This document discusses meat composition and tenderness. It defines meat as animal muscle and organ tissue. Types of meat covered include beef from cattle of different ages/genders, lamb/mutton from sheep, and pork from pigs. Meat is composed of muscle, connective tissue like collagen, fat, and sometimes bone. More collagen makes meat tougher, while fat adds flavor and juiciness. Tenderness depends on factors like the animal's diet, age at slaughter, and cut of meat. Dry or wet aging can further increase tenderness.

1. FTECH 2110 – Basic Food Preparation
Source: BROWN, A. (2011) Understanding Food: Principles and Preparation, 4th ed. Cengage Learning Inc., USA.
1 - Meat

2. Meat is generally defined as
the muscles of animals, but
in a broader sense it also
covers the organs and glands
obtained from the animal.

3. Types of Meat

4. Beef
Beef originates from
cattle that are classified
according to age and
gender.
Veal - from the young
calves of beef cattle, either
male or female, between
the ages of 3 weeks and 3
months.

5. Steer. Male cattle that are castrated
while young so that they will gain
weight quickly.
Bull. Older uncastrated males that provide
stag meat; usually used for breeding
and then later for processed
meats and pet foods.
Heifer. Females that have not borne
a calf.
Cow. Female cattle that have borne
Calves; is less desirable than that
from steers or heifers.
Calf. Provides meat from 8-12
month old; baby beef

6. Lamb & Mutton
- meat of sheep
- lamb comes from sheep
less than 14 months old,
and mutton from those
over 14 months

7. Mutton is darker and tougher
than lamb and has a stronger
flavor, which grows even more
pronounced as the animal
matures.

8. Pork
Most pork is derived from young
swine of either gender slaughtered
at between 5½ and 7 months of
age. Technically, pigs are less than 4
months old, whereas hogs are
older than 4 months.

9. Composition of Meats

10. Structure of Meat
Meats are composed of a combination of
water, muscle, connective tissue, adipose
(fatty) tissue, and often bone. The
proportions of these elements vary
according to the animal and the part of its
anatomy represented by the cut of meat.

11. Muscle tissue
https://i0.wp.com/shamelesspride.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Muscle-fiber.jpg?ssl=1

12. Connective tissue
Connective tissue is a part of ligaments and tendons, and
also acts as the “glue” that holds muscle cells together.
The most abundant protein in connective tissue is collagen. It is
tough and fibrous, but converts to a gel when exposed to moist
heat. The other two main types of connective tissue proteins are
elastin and reticulin. Elastin, as the name implies, has elastic
qualities, and reticulin consists of very small fibers of connective
tissue that form a delicate interlace around muscle cells.

13. Effect of collagen on tenderness
The type and amount of connective tissue found in a meat
cut determines its tenderness or toughness and the best type
of cooking method. Cuts high in connective tissue are
naturally tough and need to be properly prepared in order to
become more tender. Muscles used for movement, such as
those found in the neck, shoulders, legs, and flank, contain
more collagen and tend to be tougher than muscles from the
loin, or lower back, and rib areas, which get less exercise.

14. https://manacorpinternational.com/2018/wp-content/uploads/beefcutsandtenderness_2164177097_normal.jpg

15. https://cdn1.vectorstock.com/i/1000x1000/03/05/pork-chart-vector-3810305.jpg
https://www.beechridgefarm.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/AdobeStock_119599253-e1554651617292.jpeg

16. Effect of age on tenderness
Collagen concentration also increases as animals age,
which is why meat from older animals is tougher.
These usually less expensive, tougher cuts require
slow, moist heating at low temperatures to convert, or
hydrolyze, the tough connective tissue to softer
gelatin. Conversely, the tougher cuts have more flavor
than the more tender ones.

17. Effect of elastin on tenderness
The other two components of connective tissue have
less effect on meats when they are cooked. Elastin,
which is yellowish, rubbery, and often referred to as
silver skin, does not soften with heating, so it should
be removed before preparation if possible. There is
very little elastin in meats, except in cuts from the neck
and shoulder, so it is less likely to affect tenderness.

