Environment analysis

Course title: Environment Analysis
Course Title:
Course no: 3107
.
Submitted to,
Abu Hasan
Lecturer
Dept of geography and
environment
Jagannath University
Dhaka
Submitted by,
Dhananjoy Dey
Roll:117607
Sec:20101-2011
6th
batch
3rd
semester 1st
year
Dept of geography and
environment
Jagannath University
Dhaka

About Environment
The environment is the sum total of human surroundings consisting ofthe atmosphere,
the hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the biota. Human beings are totally dependent on
the environment for life itself. The atmosphere provides us with the air we breathe, the
hydrosphere provides the water we drink and the soil of the lithosphere provides us with
the vegetables that we eat. In addition, the environment provides us with the raw
materials to fulfill our other needs: the construction of housing, the production of the
numerous consumer goods, etc. In view of these important functions it is imperative that
we maintain the environment in as pristine a state as is possible. Fouling of the
environment by the products of our industrial society (i.e. pollution) can have many
harmful consequences, damage to human health being of greatest concern. In addition
to the outdoor environment, increasing concern is being expressed about the exposure
of individuals to harmful pollutants within the indoor environment, both at home and at
work. Levels of harmful pollutants can often be higher indoors than outdoors, and this is
especially true of the workplace where workers can be exposed to fairly high levels of
toxic substances. Occupational health, occupational medicine, and industrial hygiene
are subjects that deal with exposure at the workplace. Pollution is mainly, although not
exclusively, chemical in nature. The job of the environmental analyst is therefore of
great importance to society. Ultimately, it is the environmental analyst who keeps us
informed about the quality of our environment and alerts us to any major pollution
incidents which may warrant our concern and response.
Fig:Interactions between component parts of the biosphere

Biogeochemical Cycles
The different components of the biosphere and their interactions are illustrated in Figure 1.1.
The biosphere is that part of the environment where life exists. It consists of the hydrosphere
(oceans, rivers, lakes), the lower part of the atmosphere, the upper layer of the lithosphere (soil)
and all life forms. The concept of the biosphere was first introduced by the Russian scientist
Vladimir Vernadsky (1 863-1 945) as the “sphere of living organisms distribution”. Vernadsky
was among the first to recognise the important role played by living organisms in various
interactions within the biosphere, and he established the first-ever biogeochemical laboratory
specifically dedicated to the study of these interactions. He expounded his theories in an aptly
entitled book, “Biosphere”, published in 1926
Environmental Pollution
Pollution is commonly defined as the addition of a substance by human
activity to the environment which can cause injury to human health or
damage to natural ecosystems. This definition excludes “natural pollution”,
although natural processes can also release harmful substances
into the environment. There are different categories of pollution:
chemical, physical, radioactive, biological and aesthetic. This book is
concerned primarily with chemical pollutants and their determination in
environmental matrices.
Aim of analysis
The purpose of environmental analysis is two-fold:
To determine the background, natural, concentrations of chemical constituents in
the environment (background monitoring)
To determine the concentration of harmful pollutants in the environment (pollution
monitoring)
Background monitoring is useful in studies of general environmental
processes, and for establishing concentrations against which any pollution
effects could be assessed. It is, however, a fact that pollution has now
affected even the most remote areas of the globe, and true background
levels of many substances are becoming increasingly difficult to determine.
The objectives of pollution monitoring are:
 To identify potential threats to human health and natural ecosystems.
 To determine compliance with national and international standards.
 To inform the public about the quality of the environment and raise
wareness about environmental issues.
 To develop and validate computer models which simulate environmental
processes and are extensively used as environmental management tools.
 To provide inputs to policy making decisions (land-use planning ,traffic, etc.).
 To assess the efficacy of pollution control measures
 To investigate trends in pollution and identify future problems

