 公平的敏感性
Equity Sensitivity
• 友善 Benevolents
– Tolerant of being underrewarded
• 公平敏感 Equity Sensitives
– Want ratio to be equal to the comparison
other
• 优越 Entitleds
– Prefer receiving proportionately more than
others

79. Organizational Justice Components
分配原则 • 情绪 Emotions:
Distribution 分配公正知觉 Anger
Principles Distributive Justice Stress
Perceptions • 态度 Attitudes
Org. Commitment
结构规则 Job Satisfaction
Structural • 行为 Behaviors
Rules 程序公正知觉 Task Performance
Procedural Justice Org. Citizenship
社会规则 Perceptions Counterproducter
Social behaviors
Rules

80. 程序公正的结构规则
Procedural Justice: Structural Rules
一致的政策
发表意见 Voice
Consistent
听取各方意见
无偏 Bias-Free
Listens to all
知情 申述
Knowledgeable Appealable

81. 社会规则
• 又称交互作用公正（ Interactive
Justice ） : how the decision maker
treats employees in the process.
• 尊敬（ when be treated with respect ）
• 诚信（ Accountability ） : people
believe that they are entitle to
explanation about decisions, particularly
when the results have potentially
negative consequences for them.

82. 九、 Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic
Motivation( 内在激励与外在激励
)
• Behavior are driven by an internal or
external engine?
• Intrinsic Motivation 内在激励： ?
• Extrinsic Motivation 外在激励： ?
• Hertzberg’s definition:
• Extrinsic factors----context of work
• Intrinsic factors----content of work

83. 德西效应（ Deci Effect ）
• Interaction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
外在激励与内在激励的交互作用；
• Deci Effect: Extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic
motivation ( 在内在激励强的情景下，加入外在激励会
减少内在激励的作用 ):
• Evidenced by:
– When offered a reward, intrinsic motivation was
diminished (Grolnick and Ryan, 1987; Kohn, 1986;
Sansone, 2000)
– Removal of reward has shown to decrease
subsequent efforts (Bandura, 1986)
• Why? Theoretic explanation?

84. Self perception theory 自我感知理论
• Bem’s (1967) self–perception theory: how does
people make self perception?
• Individuals come to "know" their own . . . internal
states partially by inferring them from observations
of their own overt behavior and/or the
circumstances in which this behavior occurs . . .
• If internal cues are weak, the person observes
their own behavior and makes inferences about
their attitudes based on their own behavior. We
observe ourselves as another might observe us
and draw conclusions about behavior.

85. Over-justification effect
• 外激强而内激弱的情境：行为归
因 --- 外激推动。
• 外激弱而内激强的情境：行为归
因 ---- 内激推动。 Attribution
• 外激、内激都弱的情境：行为归因
理由不足、无法归因而体验到心理 Internal intention/force
不平稳。调整对行为价值的主观评
External Strong/ Strong/
价，通过强化内激来达到心理平衡
（ Insufficient justification ） rewards/ strong week
• 外激、内激都强的情境：因理由过 force Week/s Week/
足、不知所措而无法归因，体验到 trong week
心态失衡。他们常常会调整对行为
价值的主观评价，通过弱化内激来
达到心理平衡。
（ Over-justification ）

86. 十、激励理论与工作设计
Applications: Job Redesign
• 除了薪酬和奖励方案外，激励理论还可用于工作
设计，以提高员工的工作积极性。
• Job Redesign 工作设计： Assigning tasks to a
job, including the interdependency of those tasks
with other jobs 对工作的任务进行设计
• Constantly changing due to changing technology
and psychological contracts (especially
employability) 由于技术的发展和心理契约的变化，
工作需要不断设计完善

