This document discusses double integrals. It defines a double integral as providing an approximate value for the volume of a solid generated by a function f(x,y) over a closed region R. It explains that the first step is to define a partition Δ of R into rectangular subregions. The volume of each subregion is approximated as the area times the height given by the function f. Taking the limit of this Riemann sum as the partitions become finer provides the value of the double integral over the region R. An example is also given to demonstrate calculating the value of a double integral.
We go over the trigonometric function, their inverses, and the derivatives of the inverse functions. The surprising fact is that these derivatives are simpler functions than the functions themselves.
We go over the trigonometric function, their inverses, and the derivatives of the inverse functions. The surprising fact is that these derivatives are simpler functions than the functions themselves.
A global distribution system (GDS) is a computerised network system owned or operated by a company that enables transactions between travel industry service providers, mainly airlines, hotels, car rental companies, and travel agencies. The GDS mainly uses real-time inventory (e.g. number of hotel rooms available, number of flight seats available, or number of cars available) from the service providers. Travel agencies traditionally relied on GDS for services, products and rates in order to provide travel-related services to the end consumers. Thus, a GDS can link services, rates and bookings consolidating products and services across all three travel sectors: i.e., airline reservations, hotel reservations, car rentals.
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A global distribution system (GDS) is a computerised network system owned or operated by a company that enables transactions between travel industry service providers, mainly airlines, hotels, car rental companies, and travel agencies. The GDS mainly uses real-time inventory (e.g. number of hotel rooms available, number of flight seats available, or number of cars available) from the service providers. Travel agencies traditionally relied on GDS for services, products and rates in order to provide travel-related services to the end consumers. Thus, a GDS can link services, rates and bookings consolidating products and services across all three travel sectors: i.e., airline reservations, hotel reservations, car rentals.
GDS is different from a computer reservation system, which is a reservation system used by the service providers (also known as vendors). Primary customers of GDS are travel agents (both online and office-based) who make reservations on various reservation systems run by the vendors. GDS holds no inventory; the inventory is held on the vendor's reservation system itself. A GDS system will have a real-time link to the vendor's database. For example, when a travel agency requests a reservation on the service of a particular airline company, the GDS system routes the request to the appropriate airline's computer reservations system.
A mirror image of the passenger name record (PNR) in the airline reservations system is maintained in the GDS system. If a passenger books an itinerary containing air segments of multiple airlines through a travel agency, the passenger name record in the GDS system would hold information on their entire itinerary, while each airline they fly on would only have a portion of the itinerary that is relevant to them. This would contain flight segments on their own services and inbound and onward connecting flights (known as info segments) of other airlines in the itinerary. For example, if a passenger books a journey from Amsterdam to London on KLM, London to New York on British Airways, and New York to Frankfurt on Lufthansa through a travel agent and if the travel agent is connected to Amadeus GDS, the PNR in the Amadeus GDS would contain the full itinerary, while the PNR in KLM would show the Amsterdam to London segment along with the British Airways flight as an onward info segment. Likewise, the PNR in the Lufthansa system would show the New York to Frankfurt segment with the British Airways flight as an arrival information segment. Finally, the PNR in British Airways' system would show all three segments, one as a live segment and the other two as arrival and onward info segments.
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
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1. Integrales dobles
𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑖ó𝑛 𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑎 𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖ó𝑛 𝑅
𝑅 ⊂ ℝ2; Región cerrada
La región cerrada más simple de ℝ2 es la región rectangular cerrada, la cual,
está definida por dos puntos A 𝑎1, 𝑎2 , 𝐵 𝑏1, 𝑏2 , donde
𝑎1 ≤ 𝑏1 𝑦 𝑎2 ≤ 𝑏2
Y cuyos lados son paralelos a los ejes coordenados.
2. La región R se
considerará
como una región
de integración.
