English notes

1. COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH LANGUAGE SKILLS II
FLEN 1011

2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
A. Active Voice:
 When the subject of the verb is doing the action of the verb
(e.g., The dog bit the police.), the verb is said to be Active
Voice.
B. Passive Voice:
 When the subject of the verb is being acted upon (e.g., The
police was bitten.), the verb is said to be Passive Voice.
 Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action than on
the doer of the action.
a. My bike was stolen.
b. The police was murdered.
c. All the money has been stolen.
d. The thief is chased.

3. Contd….
Basic Rules
1. A sentence can be separated into subject, verb and object.
2. The object of a active voice must be turned into subject.
3. Identify the type of the tense that you have given.
4. The 'be' form must be used according to the tense of the verb:
a. Is, am and are = used with present tense
b. Was and were = used with past tense
c. Being = used with continuous tenses
d. Been = used with perfect tenses
e. Be = used with future tense
5. Past participle of the verb must be used.
6. Preposition “by” is added, but sometimes optional.
7. The subject of active voice is changed into object (optional).

4. Contd….
 The following table shows the structure of tenses in Active
and Passive Voices:
Tenses Active Voice Form Passive Voice Form
Simple Present S + V1 S + am/is/are + V3
Present Cont. S + am/is/are/ + - ing S + am/is/are + being + V3
Present Perfect S + has/have + V3 S + has/have + been + V3
Simple Past S + V2 S + was/were + V3
Past Cont. S + was/were + -ing S + was/were + being + V3
Past Perfect S + had + V3 S + had + been + V3
Simple Future S + will/shall + V1 S + will + be + V3
Future Cont. S + will/shall + be + -ing S + will + be + being + V3
Future Perfect S + will/shall + have + V3 S + will + have + been + V3

5. Contd….
Tenses Active Voice Form Passive Voice Form
Simple Conditional S + would/should + V1 S + would/should + be
+ V3
Perfect Conditional S + would + have + V3 S + would + have +
been + V3
Other Forms/Structure
Be going to S + am/is/are + going
to + V1
S + am/is/are + going
to + be + V3
Have to S + have to + V1 S + has/have + to be +
V3
Used to S + used to + V1 S + used to + be + V3
With Gerund S + V1 + -ing S + V1 + being + V3
Don’t mind S + don’t mind + -ing S + don’t/doesn’t mind
+ being + V3

6. Contd….
Study the examples given in the following table.
Tenses Active Voice Passive Voice
Simple Present He washes the car. The car is washed.
Present Cont. He is washing the car. The car is being washed.
Present
Perfect
He has washed the car. The car has been washed.
Simple Past He washed the car. The car was washed.
Past Cont. He was washing the car. The car was being washed.
Past Perfect He had washed the car. The car had been washed.
Simple Future He will wash the car. The will be washed.
Future Cont. He will be washing the car. The will be being washed.
Future Perfect He will have washed the car.
The car will have been
washed.

7. Contd….
Tenses Active Voice Passive Voice
Simple Conditional He would wash the car.
The car would be
washed.
Perfect Conditional
He would have washed the
car.
The car would have
been washed.
Other Forms/Structure
Be going to He is going to wash the car.
The car is going to be
washed.
Have to I have to wash the car.
The car has to be
washed.
Used to I used to wash the car.
The car used to be
washed.
With Gerund I avoid seeing him. He avoids being seen.
Don’t mind I don’t mind teaching her.
She doesn’t mind being
taught.

8. Contd….
 Sentences which cannot be changed into Passive Voice
1. Perfect Progressive Tenses
 The following tenses cannot be changed into passive voice:
1. Present Perfect Continuous Tense
2. Past Perfect Continuous Tense and
3. Future Perfect Continuous Tense
2. Intransitive Verbs
 Intransitive verbs don’t take an object in a sentence to give
complete meaning. Some of these verbs are:
 Appear, arrive, become, come, sleep, go, happen, occur, rain,
stay, walk, run, fit, have, resemble, suit and weigh.
a. He has gone.
b. She is sleeping.