87. 1 、工作特征模型 Job Characteristics Model
• Hackman and Oldham proposed a model of job redesign 。
核心工作特征 关键心理状态 结果
Core Job Critical Psychological
Outcomes
Characteristics States
技能多样性 Skill variety
意义 工作动机
任务完整性 Task identity Meaningfulness Work motivation
任务的意义 Task significance 成长满意感
Growth satisfaction
责任 满意感
自主性 Autonomy Responsibility General satisfaction
工作有效性
工作反馈 结果知识 Work effectiveness
Feedback from job Knowledge of results
个体差异
Individual differences
Context Satisfaction
Knowledge & Skill
Growth need strength

88. 激励潜在分数（ MPS ）
• 为了简要地表示工作特征━━心理状态━━个人和工
作结果之间的关系，哈克曼和奥尔德姆进一步把模型
进行综合，形成一个连接三者的单维度指标，这个指
标被称为与个人成长需要相关的激励潜在分数
（ MPS ， Motive potential Score ），该分数与工作
特征之间的关系可用下列公式来表示：
SV+TI+TS
• MPS = ×A×F
• 3
• 式中， MPS= 激励潜在分数； SV ＝技能多样化； TI
＝任务完整性； TS ＝任务意义； A= 自主性； F= 反
馈

89. 2 、工作专业化
Job Specialization
优点 Advantages 缺点 Disadvantages
• 技能变换时间短 Less • 工作厌倦 Job
time changing boredom
activities • 报酬不满意
• 培训成本低 Lower Discontentment pay
training costs • 成本高 Higher costs
• 工作熟练快 Job • 质量低 Lower quality
mastered quickly • 动机低 Lower
• 人—工作匹配好 Better motivation
person-job matching

90. 3 、工作设计方法
Job Design Strategies
• 工作轮换 Job rotation
– Moving to different jobs
• 工作扩大化 Job enlargement
– Adding more tasks to a job
• 工作丰富化 Job enrichment
– Giving employees more autonomy over
their job

91. 工作轮换和工作扩大化
Job Rotation vs. Job Enlargement
工作轮换 Job Rotation
Job 1 Job 2 Job 3
Operate Camera Operate Sound Report Story
工作扩大化 Job Enlargement
Job 1 Job 2 Job 3
Operate Camera Operate Camera Operate Camera
Operate Sound Operate Sound Operate Sound
Report Story Report Story Report Story

92. 工作丰富化
Job Enrichment
• 更多的责任、自主权 Given more responsibility for
scheduling, coordinating, and planning one’s own work
• 1. 将工作任务按自然方式组合 Clustering tasks into
natural groups
– 将高度相关的几项任务组合到同一工作中 Stitching
highly interdependent tasks into one job
– e.g., video journalist, assembling entire product
• 2. 建立与客户的联系 Establishing client relationships
– 直接向特定客户负责 Directly responsible for specific
clients
– 直接与这些客户沟通 Communicate directly with
those clients

93. 3 、授权 Empowerment
• Empowerment: the process of sharing
power with employees, thereby
enhancing their confidence in their
ability to perform their jobs and their
belief that they are influential
contributors to the organization.
Power sharing
Individual
Job design Empowerment
Organizational

94. 3 、授权 Empowerment
自我决定 感到有自主权判断力 Employees
Self- feel they have freedom and
determination discretion
Empower-
ment is a 意义 认为工作是重要的 Employees
psychologi- Meaning believe their work is important
cal concept
represented
by 4 胜任力 高的自我效能感 Employees
dimensions Competence have feelings of self-efficacy
认为自己的行动能够决定结果成
影响力
功 Employees feel their actions
Impact
influence success

95. Creating Empowerment
• To create empowerment, management
must create an environment in which
everyone feels they have real influence
over performance standards and
business effectiveness with their areas
of responsibility. 为培养（鼓励）授权，
管理部门应创造一种环境，使处于其中
的每个人感到他对自己职责范围内的绩
效标准和经营效果有真正的影响

96. Creating Empowerment
• 个体因素 Individual factors
– 胜任力 Possess required competencies,
able to perform the work
• 工作设计因素 Job design factors
– 自主权 Autonomy, 任务整体性 task
identity, 任务的意义 task significance, 工
作反馈 job feedback
• 组织因素 Organizational factors
– 资源 Resources, 学习 learning orientation,
信任 trust