Environmental analysis is often used in environmental impact assessment
(EIA) studies. These studies are carried out before any major
industrial development is given a go-ahead by the authorities and their
aim is to assess any potential impacts of the development on environmental
quality. As part of EIA it is often necessary to establish the
baseline concentrations of various substances at the proposed site so that
potential impacts may be assessed
Types of Analysis
The chemical substance being determined in a sample is called an analyte (i.e.
element, ion, compound). Samples are “analyzed” whereas analytes
are “determined”. We can broadly define two categories of chemical
analysis:
Qualitative analysis - concerned with the identification (i.e. determining the nature) of a
chemical substance.
Quantitative analysis - concerned with the quantlJication (i.e.determining the amount) of
a chemical substance.
The former answers the question: “Which substance is present?” while the latter
answers the question: “How much is present?”. Results of quantitative analysis are
generally expressed in terms of concentration. Concentration is the quantity of analyte
(in grams or moles) per unit analysis involves the determination of organic compounds.
Quantitative analysis may be classified according to the following
categories:
Complete analysis - each and every constituent of the sample is determined.
Ultimate analysis - each and every element in the sample is determined without regard
to the compounds present
Partial analysis - the amount of one or several, but not all, constituents in a sample is
determined.
Stages of Analysis
Both industry and government operate laboratories dedicated to environmental
analysis. Furthermore, environmental analysis is performed by commercial analytical
laboratories, serving smaller industries that find it more cost effective to sub-contract out
analytical work rather than to invest in their own laboratories, and by universities and
institutes that carry out research into environmental chemistry and pollution. Hence,
there is a wide range of employment options available for trained environmental
chemists. An environmental analyst should be proficient at carrying out all the different
stages of an analysis given below:

Concepts of Environmental Analysis
Environmental analysis is the use of analytical chemistry and other techniques to study
the environment. The purpose of this is commonly to monitor and study levels of
pollutants in the atmosphere, rivers and other specific settings.
In other words the analysis of the context of instructional systems, both the physical and
use aspects of the instructional products is termed as Environmental Analysis. It is a
phenomenological approach to instructional design in that it seeks to describe the
project 'as it is' in the real world, how it relates to the system(s) into which it will be
embedded. It is a profile of where instruction occurs, who uses it, how it is used and
how it will be sustained.
Environmental Chemistry
Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical
phenomena that occur in natural places. It should not be confused with green chemistry,
which seeks to reduce potential pollution at its source. It can be defined as the study of
the sources, reactions, transport, effects, and fates of chemical species in the air, soil,
and water environments; and the effect of human activity on these. Environmental
chemistry is an interdisciplinary science that includes atmospheric, aquatic and soil
chemistry, as well as heavily relying on analytical chemistry and being related to
environmental and other areas of science.
Environmental chemistry involves first understanding how the uncontaminated
environment works, which chemicals in what concentrations are present naturally, and
with what effects. Without this it would be impossible to accurately study the effects
humans have on the environment through the release of chemicals.
Environmental chemists draw on a range of concepts from chemistry and various
environmental sciences to assist in their study of what is happening to a chemical
species in the environment. Important general concepts from chemistry include
understanding chemical reactions and equations, solutions, units, sampling, and
analytical techniques.
Green Chemistry
Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is a philosophy of chemical
research and engineering that encourages the design of products and processes that
minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances. Whereas environmental
chemistry is the chemistry of the natural environment, and of pollutant chemicals in
nature, green chemistry seeks to reduce and prevent pollution at its source. In 1990 the
Pollution Prevention Act was passed in the United States. This act helped create a
modus operandi for dealing with pollution in an original and innovative way. It aims to

avoid problems before they happen.
As a chemical philosophy, green chemistry applies to organic chemistry, inorganic
chemistry, biochemistry, analytical chemistry, and even physical chemistry. While green
chemistry seems to focus on industrial applications, it does apply to any chemistry
choice. Chemistry is often cited as a style of chemical synthesis that is consistent with
the goals of green chemistry. The focus is on minimizing the hazard and maximizing the
efficiency of any chemical choice. It is distinct from environmental chemistry which
focuses on chemical phenomena in the environment.
Environment in a Post-Disaster Context
The cause-effect relationship between environmental degradation, poverty and
disasters is complex and has been the subject of many analyses. All signs, however,
show that the number of environment-related disasters is currently on the increase, with
flooding expected to be among the highest of future predictions. As the many
ramifications of a changing global climate also become more apparent, it must be
expected that certain zones which to date may not have experienced serious impacts of
natural disasters may in future become more vulnerable to such events.
Predicting natural disasters is a growing area of research. The scale of human suffering
however in post disaster situations is rarely considered ahead of a disaster occurring. In
some cases, this places an immediate extra burden on perhaps already damaged or
degraded environmental services for the provision of emergency shelter, water or waste
provisioning. In almost every disaster situation, however, there are some forms of
environmental impact, some of which in turn may have additional secondary negative
implications for the already affected communities. Understanding the dynamics between
a disaster, its environmental (as well as social and economic) impacts, the needs of the
community and implications for the early recovery process is therefore a vital need.
Table 1 shows some of the recurrent environment-related consequences associated
with recent disasters