9. Contd….
 Modal Verbs with Passive Voice
 Passive Form:
1. Modal Verbs + be + V3
2. Perfect Modals + been + V3
Modals Active Voice Passive Voice
Can She can buy the car. The car can be bought.
May He may buy the car. The car may be bought.
Must They must buy the car. The car must be bought.
Might They might buy the car. The car might be bought.
Must have She must have bought the car. The car must have been bought.
May have She may have bought the car. The car may have been bought.
Should have You should have bought the car. The car should have been bought.
Ought to have You ought to have bought the car. The car ought to have been bought.

10. Contd….
 Imperative Sentences with Passive
 A sentence that expresses a command, request, and an advice is
called an Imperative Sentence.
1. The structure of such sentences in Passive Voice is:
 Let + object + be/not + V3
2. Request, command, and advice in Passive Voice:
 You are requested to/You ordered to/ You are told to/ You
are asked to…. + V1 + object
3. Words like kindly and please are dropped.
a. Shut the door. Let the door be shut.
b. Post this letter. Let this letter be posted.
c. Stand up. You are ordered to stand up.
d. Please, post this letter. You are requested to post this letter.
e. Work hard. You are advised to work hard.

11. Contd….
Infinitive Verbs with Passive Voice
1. Active Forms: S + to + V1
2. Passive Forms: S + V1 + object + to + be + V3
a. I want to buy this book. I want this book to be bought.
b. I want to write this letter. I want this letter to be written.
c. They have no money to spend. They have no money to be
spent.
d. I have letters to write. I have letters to be written.

12. TALKING ABOUT FUTURE
1. BE GOING TO
 Form:
i. Statement: Subject + am/is/are + going to + V1
ii. Negative: Subject + am/is/are + not + going to + V1
 Examples
a. I am going to do my homework this evening.
b. She is going to have a party for her roommate’s birthday
this weekend.
c. They are not going to watch movies tonight.
d. Who is going to make the food?

13. Contd….
Function:
 To talk about plans or something we have already decided to do.
Our intention is to do it.
a. I am going to buy some books tomorrow.
b. Sara is going to sell her car.
c. What are you going to wear to the wedding next week?
d. I am going to have lunch with my brother today.
 To talk about predictions based on current circumstances.
a. Look at the sky! It is going to rain.
b. Be careful! You are going to spill your tea.
 To talk about intentions and ambitions in the future.
a. She is going to be a doctor some day. Ambition
b. Are you going to clean your room? Intention

14. Contd….
2. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
Function:
 To talk about actions or events that are part of a fixed schedule.
a. The train arrives at 5:00 in the morning.
b. Academic activities don’t begin until September.
c. The movie starts at 9:00 in the evening , and ends at 10:45.
d. Does Abdi’s plane arrives soon?
 To talk about timetables, progammes, trains, buses,….
a. The bus arrives at 7:20.
b. What time does the film finish?
c. What time does your train leaves?

15. Contd….
3. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Function:
To talk about future arrangements or actions that we have
already arranged or planned for in the future.
a. She is having a party next week.
b. Are you meeting your friends tonight?
c. We are flying to London tomorrow morning.
d. He is meeting the president tomorrow afternoon.
NB1: In this case, time expressions like on Monday,
tonight, next week,… should be used.
NB2: Verbs “go” and “come” often used with present
continuous tense.
a. We are going camping on Sunday, and we are
coming back on Monday evening.
b. I am going Paris.

16. Contd….
4. SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE
Function:
To talk about instant decisions, something we decided to do
at the moment of speaking.
a. A: Oh no! I have spilled some coffee on the rug.
B: Don’t worry. I will clean it up for you.
a. Will you have coffee or tea?
b. It is cold. I will not go outside.
 To talk about future facts.
a. He will be 28 next month.
b. The sun will rise again tomorrow.
 To make promise.
a. I will pay you back tomorrow.
b. We will not forget Mom’s birthday.