97. 4 、自我指导 Self-Leadership
• Self-Leadership: The process of
influencing oneself to establish the
self-direction and self-motivation
needed to perform a task. 影响自己开
展自我指导和自我工作激励的过程
• 理论基础 Includes concepts/practices
from:
– 目标设置 Goal setting
– 社会学习理论 Social learning theory
– 体育心理学 Sports psychology

98. 自我指导
Elements of Self-Leadership
建设性
个人目标设置 思维模式 设计自然的奖励 自我监控 自我强化
Personal Constructive Designing Self-
Self-
Goal Setting Thought Natural Reinforce-
Monitoring
Patterns Rewards ment
• 个人目标设置 Personal goal setting
– 员工自我设置目标 Employees set
their own goals
– 应用有效的目标设置理论 Apply
effective goal setting practices

99. 自我指导
Elements of Self-Leadership
建设性
思维模式 Designing Self-
Personal Constructive Self-
Natural Reinforce-
Goal Setting Thought Rewards Monitoring ment
Patterns
积极的自我对话 Positive self-talk
 关于思想与行动的自我对话 Talking to ourselves about
our own thoughts/actions for the purpose of
increasing our self-efficacy
心理想象 Mental imagery
 工作的心理实践 Mentally practicing a task
 可视化工作成就 Visualizing successful task
completion

100. 自我指导
Elements of Self-Leadership
Constructive Designing Self-
Personal Self-
Thought Natural Reinforce-
Goal Setting Patterns Rewards Monitoring ment
探索提升工作动机的途径 Finding ways
to make the job itself more motivating
 eg. altering the way the task is
accomplished

101. 自我指导
Elements of Self-Leadership
Constructive Designing Self-
Personal Self-
Thought Natural Reinforce-
Goal Setting Monitoring
Patterns Rewards ment
不断监控工作进程 Keeping track of your
progress toward the self-set goal
 Looking for naturally-occurring
feedback
 Designing artificial feedback

102. 自我指导
Elements of Self-Leadership
Constructive Designing Self-
Personal Self-
Thought Natural Reinforce-
Goal Setting Patterns Rewards Monitoring ment
• 完成自己设定的目标后接受强
化“ Taking” a reinforcer only after
completing a self-set goal
 eg. Watching a movie after writing
two more sections of a report
 eg. Starting a fun task after
completing a task that you don’t like

104. 第六章 团队动力学
Te am D yn am ic s
一、团队的概念
What are Teams?
• Groups of two or more people 两人以上
• Exist to fulfill a purpose 目的
• Interdependent -- interact and influence each
other 相互依赖与作用
• Mutually accountable for achieving common
goals 共同的责任
• Perceive themselves as a social entity 共同的
社会实体感

105. 群体与团队
Groups versus Teams
•All teams are groups
•Some groups are just people assembled
together
•Teams have task interdependence
whereas some groups do not (e.g., group
of employees enjoying lunch together)
基于任务的相互依赖

106. 团队的分类
Classifications of teams
• Hypothesized vs real team 假设团队和实际
团队：团队是否实际存在；
• Large vs small teams 大型团队和小型团队
：团队规模的大小；
• Formal vs informal teams 正式团队和非正
式团队：构成团队的原则和方式；
• Reference teams 参照团队：团队的标准，
目标和规范会成为人们行动的指南，成为人
们要努力达到的标准；
• Virtual teams 虚拟团队：工作的空间 .

107. 团队的类型
Types of Teams and Groups
永久 临时
Permanent Temporary
生产 / 管理团队 工作小组
正式团队
Formal Production team Task force
Teams Management team Skunkwork
非正式团队 社团
友谊团队
Informal Community
Friendship group
Groups of practice

108. • Skunwork: Cross-functional teams,
usually separated from the main
organization, that borrow people and
resources and have relatively free rein
to develop new products or services
• Community of practice: Groups bound
together by shared expertise and
passion for a particular activity or
interest.