Table 1. Common and Recurrent Natural Disasters and some Environment-related
Consequences
Type of
Disaster
Associated Environmental Impact
Hurricane/Typhoon
/ Cyclone Loss of vegetation cover and wildlife habitat
-term heavy rains and flooding inland
mechanisms
infrastructure (e.g. deforestation, quarrying waste pollution)
Tsunami
Ground water pollution through sewage overflow
reservoirs
cial deposition of sediment on
beaches/small islands
ss of crops and seed banks
– additional waste disposal sites required
infrastructure (e.g. deforestation, quarrying, waste pollution)

Earthquake Loss of productive systems, e.g. agriculture
dam infrastructure weakened or
destroyed
– additional waste disposal sites required
infrastructure as a possible secondary environmental
threat, e.g. leakage from fuel storage facilities
Flood
Ground water pollution through sewage overflow
fish stocks
Volcanic Eruption
Loss of productive landscape and crops being buried by ash and
pumice
Secondary flooding should rivers or valleys be blocked by lava flow
threat, e.g. leakage from fuel storage facilities Impacts associated
with reconstruction and repair to damaged infrastructure (e.g.
deforestation, quarrying, waste pollution)
Landslide
Damaged infrastructure as a possible secondary environmental
threat, e.g. leakage from fuel storage facilities Secondary impacts by
temporarily displaced people
Drought
Loss of surface vegetation.
oductive systems.

Epidemic
Loss of biodiversity
Forest Fires
Loss of forest and wildlife habitat
Sand Storms
Loss of productive agricultural land
At the same time, however, there are a number of humanitarian- and relief-related
activities that are commonly undertaken during the early recovery phase which may
themselves have an impact on the state of the environment. Specific attention needs to
be given to these – many of which are cross-cutting activities from other related clusters
– among which are:
-extraction of ground water aquifers;
-intensive systems such as desalination plants;
of sites for temporary shelter and site planning.
Selecting Environmental Challenges for Analysis: in
View of Bangladesh

The Country Environmental Analysis (CEA) is intended to assist the Government, civil
society and development partners of Bangladesh in identifying and addressing critical
environmental constraints to sustainable, poverty-reducing growth. The initial set of
issues chosen for analysis is selected jointly by the Ministry of Environment and Forest
(MoEF) and the World Bank based on their relevance to growth and poverty reduction,
as well as a consideration of the value of new analysis. These criteria led to a focus on
five priority issues in the CEA, as follows:
;
These selected topics do not constitute an exhaustive list of environmental issues in
Bangladesh. Urban environmental degradation, for example, extends beyond Dhaka;
but with its population expected to grow fivefold in the next fifty years, the capital is
clearly a priority, and provides lessons relevant to other cities. Similarly, natural
resource concerns extend beyond the selected priorities of capture fisheries and soil
quality, with forest management a prominent pending issue, as is adaptation to climate
change.
An Eight Step Environmental Analysis
Process and its Associated Outputs
1. Identify the Project: Identify the purpose and need of the proposed action. Develop
a goal to provide a framework for EA.
2. Scoping: Identify the issues, opportunities, and effects of implementing the
proposed action.
3. Collect and Interpret Data: Collect data. Identify probable effects of project
implementation.
4. Design of the Alternatives: Consider a reasonable range of alternatives. Usually at
least three alternatives are considered. Include a No-Action Alternative. Consider the
mitigation of negative impacts.
5. Evaluate Effects: Predict and describe the physical, biological, economic, and
social effects of implementing each alternative. Address the three types of effects --
Direct, Indirect, and Cumulative.
6. Compare Alternatives: Measure the predicted effects of each alternative against
evaluation criteria.
7. Decision Notice and Public Review: Select preferred alternative. Allow for review
and comment by the affected and interested public.
8. Implementation and Monitoring: Record results. Implement selected alternative.
Develop a monitoring plan. Insure that EA mitigations are being followed