17. Contd…
With Verbs like think, believe, and expect; Adverbs like
probably, perhaps, maybe, and certainly; And expressions
like I am sure and I am afraid, we usually use simple
future tense.
a. They will probably get here late.
b. I am sure he will be there.
c. I think we will pass the exam.
 “Shall” can be used in place of “will” with pronouns
“I” and “We” to express future time.
a. I shall be late tomorrow. Or I will be late tomorrow.
b. I think we shall win. Or I think we will win.

18. Contd….
5. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
Form:
 Subject + shall/will + be + -ing
Function:
 To express future action in progress in future
a. He will be travelling all the morning tomorrow.
b. We will be having an English lesson next week.
c. I shall be sitting in the train tomorrow at this time.
 To indicate that a longer action in the future will be
interrupted by a shorter action in the future. The interrupted
action is expressed in simple present tense.
a. He will be watching TV when she arrives tonight.
b. I will be waiting for you when your bus arrives.

19. Contd….
 To talk about an event that will be in progress at a specified time
in the future.
 In this case phrases like At this time tomorrow, This time next
week, By 4 o’clock tomorrow, By this month next year, Next year
at this time tomorrow, and etc. usually used.
 When + present simple Or By the time + present simple.
a. This time next week, I will be driving to Addis Ababa.
b. At this time tomorrow, I will be walking on a sandy beach.
c. When you arrive, I will be playing football.
d. By the time I get home, you will be having a bath.
 To guess about something that is in progress at the moment.
a. Don’t phone John now, he will be having a dinner.
b. Oh no, I forgot about the dinner! It will be burning, I know it.

20. Contd….
6. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
Form:
Subject + shall/will + have + Past Participle (V3)
Function:
 To indicate completion of action before a given time in the future.
a. By April next year, he shall have finished his project.
b. My father will have arrived by the time I return home.
c. By March next year, they will have completed this bridge.
 To express the idea that something will occur before another
action in the future.
a. By next September, she will have received her promotion.
b. By the time she finishes this course, I will have taken five tests.

21. Contd….
7. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Form:
Subject + shall/will + have + been + -ing
Function:
 To show something will continue up until a specific event or
time in the future usually with time expressions like for ten
minutes, for three weeks, since Monday, for ten years, for more
than a year, for an hour, and etc.
a. She will have been talking for over two hours by the time
he arrives.
b. I will have been working here for three years by September
next year.
c. How long will he have been studying when he graduates?
d. He will have been working for eight hours by the time his
mother arrives.

22. MODAL VERBS
Definition
Modal verbs are those helping verbs, which express the
‘mode’ or ‘manner’ of the actions indicated by the main
verbs.
They express modes such as ability, possibility,
probability, permission, obligation, etc.
The most commonly used modal verbs s are shall, should,
will, would, can, could, may, might, must, ought to, used
to, need to.

23. Contd….
FORM:
I. Affirmative Statements: Subject + Modal + Verb
You should see a doctor about the cough.
II. Negative Statements: Subject + Modal + Not + Verb
They can't speak Chinese very well.
III. Yes/No Questions: Modal + Subject + Verb
IV. Short Answers: Yes/No + Pronoun + Modal (+ Not)
Could you swim when you were five? Yes, I could. /
No, I couldn't.
V. Wh-Questions: Wh-word + Modal + Subject + Verb
When should the children eat their dinner?

24. Contd….
1. Modals to Express Ability:
 Can, could, and be able to
 We use can to talk about ability in the present and future.
a. Sara can speak English, but she can't speak Chinese.
b. I can play the guitar. My brother can play the guitar too.
c. When John comes home, he can help you with your
homework.
 We use could to talk about ability in the past.
a. I could swim when I was four years old.
b. I was tired last night, but I couldn't sleep.
 Be able to has the same meaning as can and could. But is not
used as often as can and could.
a. Are you able to drive? (present)
b. I was able to swim when I was four years old. (past)

25. Contd….
 When we talk about a future ability that we do not have in the
present, we use will be able to, not can.
a. He will be able to walk after his leg heals. Correct
b. He can walk after his leg heals. Incorrect
 Use be able to, not can, with some grammatical structures, such
as with another modal and in the perfect tenses.
 Example
a. We might be able to finish before the library closes. Correct
b. We might can finish before the library closes. Incorrect
c. We have been able to pass more difficult tests. Correct
d. We can have passed more difficult tests. Incorrect