109. Informal Groups 非正式团队 : Why
Exist?
• Innate drive to bond 合群的本能
– 满足社会交互作用需要 Fulfill need for
social interaction
– 社会身份 Social identity
• Goal accomplishment 实现目标
• Emotional support 情绪支持

110. 团队的作用
Why Rely on Teams
•Compared with individuals working alone,
teams tend to:
– solve problems and identify opportunities
more quickly 快速解决问题和把握机会
– share information and 良好的合作 coordinate
tasks better 信息共享
– provide superior customer service due to
more knowledge and expertise 基于更多知识
技能的优质客户服务
– motivate employees to work toward the
team’s goals 激励员工完成组织目标

111. 团队有效性模型
Team Effectiveness Model
组织与团队环境
团队设计 团队有效性
Organizational and
Team Design Team Effectiveness
Team Environment
•任务特征
• 奖励 Reward systems Task characteristics
• 达成组织目标
•团队规模 Team size
• 沟通 Communication Achieve
•团队组成
systems organizational goals
Team composition
• 空间 Physical space • 满足需求 Satisfy
• 环境 Organizational member needs
团队过程
environment Team Processes • 维持 Maintain
• 结构 Organizational team
structure •发展 Team development survival
•
• 领导 Organizational 规范 Team norms
leadership •角色 Team roles
•内聚力 Team cohesiveness

112. 团队任务与规模
Team’s Task and Size
• 任务特点 Task characteristics
– 任务明确性 Better when tasks are clear,
easy to implement
– 结果、过程的共享程度 Share common
inputs, processes, or outcomes
– 任务的相互依赖性 Task interdependence
• 团队规模 Team size
– Smaller teams are better
– But large enough to accomplish task

113. 任务相互依赖程度
Levels of Task Interdependence
High A
循环式
Reciprocal B C
系列式 A B C
Sequential
Resource
汇总式
Pooled A B C
Low

114. Volvo’s All-Female
Design Team
• Automobiles on the road today are
designed mostly by men, so a group of
female employees at Volvo Car
Corporation have teamed up to design a
new concept car.

115. 团队组合
Team Composition
1.动机 Motivation
– To perform task
– To work cooperatively the team
2. 胜任力 Competencies
– Collectively possess skills and knowledge to perform
the task
– Individual competencies to work effectively with each
other
3.同质 / 异质 Homogeneous or heterogeneous,
depending on task requirements

116. 同质 / 异质团队
Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous Teams
同质团队 异质团队
Homogeneous Teams Heterogeneous Teams
•冲突： Less conflict •More conflict
•团队形成： Faster team •Longer team development
development
•Performs better on
•合作型任务： Performs complex problems
better on cooperative tasks
•More creative
•合作： Better coordination
•Better representation
•成员满意感： High outside the team
satisfaction of team
members

117. 团队发展阶段
Stages of Team Development
Performing
Norming
Storming
Existing teams
Forming might regress Adjourning
back to an
earlier stage of
development

118. 团队规范 Team Norms
• Team Norm: Informal rules and expectations team
establishes to regulate member behaviors 团队调整
成员行为的非正式规则与期望
• 群体规范作用：对于群体及其成员支柱作用、评价标
准的作用、提供动力的作用和行为矫正功能。
• 规范的发展 Norms develop through:
– 明确陈述 Explicit statements
– 团队历史关键事件 Critical events in team’s history
– 团队初创期的经历 Initial team experiences
– 成员带入团队的价值观念 Beliefs/values members
bring to the team

119. High Performance Teams’ norms
• No Zingers. Zingers are put-downs or cheap shots directed at
fellow team members. Zingers show a lack of respect for
team members and can cause individual team members who
receive zinger to mentally withdraw from team participation.
• Celebrate Success. High Performance Teams take time-outs
to recognize small steps or progress towards objectives. This
act of recognizing small victories is essential in the
development of team confidence and commitment.
• No Rank/All Peers. High Performance Teams strive to
achieve a state where leadership migrates from one team
member to another to take advantage of the skills or abilities
of different team members as the topic or situation changes.
A critical success factor in the development of High
Performance Teams is the concept that all team members are
equal in decision making and that every team member is
valued. It is the responsibility and obligation of every team
member to identify the skills and talents of all other team
members and to encourage each team member to employ
those talents.