Implications of Environmental Analysis
Environmental Analysts have determined that the environmental resource areas listed
below will be analyzed in the Environmental Impact Report (EIR).The environmental
analysis incorporated herein identifies the environmental consequences of the proposed
alternatives on these resource areas, as well as the mitigation measures proposed to
address any adverse effects.
ty,
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Needs in Geography
By Knowing Environmental Analysis one can pursuing professional carriers in local,
regional or national planning agencies or organizations, engineering consulting firms,
GIS service providers, environmental companies, and other public or private
organizations. Students are able to earn a degree in Geography with specialization in
Environmental Analysis.
Environmental Geography

Environmental geography is the branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects
of interactions between humans and the natural world. It requires an understanding of
the dynamics of geology, meteorology, hydrology, biogeography, ecology, and
geomorphology, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the
environment. The links between cultural and physical geography were once more
readily apparent than they are today. As human experience of the world is increasingly
mediated by technology, the relationships have often become obscured.
Environmental geography represents a critically important set of analytical tools for
assessing the impact of human presence on the environment by measuring the result of
human activity on natural landforms and cycles. Environmental geography is one of
three branches of geography: environmental, physical and human. Environmental
geography concentrates on the relationship between human and the surrounding
world7.
Classical Methods for Environmental Analysis
Although modern analytical chemistry is dominated by sophisticated instrumentation,
the roots of analytical chemistry and some of the principles used in modern instruments
are from traditional techniques many of which are still used today. These techniques
also tend to form the backbone of most undergraduate analytical chemistry educational
labs.
Qualitative Analysis
A qualitative analysis determines the presence or absence of a particular compound,
but not the mass or concentration. That is, it is not related to quantity.
Chemical Tests
There are numerous qualitative chemical tests, for example, the acid test for gold and
the Kastle-Meyer test for the presence of blood.
naturally as they oxidize on their own in the air.Optionally, the swab can first be treated
with a drop of ethanol in order to lyse the cells present and gain increased sensitivity
and specificity. This test is nondestructive to the sample, which can be kept and used in
further tests at the lab; however, few labs would use the swab used for the Kastle-
Meyer test in any further testing, opting instead to use a fresh swab of the original stain.
Flame Test
Inorganic qualitative analysis generally refers to a systematic scheme to confirm the
presence of certain, usually aqueous, ions or elements by performing a series of
reactions that eliminate ranges of possibilities and then confirms suspected ions with a
confirming test. Sometimes small carbon containing ions are included in such schemes.
With modern instrumentation these tests are rarely used but can be useful for
educational purposes and in field work or other situations where accesses to state-of-
the-art instruments are not available or expedient.
Gravimetric Analysis
Gravimetric analysis involves determining the amount of material present by weighing
the sample before and/or after some transformation. A common example used in
undergraduate education is the determination of the amount of water in a hydrate by
heating the sample to remove the water such that the difference in weight is due to the
loss of water.
Volumetric Analysis

Titration involves the addition of a reactant to a solution being analyzed until some
equivalence point is reached. Often the amount of material in the solution being
analyzed may be determined. Most familiar to those who have taken college chemistry
is the acid-base titration involving a color changing indicator. There are many other
types of titrations, for example potentiometric titrations. These titrations may use
different types of indicators to reach some equivalence point.
Figure: Block diagram of an analytical instrument showing the stimulus and
measurement of response
Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy measures the interaction of the molecules with electromagnetic radiation.
Spectroscopy consists of many different applications such as atomic absorption
spectroscopy, atomic emission spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, x-ray
fluorescence spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, dual
polarisation interferometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, photoemission
spectroscopy, Mössbauer spectroscopy and so on.
Mass Spectrometry
Mass spectrometry measures mass-to-charge ratio of molecules using electric and
magnetic fields. There are several ionization methods: electron impact, chemical
ionization, electrospray, fast atom bombardment, matrix assisted laser desorption
ionization, and others. Also, mass spectrometry is categorized by approaches of mass
analyzers: magnetic-sector, quadrupole mass analyzer, quadrupole ion trap, time-of-
flight, Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance, and so on.