26. Contd….
2. Modals to Express Obligation and Necessity
 Must, have to, and have got to
 In spoken English, have to is more common than must.
a. You have to take an English exam when you enroll at the
university.
b. You must take an English exam when you enroll at the
university.
 We use must when we write forms, signs, and notices.
a. The last person to leave the office must lock the door.
 Use must when the necessity to do something comes from the
speaker.
 Use have to when the necessity comes from outside the
speaker.
Teacher: You must give me all your essays by tomorrow.
Student to a friend: I have to write my essay by tomorrow.
(The teacher says so.)

27. Contd….
 Must usually shows urgent necessity.
a. We must get her to a doctor right away.
b. Visitors must sign in at reception.
 Have got to has the same meaning as have to, but we use it
mostly in informal spoken English.
 We use have got to in affirmative statements.
 We don't often use have got to in negative statements or
questions.
 And also, we don't use have got to in the past tense.
 Example
a. I have got to go now. Correct
b. I had got to go early last night. Incorrect
c. I had to go early last night. Correct

28. Contd….
3. Modals to Express Prohibition and Lack of
Necessity
Not have to and must not
Have to and must have, have similar meanings in the
affirmative sentences.
But in the negative, they have very different meanings.
We use not have to to show that something is not necessary.
There is another possibility or a choice.
 Example
a. You don't have to help me today. (It is not necessary. I
don't need your help today; you can help me another
day.)

29. Contd….
 We use must not to express prohibition.
 It means that something is not allowed or is against the law.
 There is no choice.
a. You must not drive over 60 miles an hour. (It's against the
law. You are not allowed to drive over 60 miles an hour.)
 We can use not have to in all tenses.
 But must not is used only to talk about the present and future.
 Example
a. You must not park in front of the doorway now /later.
(present or future)
b. I didn't have to take a driver's test when I moved to this
state. (past)
c. I won't have to renew my driver's license for another five
years. (future)

30. Contd….
4. Modals to Give Advice
 Should, ought to and had better
 We use should and ought to to ask for and give advice, to say what is
right or good in general, or to talk about obligation or duty.
a. You should learn to drive.
b. You ought to learn to drive.
 In general, we use should more than ought to; However, they express
similar meaning.
 We use had better to express strong recommendation in a specific
situation.
 Had better suggests a warning or a threat of bad consequences.
 It is stronger than should and ought to.
a. You had better leave now, or you will miss the flight.
b. You had better go. It’s getting late.
 We use should for questions.
 We do not usually use had better for questions.
 Questions with ought to is also very rare.

31. Contd….
5. Modals to Ask Permission
 May, could, and can
 We use may or could with people we don't know or who are in
authority.
 We use can with friends and family members.
a. Mr. Dawit is not in the office. May I take a message?
b. Could Sara have another piece of cake, please?
c. Abdi, can I borrow your dictionary?
 To ask permission politely, use please.
 Please usually goes after the subject or at the end of the
sentence.
 We put a comma before it if it is at the end of the sentence.
a. Could I please borrow the car?
b. Could I borrow the car, please?

32. Contd….
When we use could to ask permission, it refers to the
present or future.
Remember that could also have the meaning of past
ability.
a. Could she take some more potatoes for dinner, please?
(permission)
b. Could she swim when she was five? (could = past
ability)
When we ask permission with could, the short answer
uses may or can.
a. A: Could I borrow your dictionary?
B: Yes, of course you can /may. (but not you could.)

33. Contd….
6. Modals to Make Requests
 Will, can, could, and would
 We use would and could to make polite requests.
 We use please to make a request more polite.
 Boss to employee:
a. Could you make a copy of this, please?
b. Would you answer these letters for me, please?
 We use can and will for more direct and informal requests.
 Mother to daughter:
a. Will you turn down the TV, please?
b. Can you pass me the salt?
 We can use would you mind + a gerund to make a polite request.
a. A: Would you mind waiting a few minutes longer?
B: No, that’s OK. Or
Yes, I would. I have already been waiting for an hour.
 NB: A negative answer to would you mind means, you will do it.
A positive answer – Yes, I would means that you won’t do it.