120. • Have Fun. Working on a High Performance
Team can and should be fun. Humor and
fun, so long as it is not at the expense of
others, can help build energy and improve
the teams ability to succeed. Time out
needs to be taken for fun in the form of
team building activities or new learning
such as juggling, drawing, poetry or song
writing.
• Quality Reviews. The team needs to
consciously set time aside to monitor the
quality of its work and progress towards
goals.

121. 二、群体压力与从众
Conformity
• The influence of team norms takes the form of
peer pressure when a member’s behavior
deviates from the norm.
• 群体压力：当群体成员在信念上或行为上与群体规
范不一致时所感 觉到的压力。这种压力可能是
真实的群体压力，也可能是想象的。
• Conformity 从众行为： Under the pressure from
peers, team member some times follows majority
of the team members. 群体成员由于体验到压力
，产生违背自己意愿的行为。

122. 规范的改变
Changing Team Norms
 Introduce norms when forming teams
 Select members with preferred norms
 Discuss counter-productive norms
 Reward behaviors representing desired
norms
 Disband teams with dysfunctional norms

123. 三、群体内聚力
Team Cohesiveness
• 群体内聚力： Degree of attraction people feel
toward the team and their motivation to remain
members. 团队对其成员的吸引程度。
• Teams high in cohesiveness tend to believe the
team will
– Help them achieve personal goals
– Fulfill their need for affiliation or status
– Provide social support during times of crisis or trouble
• Cohesiveness is the “glue” that holds teams
together and ensures they fulfill their obligations

124. 影响团队内聚力的因素
Influences on Team Cohesiveness
成员一致性
Member
Similarity
外部挑战
团度规模
External
Team Size
Challenges Increasing
Team
团队成功 成员交互作用
Cohesiveness Member
Team
Success Interaction
Somewhat
Difficult Entry

125. 团队内聚力的结果
Team Cohesiveness Outcomes
•Members of cohesive teams:
– Want to remain members
– Willing to share information
– Strong interpersonal bonds
– Resolve conflict effectively
– Better interpersonal relationships

126. Are cohesive teams better performers?
• YES & NO!
– Cohesive teams tend to be better
performers WHEN their norms support
productivity and high performance
• Highly cohesive teams with norms that do not
support productivity, high performance, or
company goals often perform worse than their
less-cohesive counterparts!

127. 内聚力与绩效
Cohesiveness and Performance
Team Norms
Support Moderately
High task
Company high task
Goals performance
performance
Team Norms Moderately
Oppose Low task
low task
Company performance
performance
Goals
Low Team High Team
Cohesiveness Cohesiveness

128. The Trouble With Teams
• Some tasks are performed just as easily/effectively by
one person as by a team!
• Teams are sometimes less efficient than individuals ：
 Process losses – resources (including time and energy)
expended toward team development and maintenance
rather than the task ---- cost of developing and
maintaining teams
 Companies don’t support best work environment for
team dynamics
 Social loafing: a situation in which people exert less
effort (and usually perform at a low level) when working
in groups than when working alone ---- 三个和尚的故事

129. How to Minimize Social
Loafing
• Make individual performance more
visible
– Form smaller teams
– Specialize tasks
– Measure individual performance
• Increase employee motivation
– Increase job enrichment
– Select motivated employees

130. 四、群体决策
• 1 、 Why group decision making 为什么群
体决策：群体决策是一种常用的决策方法：
 Representation of stakeholders 利益的代
表：董事会、参与决策、监督作用；
 Utilization of knowledge and experiences
of team members 知识与经验的整合：分布
性决策， Delphi 法；
 Creative thinking 创新思想的激发：头脑风
暴法；
 Multiple check 更多的评价：纠正失误