18. elastin
https://slideplayer.com/slide/9359347/28/images/7/Elastin+A+very+tough%2C+yellowish+connective+tissue+that+c
an+not+be+softened+by+heat..jpg

19. Adipose (fatty) tissue
Adipose tissue is, simply, fat, which serves as
insulation under the skin (subcutaneous) and as
padding in the abdominal cavity for sensitive
internal organs.

20. When it appears on the outside of meat, this fat
is known as cover fat. Cover fat helps retain the
moisture of meats, but this separable fat is often
trimmed from meats prior to preparation. Fat
found within muscles is called intramuscular fat
or marbling.

21. Fat content varies widely among meats and is
dependent on the source animal’s genetics, age, diet,
and exercise, and on the cut of the meat.
Well-marbled beef fetches a higher price, so many
cattle ranchers, in an attempt to improve marbling,
feed cattle richer grain during the last weeks or
months before slaughter.

22. Why is marbling desirable in meat?
When meat is cooked, the intramuscular
fat deposits melt and contribute to
perceived flavor and juiciness. For this
reason, the more marbling in a cut of
beef, the higher the grade.

23. ~$44/kilo
(Php2,200)

24. Hanwoo beef (Korea)
~$26 USD/kilo (Php 1,300)
https://www.jettfoods.com/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e95/i/m/image_6_34.j
peg
Wagyu beef (Japan)
~$400 USD/kilo (Php 20,000)
https://images-na.ssl-images-amazon.com/images/I/912EETFn72L._SL1500_.jpg

25. Bone
Bones are used as landmarks for identifying the
various meat cuts from a carcass. When buying meat,
keep in mind that bone weighs more than meat and
that the higher the proportion of bone there is to
meat, the less the meat yield and the more the cost
of the edible portion will be.

26. arm bone
blade bone
rib bone
T-bone
flat bone
Beef

27. Marrow
Marrow is the soft, fatty material in the center of most
large bones. The marrow found within the bone will
generally be of two different types: (1) yellow marrow,
found in the long bones, and (2) red marrow—red because
it is supplied with many blood vessels—in the spongy
center of other bones. Marrow is a valued food in many
cultures and can provide much of the flavor in soups.

29. Pigments
The color of meat is derived from pigment containing
proteins, chiefly myoglobin and, to a lesser extent,
hemoglobin. The so-called red meats—beef, pork,
sheep, and lamb—have more of these pigments than
poultry or fish do.

30. Myoglobin receives oxygen from the blood and stores
it in the muscles, whereas hemoglobin transports
oxygen throughout the body and is found primarily in
the bloodstream.
https://i.pinimg.com/originals/2f/8c/09/2f8c092e2be2cb34c9061f2b618e5330.jpg

31. Effect of oxygen on meat color
After slaughter, meat
undergoes several
changes in color over time
due to modifications in the
molecular structure of
myoglobin.
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WlmHyNyUizb7m3GtJN2eQwOiHCWdHeWjJOG3abKrfs9LLmTGIazaDgEwh1BZWtSXg8

32. Myoglobin within the meat is purplish red, but once
exposed to oxygen (when meat is cut), it becomes
bright red - a color indicating freshness and so desired
by consumers.

33. Using plastic wrap that is permeable to oxygen allows
meat retailers to maintain the bright red color for a
longer period of time, whereas vacuum wrap, which
eliminates the oxygen, causes the meat to appear
purplish-red.

34. Extractives
Meat derives some of its flavor from nitrogen
compounds called extractives. The most common
extractives are creatine and creatinine, but urea, uric
acid, and other compounds also contribute to the
flavor of meat.

35. The meat from older animals contains more
connective tissue and extractives, and therefore
yields more flavor than that from younger livestock.
Extractives are water soluble, so some of the flavor of
boiled or simmered beef may be lost in the cooking
water, but the flavor can be recaptured by using the
cooking liquids in the preparation of soup or gravy.

36. Tenderness of Meats

37. Extreme variations of tenderness exist in meat,
even within different areas of a single meat cut,
but overall, natural meat tenderness is due to
factors such as the cut, age, and fat content.