R
y
x
4. El primer paso en el estudio de la integral
doble es definir una partición Δ de R
Al dibujar rectas paralelas
a los ejes coordenados se
obtiene una red de
subregiones rectangulares
que cubren a R.
x
y
5. Se tiene n subregiones
• Si tomamos la i-ésima subregión
𝐴𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑜: Δ𝑖𝑥 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑠
𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑜: Δ𝑖𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑠
Ahora, si Δ𝑖𝐴 es el área de la
i-ésima subregión rectangular,
entonces
Δ𝑖𝐴 = Δ𝑖𝑥 ∗ Δ𝑖𝑦
x
y
6. Integral doble
La integral doble proporciona un
valor aproximado del volumen
del sólido que se genera bajo la
función 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 definida en una
región R.
Sea 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0, y R una región
cerrada, entonces
𝑉 =
𝑅
.
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
R
7. Demostración Tenemos una función 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 definida
en una región R.
Tomando la i-ésima subregión,
construimos un paralelepípedo sobre
este.
Ahora bien, recordemos que el volumen
del paralelepípedo es igual a
𝑉 = 𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑜 ∗ 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑜 ∗ 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎
En este caso como estamos trabajando
en la i-ésima subregión, entonces se
tiene que
𝑉𝑖 = Δ𝑖𝑥 ∗ Δ𝑖𝑦 ∗ ℎ𝑖
i-ésima
subregión
?
8. La altura está definida por la función 𝑓.
Si tomamos un punto arbitrario 𝑢𝑖, 𝑣𝑖 de la
i-ésima subregión, entonces
𝑓 𝑢𝑖, 𝑣𝑖 = ℎ𝑖
Por lo tanto,
𝑉𝑖 = Δ𝑖𝑥 ∗ Δ𝑖𝑦 ∗ 𝑓(𝑢𝑖, 𝑣𝑖)
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑢𝑖, 𝑣𝑖)Δ𝑖𝑥Δ𝑖𝑦
Pero Δ𝑖𝑥Δ𝑖𝑦 = Δ𝑖𝐴
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑢𝑖, 𝑣𝑖)Δ𝑖𝐴
9. 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑢𝑖, 𝑣𝑖)Δ𝑖𝐴
𝑉1 = 𝑓(𝑢1, 𝑣1)Δ1𝐴
𝑉2 = 𝑓(𝑢2, 𝑣2)Δ2𝐴
𝑉3 = 𝑓(𝑢3, 𝑣3)Δ3𝐴
…
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑢𝑖−1, 𝑣𝑖−1)Δ𝑖𝐴
…
𝑉
𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑢𝑛, 𝑣𝑛)Δ𝑛𝐴
𝑖=1
𝑛
𝑓(𝑢𝑖, 𝑣𝑖)Δ𝑖𝐴
Por lo tanto, el volumen de cada paralelepípedo está dado por
Suma de Riemann
10. Si llevamos al límite esta sumatoria tenemos que
lim
Δ →0
𝑖=1
𝑛
𝑓(𝑢𝑖, 𝑣𝑖)Δ𝑖𝐴
Donde Δ , es la norma de la partición de R y que está determinada por la longitud
de la diagonal más grande de las subregiones rectangulares de la partición.
𝑉 =
𝑅
.
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
𝑽 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝜟 →𝟎
𝒊=𝟏
𝒏
𝒇(𝒖𝒊, 𝒗𝒊)𝜟𝒊𝑨
11. • Ejemplo 1: Obtenga un valor aproximado de la integral doble:
𝑅
3𝑦 − 2𝑥2 𝑑𝐴
Donde R es la región rectangular que tiene vértice en (-1,1) y (2,3).
Considere una partición de R generada por las rectas:
x=0, x=1 y y=2,
y tome el centro de la i-ésima subregión como (𝑢𝑖, 𝑣𝑖).