131. 2 、 Dysfunctions in GDM
• 小集团意识（ Groupthink ）
• Some teams are at risk of becoming dysfunctional as
a result of groupthink. It is a process by which a
group can make bad or irrational decisions. In a
groupthink situation, each member of the group
attempts to conform his or her opinions to what they
believe to be the consensus of the group.
 Irving Janis: "Groups experiencing groupthink do not
consider all alternatives and they desire unanimity at
the expense of quality decisions."
 不能很好评价多数人的观点，持不同意见者为了与多
数人保持一致而放弃自己的观点
 把群体意见一致看的必决策本身重要

132. 7 symptoms of decision affected by groupthink
• Incomplete survey of alternatives
• Incomplete survey of objectives
• Failure to examine risks of preferred choice
• Failure to re-appraise initially rejected
alternatives
• Poor information search
• Selective bias in processing information at
hand (see also confirmation bias)
• Failure to work out contingency plans

133. 群体决策中的问题
• Group Polarization (Stoner, 1961 ) (“risk shift” or
“Group extremity shift”) - is the tendency to make a
decision that is more extreme, either riskier or more
caution, after discussion has occurred than the initial
preferences of group members. 极端性转移 : 群体决策
比个体更加冒险或保守的倾向。
• Risky shift , the decision group becomes more radical
and willing to take a risk. The decision makes as a group
gamble more than an individual often would when
making the same decision.
• Cautious shift - the group shifts to being more
conservative than solo individuals would usually be.

134. Explanations 理论解释
• WALLACH AND KOGAN‘S NOTION OF
RESPONSIBILITY DIFFUSION 责任分担： member
responsibility is diffused as there is a degree of
anonymity (a corporate veil) in the group. The group is
responsible for decisions and risky decisions carry less
of a burden for individuals.
• BROWN‘S TWO FACTOR VIEW (Social comparison
theory / Persuasive arguments):
 When, in a group, individuals make social comparisons
and adjust prior positions relative to the group majority
view.
 Risk takers are more powerful and persuasive in a group
situation / more extreme in group-favored direction seen
as better ；
 Therefore, People are motivated to move farther toward
the socially desirable end of the scale.

135. • The Risk As Value Hypothesis 文化的放大
: Moderate risk is valued in our culture.
Therefore, people want to shift toward risky
decisions to gain status and approval from
other group members.
• Discussion Produces A Commitment.
– People become more committed to a viewpoint
when they express that viewpoint publicly and
therefore they become more extreme in their
judgments.
• The effect of team leader 领导的假设

136. 第十一章 群体沟通与冲突
Communication and conflict
Communication
• The process by which information is
transferred and understood between
two or more people.

137. Four Functions of Communication
• The functions of communication:
– Knowledge management
– Decision making
– Coordinating work activities
– Fulfilling drive to bond

138. 一、沟通过程模型
Communication Process Model
发送者 Sender 传送 接收者 Receiver
Transmit
Message 接受
形成信息 编码 解码
Receive
Form Encode Decode
encoded
message message message
message
噪音 Noise
反馈解码 接受 编码 反馈信息
Decode Receive Encode Form
feedback feedback feedback feedback
反馈 Transmit
Feedback

139. 媒体丰富性
Hierarchy of Media Richness
高 Rich
超负荷区 Face-to-face
Overloaded
Zone Telephone
媒体丰富性
Media E-mail
Richness
过简化区
Newsletters Oversimplified
Zone
低 Lean
明确 模糊 Nonroutine/
情景 Ambiguous
Routine/Clear
Situation

140. 沟通的障碍
Communication Barriers
• 知觉 Perceptions
• 过滤 Filtering
• 语言 Language
– Jargon
– Ambiguity
• 信息超负荷 Information Overload

141. 二、沟通的分类
Classification of Communication
• 1 、 Formal vs. informal communication 正式
沟通与非正式沟通：正式沟通 ---- 新闻发言人；
• 2 、 Upward, downward, and parallel
communication 上行沟通、下行沟通、平行沟通；
• 3 、 One way or two way communication 单
向沟通与双向沟通；
• 4 、 Oral vs. written communication 口头沟通
与书面沟通；

142. Internet and
communication
• 网络给沟通提供了新的研究主题：
• 公示 ---- 正式
• 网络论坛 ---- 非正式
• 难以控制 ---- 透明度高

143. 三、 Conflict 冲突
Definition: The process in which one party
perceives that its interests are being opposed or
negatively affected by another party.