34. Contd….
7. Modals to Express Possibility
 May, might, and could
When could refers to the present, we don't use it in the
negative.
a. They may /might not be on time. Correct
b. They could not be on time. Incorrect
We use may, might, and could to talk about present and future
possibility.
a. My dog might be the one who made the mess.
b. Mr. John could be the electors’ choice for mayor.
c. A: Who is at the door?
B: I don't know. It may be Sara.
 We use the perfect modal form (modal + have + past
participle) of may, might, and could to express that something
was possible in the past.
a. Mekdes is late. She might have missed her bus.

35. Contd….
8. Modals to Express Probability
 Should and Ought to
 Used to say that something is probable at the time of speaking
or in the future.
a. Tigist should be at work now. She’s usually there at this time.
b. I ought to pass the English test easily. I have studied hard and
know everything.
 We use the perfect modal form (modal + have + past participle)
of should or ought to when we think something has probably
happened.
a. Their plane should have landed by now.
b. Their plane ought to have landed by now.

36. DIRECT AND INDIRECT (REPORTED) SPEECH
1. DIRECT (QUOTED) SPEECH
 In direct speech, we repeat the original speaker’s exact words.
a. James Dean said, "Dream as if you will live forever. Live
as if you will die today."
b. He said, “I have lost my umbrella.”
 Punctuation Rules for Quoted Speech
1) Use quotation marks to show exact words that someone said
2) Mention the speaker and use a verb like said.
3) Put a comma after the verb.
4) Open the quotation marks (").
5) Write the quotation. Capitalize the first word.
6) End the quotation with a period, a question mark, or
exclamation point.
7) Close the quotation marks (").

37. Contd….
Here are also some other ways to write quotations.
1. Put the speaker at the end.
 "We'll probably be late, so start without us," John said.
(Notice the comma at the end of the quotation.)
2. Put the speaker in the middle.
 "We'll probably be late,“ John said, "so start without us."
(Notice the commas before and after John said, and no
capital letter for so. Also notice the two sets of quotation
marks, one for each part of the quotation.)
3. When a quotation is a question or an exclamation, put the
quotation mark or the exclamation after the quotation.
 "Do you mind if we're late?" Abdi said.
(Use a question mark, not a comma, after the quotation, and
use a period at the end, not a question mark.)

38. Contd….
"Don't be late!" Abdi said.
(Use an exclamation point after the quotation, not a
comma.)
4. We can invert the speaker and the quotation verb (say,
exclaim, etc).
 Example
a. Hana said, "We'll probably be late, so start without us."
b. "We'll probably be late, so start without us," said Hana.
c. "We'll probably be late," said Hana, "so start without us."

39. Contd….
2. INDIRECT (REPORTED) SPEECH
 In indirect speech we give the exact meaning of a remark or
a speech, without necessarily using the speaker’s exact
words:
 He said (that) he had lost his umbrella.
 There is no comma after say in indirect speech that can
usually be omitted after say and tell + object.
 But it should be kept after other verbs: complain, explain,
object, point out, protest etc.
 Indirect speech is normally used when conversation is reported
verbally, though direct speech is sometimes here to give a more
dramatic effect.

40. Contd….
1. Pronouns and Adjectives Changes
 First and second person pronouns and possessive adjectives
normally change to the third person except when the speaker is
reporting his own words.
 (I = he, she; Me = him, her; My = his, her; Mine = his, hers;
We = they...)
 Example
a. She said, “He’s my son.” ➡ She said that he was her son.
b. “I am ill," she said. ➡ She said that she was ill.
2. This and These
 This used in time expressions usually becomes that.
a. She said, “She’s coming this week.” ➡ She said that she was
coming that week.

41. Contd….
This and these used as adjectives usually change to the
a. He said, “I bought this pearl/these pearls for my mother.”
➡ He said that he had bought the pearl/the
pearls for his mother.
 This and these used as pronouns can become it, they/them.
a. He came back with two knives and said, “I found these
beside the king’s bed.”
➡ He said he had found them beside the king’s bed.
b. He said, “We will discuss this tomorrow.”
➡ He said that they would discuss it (the matter) the next
day.