38. Natural tenderizing
The particular cut of the meat, the animal’s age
at slaughter (connective tissue concentration),
the animal’s heredity and diet, the meat’s
marbling, slaughtering conditions, and aging all
play a part in determining tenderness.

39. Cut. Muscles that are exercised are tougher than
those that are not, due to higher concentrations
of connective tissue.
Animal’s age. As muscles age, the diameter of
the muscle fibers increases and more connective
tissue develops, resulting in toughening of the
meat.

40. https://manacorpinternational.com/2018/wp-content/uploads/beefcutsandtenderness_2164177097_normal.jpg

41. Heredity. Cuts of meat will vary in tenderness
because of genetic factors.

42. Diet. The type of diet fed to the animal directly
influences its fat accumulation, which is one of
the factors affecting the tenderness and flavor of
its meat. Ranchers have long known that grain-
fed cattle yield ground beef that is more tender
and better flavored than that from cattle fed hay
or left to feed on the range.

43. Marbling. Fattening animals before slaughter is
thought to increase tenderness by increasing
marbling and the development of subcutaneous
fat.

44. Rigor mortis. Within 6 to 24 hours after
slaughter, the muscles of livestock enter the
state of rigor mortis. This condition reverses
naturally 1 or 2 days after slaughter.

45. Aging. All fresh beef is aged for at least a few
days and may be aged up to several weeks.
Enzymes naturally found in the meat break down
the muscle tissue, improving its texture and
flavor.

46. Dry aging. Carcasses are
hung in refrigeration units
(1-3°C) with 70% to 90%
humidity for 1 ½ to 6 weeks.
The advantage of dry aging
is that the dehydration
concentrates the meat’s
flavor, making it more
succulent and mellow.

47. Fast or wet aging. Most beef is aged in plastic
shrink-wrap. Warmer temperatures of 21°C with
a high humidity of 85 to 90% lower the aging
time to 2 days. Ultraviolet lights are used to
inhibit microbial growth. Most retail meat is fast
aged.

48. Vacuum-packed aging. Less weight loss and
spoilage occur in meats that are aged by
vacuum packing. During this process, meat
carcasses are divided into smaller cuts, vacuum
packed in moisture and vapor-proof plastic
bags, and then aged under refrigeration. Takes
about 14 days.

49. Artificial tenderizing
External treatments can be applied to meats to
increase their tenderness. These include the use
of enzymes, salts, acids, and mechanical
methods such as grinding or pounding.

50. Enzymes. A more even distribution of enzymes
may be achieved by injecting a tenderizing
solution of papain, or some other proteolytic
enzyme, into the bloodstream of animals 10
minutes before slaughter.

51. Commercial meat
tenderizers containing
enzymes are available
for consumers to use,
but they are effective
only on fairly thin cuts of
meat because they
penetrate to a depth of
only 1⁄2 to 2 millimeters.

52. Examples of tenderizers:
• Papain from papaya
• Bromelain from pineapple
• Ficin from figs
• Trypsin from animal pancreas
• Rhyozyme P-11 from fungi
Most enzymes are at their optimal activity at 55-
75°C, which is reached only during heating.
Exceeding 85°C denatures the enzyme.

53. Salts (potassium, calcium, or magnesium
chlorides). These salts retain moisture and
break down the component that surrounds the
muscle fibers, resulting in the release of
proteins. Polyphosphates are sometimes added
to the salts to improve the meat’s juiciness by
increased water retention ability.

54. Mechanical tenderization. Meat can be
tenderized mechanically by needling or
pounding. These actions physically break the
muscle cells and connective tissue, making the
meat easier to chew.
https://images.slideplayer.com/15/4588608/slides/slide_34.jpg https://mediad.publicbroadcasting.net/p/shared/npr/styles/x_larg
e/nprshared/201805/190762175.jpg

55. Electrical stimulation The meat of beef cattle
and sheep becomes more tender when a
current of electricity is passed through the
carcass after slaughter and before the onset of
rigor mortis.

56. Electrical stimulation
speeds up rigor mortis
by accelerating
glycogen breakdown
and enzyme activity,
which disrupts protein
structure, making the
meat more tender. Australian Meat Processor Corporation