144. 冲突过程
The Conflict Process
冲突知觉
Conflict
冲突源 Perceptions 冲突显现 冲突结果
Sources of Manifest Conflict
Conflict 冲突情绪 Conflict Outcomes
Conflict
Emotions
Conflict
Escalation Cycle

145. 任务型冲突与社会情绪型冲突
Task vs. Socio-emotional Conflict
•任务型冲突 Task-related conflict
– Conflict is aimed at issue, not parties
– Helps recognize problems, identify solutions,
and understand the issues better
– Potentially healthy and valuable
•社会情绪型冲突 Socio-emotional conflict
– Conflict viewed as a personal attack
– Introduces perceptual biases
– Distorts information processing

146. 四、冲突的根源
Sources of Conflict (1)
目标不相容 • 一方的目标被认为干涉了他人的目
Incompatible 标 One party’s goals perceived to
Goals interfere with other’s goals
• 观念差异 Different values/beliefs
差异 • 文化与代际差异 Explains cross-
Differentiation cultural and generational conflict
• 冲突与相互关联的正相关 Conflict
任务的相互关联
increases with interdependence
Task • 相互干扰可能性 Higher risk that
Interdependence parties interfere with each other
more

147. 冲突的根源
Sources of Conflict (2)
稀缺的资源
• Motivates competition for the
Scarce resource
Resources
• Creates uncertainty, threatens
规则模糊 goals
Ambiguous Rules • Without rules, people rely on
politics
• Increases stereotyping
沟通问题
• Reduces motivation to
Communication communicate
Problems • Escalates conflict when arrogant

148. 冲突管理风格
Conflict Management Styles
High
强制 问题解决
Forcing Problem-Solving
Assertiveness
折衷妥协
Compromising
武断
性
回避 Avoiding 屈从
Yielding
Low High
合作 Cooperativeness

149. 强调上级目标
Emphasizing Superordinate Goals
Incompatible
Goals
 强调共同目标
Differentiation
Emphasizing common
objectives rather than Task
Interdependence
conflicting sub-goals
Scarce Resources
 减少目标不相容性和差别
Reduces goal Ambiguous Rules
incompatibility and
differentiation Communication
Problems

150. 减少差异
Reducing Differentiation
Incompatible
•消除价值观念差异的根源 Goals
Remove sources of different
values and beliefs Differentiation
Task
•人员轮岗、调动 Move Interdependence
employees around to different
jobs, departments, and regions Scarce Resources
•其他 Other ways to reduce Ambiguous Rules
differentiation:
– Common dress code/status
Communication
– Common work experiences
Problems

151. 改善沟通、增进理解
Better Communication/Understanding
Incompatible
•通过沟通增加员工间的理解 Goals
Employees understand and
Differentiation
appreciate each other’s views
through communication Task
Interdependence
– 非正式聚会 Informal gatherings
Scarce Resources
– 正式对话 Formal dialogue
sessions Ambiguous Rules
– 团队建设活动 Teambuilding Communication
activities Problems

152. 其他的冲突管理方法
Other Ways to Manage Conflict
•Reduce Task Interdependence Incompatible
减少任务的相互依存性 Goals
– 划分共享资源 Dividing shared
Differentiation
resources
– 任务合并 Combine tasks Task
Interdependence
– 利用缓冲 Use buffers
•Increase Resources 增加资源 Scarce Resources
– 倍增资源 Duplicate resources
•Clarify Rules and Procedures 明 Ambiguous Rules
确角色和程序
– 明确资源分布 Clarify resource Communication
Problems
distribution
– 改变相互依存性 Change
interdependence