Electrochemical Analysis
Electro analytical methods measure the potential (volts) and/or current (amps) in an
electrochemical cell containing the analytic. These methods can be categorized
according to which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are measured. The three
main categories are potentiometric (the difference in electrode potentials is measured),
coulometry (the cell's current is measured over time), and voltammetry (the cell's
current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential).
Thermal Analysis
Calorimetric and thermo-gravimetric analysis measure the interaction of a material and
heat.
Separation
Separation processes are used to decrease the complexity of material mixtures.
Chromatography and electrophoresis are representative of this field.
Hybrid Techniques
Combinations of the above techniques produce a "hybrid" or "hyphenated" technique.
Several examples are in popular use today and new hybrid techniques are under
development. For example, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, gas
chromatography-infrared spectroscopy, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry,
liquid chromatography-NMR spectroscopy. liquid chromagraphy-infrared spectroscopy
and capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry.
Hyphenated separation techniques refers to a combination of two (or more) techniques
to detect and separate chemicals from solutions. Most often the other technique is some
form of chromatography. Hyphenated techniques are widely used in chemistry and
biochemistry. A slash is sometimes used instead of hyphen, especially if the name of
one of the methods contains a hyphen itself.
Microscopy
The visualization of single molecules, single cells, biological tissues and nanomaterial’s
is an important and attractive approach in analytical science. Also, hybridization with
other traditional analytical tools is revolutionizing analytical science. Microscopy can be
categorized into three different fields: optical microscopy, electron microscopy, and
scanning probe microscopy. Recently, this field is rapidly progressing because of the
rapid development of the computer and camera industries.
Some Sophisticated Instruments
There are a lot of instruments that directly or indirectly closely related with the
Environmental Analysis. In Physical Geography Laboratory includes different landform
models, rocks and minerals' testing equipment, particle measuring devices, arsenic

contamination testing tools, pollution measuring kits and pH meter etc. are some of
them.
The Environmental Sample Processor (ESP)
The Environmental sample processor is an automated molecular biology laboratory that
fits in pressure housing about the size of a garbage can. Floating in the open ocean or
moored in the deep sea, it can detect microbes and other tiny living organisms using
their DNA. It can also detect other biologically important compounds such as toxins
generated during harmful algal blooms.
Applications of ESP
The Laser Raman Spectrometer (LRS)
Raman spectroscopy is a useful technique for the identification of a wide range of
substances - solids, liquids, and gases. It is a straightforward, non-destructive technique
requiring no sample preparation. Raman spectroscopy involves illuminating a sample
with monochromatic light and using a spectrometer to examine light scattered by the
sample. By shining a specially tuned laser beam on almost any object or substance--
solid, liquid, or gas--a laser Raman spectrometer allows scientists to determine the
subject's chemical composition and molecular structure.
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that images
the sample surface by scanning it with a high-energy beam of electrons in a raster scan
pattern. The electrons interact with the atoms that make up the sample producing
signals that contain information about the sample's surface topography, composition
and other properties such as electrical conductivity.
The types of signals produced by an SEM include secondary electrons, back-scattered
electrons (BSE), characteristic X-rays, light (cathodoluminescence), specimen current
and transmitted electrons. Secondary electron detectors are common in all SEMs, but it
is rare that a single machine would have detectors for all possible signals. The signals
result from interactions of the electron beam with atoms at or near the surface of the
sample. In the most common or standard detection mode, secondary electron imaging
or SEI, the SEM can produce very high-resolution images of a sample surface,
revealing details about less than 1 to 5 nm in size. Due to the very narrow electron
beam, SEM micrographs have a large depth of field yielding a characteristic three-
dimensional appearance useful for understanding the surface structure of a sample.
A wide range of magnifications is possible, from about 10 times (about equivalent to that
of a powerful hand-lens) to more than 500,000 times, about 250 times the magnification
limit of the best light microscopes.