𝑅
3𝑦 − 2𝑥2
𝑑𝐴 ≈
𝑖=1
𝑛
𝑓(𝑢𝑖, 𝑣𝑖)Δ𝑖𝐴
1
𝑥 = 0 𝑥 = 1
y= 2
12. 𝑅
3𝑦 − 2𝑥2
𝑑𝐴 ≈
𝑖=1
𝑛
𝑓(𝑢𝑖, 𝑣𝑖)Δ𝑖𝐴
𝑖=1
𝑛
𝑓(𝑢𝑖, 𝑣𝑖)Δ𝑖𝐴 = 𝑓 𝑢1, 𝑣1 Δ1𝐴 + 𝑓 𝑢2, 𝑣2 Δ2𝐴 + ⋯ + 𝑓 𝑢𝑛, 𝑣𝑛 Δ𝑛𝐴
Para el ejemplo, tenemos que n=6, por lo tanto
𝑖=1
6
𝑓(𝑢𝑖, 𝑣𝑖)Δ𝑖𝐴 = 𝑓 𝑢1, 𝑣1 Δ1𝐴 + 𝑓 𝑢2, 𝑣2 Δ2𝐴 + ⋯ + 𝑓 𝑢6, 𝑣6 Δ6𝐴
ya conocemos los distintos puntos 𝑢𝑖, 𝑣𝑖 (gráfico)
13. Ahora, necesitamos determinar cada Δ𝑖𝐴
Área Δ𝑖𝐴: Como todas la subregiones son iguales, el área de todas estas también van a ser
iguales, es decir,
Δ1𝐴 = Δ2𝐴 = Δ3𝐴 = ⋯ = Δ6𝐴 = 𝐴
y va a estar determinada por
•
•
•
𝐴 = ∆𝑥 ∗ ∆𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒 Δ𝑥: 𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑜
Δ𝑦: 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑜
𝐴 = 1 ∗ 1
𝐴 = 1
15. Obtenga un valor aproximado de la integral doble:
𝑅
4 −
1
9
𝑥2 −
1
16
𝑦2 𝑑𝐴
Ejercicio propuesto
16. Teoremas:
• 13.2.5: Si c es una constante y la función f es integrable en una región cerrada R,
entonces cf es integrable en R y:
𝑅
𝑐𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑐
𝑅
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
• 13.2.6: Si las funciones f y g son integrables en una región cerrada R, entonces la
función f + g es integrable en R y:
𝑅
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 =
𝑅
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 +
𝑅
𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
17. • 13.2.7: Si las funciones f y g son integrables en una región cerrada R, y además
f(x,y) ≥ g(x,y) para todo (x,y) de R entonces:
𝑅
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 ≥
𝑅
𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
• 13.2.8: Sea f una función integrable en una región cerrada R, y suponga que m y
M son dos números tales que m ≤ f(x,y) ≤ M para todo (x,y) de R. Si A es la
medida del área del a región R, entonces:
• 13.2.9: Si la función f es continua en la región cerrada R y que la región R se
compone de dos subregiones R1 y R2 que no tienen puntos en común excepto
algunos puntos en parte de sus fronteras. Entonces:
𝑚 ≤
𝑅
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 ≤ 𝑀𝐴
𝑅
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 =
𝑅1
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 +
𝑅2
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
19. Integral iterada
Hace referencia a que una integral doble se puede
resolver o determinar mediante integraciones simples
sucesivas.
𝑅
.
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 =
𝑎2
𝑏2
𝑎1
𝑏1
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Integral simple
20. Demostración
𝑉 =
𝑅
.
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 =
𝑎2
𝑏2
𝑎1
𝑏1
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
Sea z = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 una función definida
en una región R, con 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0
21. Recordando un poco acerca de los métodos de integración para
calcular el volumen del sólido generado por una curva, específicamente
el método de rebanadas sabemos que
𝑉 =
𝑎
𝑏
𝐴(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
Donde A(y), es el área de una sección transversal del sólido.
Para este caso observamos que si integramos con
respecto a 𝑦 el intervalo de integración sería
𝑎, 𝑏 = 𝑎2,𝑏2
Por lo tanto, tendríamos que
𝑉 =
𝑎2,
𝑏2
𝐴(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
23. Ahora bien, necesitamos determinar 𝐴(𝑦)
Como sabemos 𝐴(𝑦) es la sección transversal de un sólido
𝑨(𝒚)
Nos damos cuenta
que 𝑨(𝒚) está
definida en el
intervalo 𝑎1, 𝑏1
24. Recordando un poco sobre integrales simples, sabemos que la integral definida
determina el área bajo la curva, es decir tenemos que
𝐴 𝑦 =
𝑎1
𝑏1
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎1 𝑏1
𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚)
A