This document discusses some of the ethical issues related to genetically modified (GM) crops. It examines concepts like moral luck, distributive justice, and food sovereignty in the context of GM crop development and adoption. It also analyzes approaches like libertarianism and utilitarianism that are relevant to these issues. A major topic is the precautionary principle and how it relates to assessing and managing risks from GM crops given uncertainties. Variations in how the precautionary principle is formulated and some criticisms of it are outlined.

1. Ethical Issues Related to GM Crops
T.J. Kasperbauer, 2/24/14

2. Our lives are the product of
social and natural lotteries
John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (1971, p. 72)

3. Moral Luck
1981 1979

4. Control Principle
We can be morally judged only
to the extent that what we are
judged for depends on factors
under our control.

5. Apparent Corollary
Two people ought not be morally
judged differently if the only
differences between them are
due to factors beyond their
control.

6. Resultant Luck
Luck in the way things turn out

7. Constitutive Luck
Luck in who one is, or in the traits
and dispositions that one has (natural
lottery)

8. Circumstantial Luck
Luck in circumstances in which one
finds oneself (social lottery)

9. Causal Luck
Luck in how one is determined
by antecedent circumstances
(combined natural and social
lotteries)

10. Relevant Issues
• Distributive justice
- Whether someone is better or worse off is largely due to
factors outside of their control.
- Moral duty to reduce inequalities.

11. Relevant Issues
• Food sovereignty
- The crops people (and entire nations) grow are largely due to
factors outside of their control.
- Creates a number of complications
• Why ought we preserve food traditions that came about
due to luck?
• What duties do rich countries have to poor countries,
given that their relative wealth is due to luck?

12. 1. The Libertarian Approach: People who invest
labour in the production of goods have the right
to seek the most favourable price for their goods.
2. The Utilitarian Approach: The increased
efficiency of technological innovation serves all in
the long run – technological innovations promote
the greatest good for the greatest number.
Moral luck seems to cause problems for both approaches

13. 4. Risk/Uncertainty/Precaution
• Often concern is about risk/uncertainty of/about value-affecting
impacts
• Risk/Uncertainty: Different definitions, but commonly:
– Risk: where possible outcomes are known and relative probabilities of
each consequence can be calculated (or a combination of magnitude and
probability)
– Uncertainty: when possibilities are known but no theoretical basis for
assigning probabilities (does not mean probabilities are small!)
– Ignorance: when you don’t know what you don’t know: some possible
outcomes and probabilities unclear. Potential for surprises.
Risk-benefit analysis: Comparison of risk of particular outcome to benefits to
be gained from not regulating/restricting
Genomic research: risk & uncertainty – has led some to advocate
precautionary principle – where magnitude of possible harm is
significant, but there’s uncertainty about likelihood of it happening

14. PP can be formulated in different
ways
1. The Ministers accept the Precautionary Principle, “especially where there
is reason to assume that certain damage or harmful effects on the living
resources of the sea are likely to be caused by such (persistent, toxic,
bioaccumulative) substances, even where there is no scientific evidence
to prove a causal link between emissions and effects (the principle of
precautionary action)” (2nd Conference on the North Sea, 1987)
2. “Noting also that where there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of
biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a
reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such a threat…”
(Preamble to the Convention on Biological Diversity)
3. “Where an activity raises threats of harm to the environment or human
health, precautionary measures should be taken even if some cause and
effect relationships are not fully established scientifically. In this context
the proponent of an activity, rather than the public, bears the burden of
proof.” (Wingspread Statement 1998)

15. United Nations’ Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development:
“In order to protect the environment,
the precautionary approach shall be
widely applied by States according to
their capabilities. Where there are
threats of serious or irreversible
damage, lack of full scientific certainty
shall not be used as a reason for
postponing cost-effective measures to
prevent environmental degradation
[179].”

16. PP: variations and problems
• Variations in formulation concern (a)
how much plausible evidence of
harm is needed (b) how serious the
harm has to be (magnitude) and (c)
how far the costs of precaution are
taken into account
• Objections to PP: there are threats
(in many cases) from failing to act
(being precautionary) as well as
acting, in terms of significant lost
benefits; anti-technology; our risk
perception is poor
• Precautionary principle important in
EU in debate about GM crops.