Figure: Schematic diagram of Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).
Back-scattered electrons (BSE) are beam electrons that are reflected from the sample
by elastic scattering. BSE are often used in analytical SEM along with the spectra made
from the characteristic X-rays. Because the intensity of the BSE signal is strongly
related to the atomic number (Z) of the specimen, BSE images can provide information
about the distribution of different elements in the sample. For the same reason, BSE
imaging can image colloidal gold immuno-labels of 5 or 10 nm diameter which would
otherwise be difficult or impossible to detect in secondary electron images in biological
specimens. Characteristic X-rays are emitted when the electron beam removes an inner
shell electron from the sample, causing a higher energy electron to fill the shell and
release energy. These characteristic X-rays are used to identify the composition and
measure the abundance of elements in the sample.
Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM)
The environmental scanning electron microscope or ESEM is a scanning electron
microscope (SEM) that allows for the option of collecting electron micrographs of

specimens that are "wet," uncoated, or both by allowing for a gaseous environment in
the specimen chamber.
Although there were earlier successes at viewing wet specimens in internal chambers in
modified SEMs, the ESEM with its specialized electron detectors (rather than the
standard Everhart-Thornley detector) and its differential pumping systems to allow for
the transfer of the electron beam from the high vacuums in the gun area to the high
pressures attainable in its specimen chamber make it a complete and unique instrument
designed for the purpose of imaging specimens in their natural state.
Applications of ESEM
Some representative applications of ESEM are in the following areas:
i) Biology
An early application involved the examination of fresh and living plant material including
a study of Leptospermum flavescens. The advantages of ESEM in studies of
microorganisms and a comparison of preparation techniques have been demonstrated.
ii) Medicine and medical
iii) Archaeology
In conservation science, it is often necessary to preserve the specimens intact or in their
natural state.
iv) Industry
ESEM studies have been performed on fibers in the wool industry with and without
particular chemical and mechanical treatments. In cement industry, it is important to
examine various processes in situ in the wet and dry state.
v) In-situ studies
Studies in-situ can be performed with the aid of various ancillary devices. These have
involved hot stages to observe processes at elevated temperatures, microinjectors of
liquids and specimen extension or deformation devices.
vi) General materials science
Biofilms can be studied without the artifacts introduced during SEM preparation, as well
as dentin and detergents have been investigated since the early years of ESEM.
Microscope Spectrometer
Microscope Spectrometers are designed to measure UV-visible-NIR spectra of
microscopic samples or microscopic areas of larger objects. There are two basic types:
the fully integrated microspectrometer that has been built and optimized for micro
spectrometry. There is also the spectrometer unit designed to attach to an open photo
port of an optical microscope. Each has its strengths and depending upon the
configuration, both are capable of measuring the spectra of microscopic samples by
transmission, absorbance, reflectance, fluorescence, emission and polarization
spectrometry. With special software, both are capable of thin film thickness
measurements and colorimetry as well

Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
(AAS)
Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) is a spectroanalytical procedure for the
qualitative and quantitative determination of chemical elements employing the
absorption of optical radiation (light) by free atoms in the gaseous state. In analytical
chemistry the technique is used for determining the concentration of a particular
element (the analyte) in a sample to be analyzed. AAS can be used to determine over
70 different elements in solution or directly in solid samples. Atomic absorption
spectrometry was first used as an analytical technique, and the underlying principles
were established in the second half of the 19th century by Robert Wilhelm Bunsen and
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, both professors at the University of Heidelberg, Germany. The
modern form of AAS was largely developed during the 1950s by a team of Australian
Chemists. They were led by Sir Alan Walsh at the CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific
and Industrial Research Organization), Division of Chemical Physics, in Melbourne,
Australia.
Application of AAS
Determination of even small amounts of metals (lead, mercury, calcium, magnesium,
etc) as follows:
Environmental studies: drinking water, ocean water, soil; Food industry;
Pharmaceutical industry; Biomaterials: blood, saliva, tissue;
Forensics: gunpowder residue, hit and run accidents;
Geology: rocks, fossils.
Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry (ICPS)
Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry (ICPS), a method capable of providing fast
multielement measurement of around 75 chemical elements in one sample solution,
over concentration range varying from percent to Ultra trace.
Electro analytical Methods
Several sampling techniques for air, water and soil analysis are described, together with
many applications. The coverage of ion-selective electrodes is included in Electro
analytical methods. The techniques are grouped according to the measured parameter
in three classes: potentiometer, aerometry and conductivity. While in the first category
several common types of ion-selective electrodes (including pH electrodes).In the
second the discussion is focused on polarography, anodic and catholic stripping
voltammetry and their applications to the detection of metals, sulfur and dissolved
oxygen. Finally, a brief presentation of conductivity measurements closes this chapter.
Automated methods for chemical analysis

Continuous-Flow, Flow-Injection and discrete analysis, the importance of automated
methods for chemical analysis, especially for direct monitoring, where data are needed
in real time, is stressed out. The theoretical principles and practical systems for each
technique are presented, pointing the advantages of flow-injection and discrete analysis
over segmented continuous flow systems. In the final section, various examples
illustrate the importance of these methods in soil analysis.
Ion Chromatography (IC)
Ion Chromatography (IC), a very popular technique for accurate and precise
determination of anions and cations in various environmental materials, including soils.
The principle of IC methods and an evaluation of these instruments for soil, plant and
water analysis were reviewed and applications are described. The potential that IC
offers, particularly for the simultaneous analysis of several anions, justify the future use
of this technique in environmental analysis.
CHNS analyzers
CHNS elemental analyzers provide a means for the rapid determination of carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur in organic matrices and other types of materials. They
are capable of handling a wide variety of sample types, including solids, liquids, volatile
and viscous samples, in the fields of pharmaceuticals, polymers, chemicals,
environment, food and energy.
Principle of Operation of CHNS Analyzers
The sample weighed in milligrams housed in a tin capsule is dropped into a quartz tube
at 1020°C with constant helium flow (carrier gas). A few seconds before the sample
drops into the combustion tube, the stream is enriched with a measured amount of high
purity oxygen to achieve a strong oxidizing environment which guarantees almost
complete combustion/oxidation even of thermally resistant substances. The combustion
gas mixture is driven through an oxidation catalyst (WO3) zone, then through a
subsequent copper zone which reduces nitrogen oxides and sulphuric anhydride (SO3)
eventually formed during combustion on catalyst reduction to elemental nitrogen and
sulphurous anhydride (SO2) and retains the oxygen excess. The resulting four
components of the combustion mixture are detected by a Thermal Conductivity detector
in the sequence N2, CO2, H2O and SO2. In case of oxygen which is analyzed
separately, the sample undergoes immediate pyrolysis in a Helium stream which
ensures quantitative conversion of organic oxygen into carbon monoxide separated on
a GC column packed with molecular sieves.
Gas chromatography (GC)
Gas chromatography (GC), is a common type of chromatography used in analytic
chemistry for separating and analyzing compounds that can be vaporized without
decomposition. Typical uses of GC include testing the purity of a particular substance,
or separating the different components of a mixture. In some situations; GC may help in
identifying a compound. In preparative chromatography, GC can be used to prepare
pure compounds from a mixture.
In gas chromatography, the moving phase (or "mobile phase") is a carrier gas, usually
an inert gas such as helium or an unreactive gas such as nitrogen. The stationary
phase is a microscopic layer of liquid or polymer on an inert solid support, inside a piece
of glass or metal tubing called a column (a homage to the fractionating column used in
distillation). The instrument used to perform gas chromatography is called a gas

chromatograph (or "aerograph", "gas separator"). The gaseous compounds being
analyzed interact with the walls of the column, which is coated with different stationary
phases. This causes each compound to elute at a different time, known as the retention
time of the compound. The comparison of retention times is what gives GC its analytical
usefulness.
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique which is used to obtain an
infrared spectrum of absorption, emission, photoconductivity or Raman scattering of a
solid, liquid or gas. An FTIR spectrometer simultaneously collects spectral data in a
wide spectral range. This confers a significant advantage over a dispersive
spectrometer which measures intensity over a narrow range of wavelengths at a time.
FTIR technique has made dispersive infrared spectrometers all but obsolete (except
sometimes in the near infrared) and opened up new applications of infrared
spectroscopy. The term Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy originates from the fact
that a Fourier transform (a mathematical algorithm) is required to convert the raw data
into the actual spectrum.
Concentration
Concentration is the measure of how much of a given substance there is mixed with
another substance. This can apply to any sort of chemical mixture, but most frequently
the concept is limited to homogeneous solutions, where it refers to the amount of solute
in the solvent. To concentrate a solution, one must add more solute (e.g. NaCl), or
reduce the amount of solvent (e.g. water). By contrast, to dilute a solution, one must
add more solvent, or reduce the amount of solute 19.
Expression of Concentration
1. Molarity (M)
Molarity is probably the most commonly used unit of concentration. It is the number of
moles of solute per liter of solution at constant temperature.
2. Molality (m)
Molality is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. Because the density of
water at 25°C is about 1 kilogram per liter, Molality is approximately equal to Molarity for
dilute aqueous solutions at this temperature. These is a useful approximation, but
remember that it is only an approximation and doesn't apply when the solution is at a
different temperature, isn't dilute, or uses a solvent other than water.
3. Normality (N)

Normality is equal to the gram equivalent weight of a solute per liter of solution. A gram
equivalent weight or equivalent is a measure of the reactive capacity of a given
molecule. Normality is the only concentration unit that is reaction dependent.
Dilutions Dilute
a solution whenever adding solvent to a solution. Adding solvent results in a solution of
lower concentration. One can calculate the concentration of a solution following a
dilution by applying this equation: MiVi = MfVf
where M is molarity, V is volume, and the subscripts i and f refer to the initial and final
values
Units of Measure Concentrations in Soil
Concentrations of chemicals in Soil are typically measured in units of the mass of
chemical (g or μg), per mass of soil (Kg). This is written as mg/Kg or μg/Kg. Sometimes
concentrations in soil are reported as parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb).
Parts per million and parts per billion may be converted from one to other using this
relationship: 1 part per million = 1,000 parts per billion.
For Soil, 1ppm= 1mg/Kg of contaminated Soil. And 1 ppb= 1μg/Kg
Concentrations in Water
Concentrations of chemicals in water are typically measured of the mass of chemical
(mg or μg) per volume of water (L or mL). Concentrations in water can also be
expressed as ppm or ppb.
For Water, 1 ppm= 1mg/L or μg/mL, 1 ppb= or 1μg/L or ng/mL Occasionally,
concentration of chemicals may be expressed as grams per cubic meter (g/m3). This is
same as grams per 1000 Liters, which may be converted to mg/L. Therefore, 1 g/m3 = 1
mg/L = 1 ppm. Likewise, one mg/m3 is equal to one micro gram /L (μg/L) which is 1
ppb.
Concentrations in Air
Concentrations of chemicals in air are typically measured in units of the mass of
chemical (mg, μg, ng, or pg) per volume of air (Cubic meter). However, concentrations
may also be expressed as ppm or ppb using a conversion factor.
The conversion factor is based on the molecular weight of the chemical and is different
for each chemical. Also atmospheric temperature and pressure affect the calculation.
Typically, conversions for chemicals in air are made assuming a pressure of 1
atmosphere of 25oC.
For these conditions, the equation to convert from concentration.
1. ppm to concentration in mg/m3 is as follows
2. To convert from mg/m3 to ppm, the equation is:
x concentration (mg/m3) ÷ Molecular weight
3 The same equations may be used to convert μg/m3 to ppb and vice versa.
tion (μg/m3) ÷ Molecular weight

Reference
Practical Environmental Analysis(Radojevic bashkin)
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