42. Contd….
3. Expressions of Time and Place Change in Indirect Speech
 Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time should be changed as
follows:
DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
Today that day
Yesterday the day before
The day before yesterday two days before
Tomorrow the next day/the following day
The day after tomorrow in two day’s time
Next week/year etc. the following week/year etc.
Last week/year etc. the previous week/year etc.
A year etc. Ago/ a year before/the previous year

43. Contd….
 Example
a. “I saw her the day before yesterday,” he said.
➡ He said he’d seen her two days before.
b. “I will do it tomorrow,” he promised.
➡He promised that he would do it the next day.
c. She said, “My father died a year ago.”
➡She said that her father had died a year before/the
previous year.
 But if the speech is made and reported on the same day
these time changes are not necessary.
a. At breakfast this morning he said, “I’ll be very busy
today.” ➡ At breakfast this morning he said that he
would be very busy today.
Here can become there
a. At the station he said, “I will be here again tomorrow.”
➡ He said that he would be there again the next day.

44. Contd….
4. Tense Changes in Reported Speech
 Tenses should be changed one step back into their corresponding pasts.
DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH
Simple Present
“I never eat meat,” he
explained.
Simple Past
He explained (that) he never ate
meat.
Present Continuous
“I am waiting for Ann,” he
said.
Past Continuous
He said (that) he was waiting for
Ann.
Present Perfect
“I have found a flat,” he said.
Past Perfect
He said (that) he had found a flat.
Present Perfect Continuous
He said, “I have been waiting
for ages.”
Past Perfect Continuous
He said (that) he had been waiting
for ages.

45. Contd….
DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH
Simple Past
“I took it home with me,” she
said.
Past Perfect
She said (that) he had taken it
home with her.
Future
He said, “I will/shall be in Paris
on Monday.”
Conditional
He said (that) he would be in
Paris on Monday.
Future Continuous
“I will be using the car myself on
the 24h,” she said.
Conditional Continuous
She said (that) she would been
using the car herself on the 24th.
Conditional
I said, “I would like to see it.”
Conditional
I said (that) I would like to see
it.

46. Contd…..
Questions in Reported Speech
 The following changes are necessary:
 Tenses, pronouns and possessive adjectives, and adverbs of
time and place should be changed as in statements.
 The interrogative form is changed to affirmative form.
 The question mark is omitted in indirect questions.
 Say is changed to a verb of inquiry: ask, wonder, want to
know.
a. He said, “Where is the station?”
➡He asked where the station was.
 Ask can be followed by the person addressed (indirect object):
a. He asked, “What have you got in your bag?”
➡He asked me what I had got in my bag.

47. Contd….
 But wonder and want to know cannot take an indirect object,
so if we wish to report a question where the person addressed
is mentioned, we must use ask.
a. He said, “Mary, when is the next train?”
➡ He asked Mary when the next train was.
 If the question begins with a question word (when, where,
who, etc.), it is repeated in the indirect question.
a. He said, “Why didn’t you put on the brake?”
➡ He asked (her) why she hadn’t put on the brake.
b. She said, “What do you want?”
➡ She asked (them) what they wanted.
 If there is no question word, if or whether must be used.
a. “Is anyone there?” he asked.
➡ He asked if/whether anyone was there.

48. Contd….
Yes/No Questions In Indirect Speech
 Yes/No questions are expressed in indirect speech by subject +
appropriate auxiliary verb.
a. He said, “Can you swim?” and I said, “No.”
➡ He asked (me) if I could swim and I said I couldn’t.
b. He said, “Will you have time to do it?” and I said, “Yes.”
➡He asked if I would have time to do it and I said I would.
Offers and Suggestions in Indirect Speech
 A. Offers
a. “Shall I bring you some tea?”
➡ He offered to bring me some tea.
 B. Suggestions
a. “Shall we meet at the theatre?”
➡ He suggested meeting at the theatre.

49. Contd….
Modal Verbs in Indirect Speech
 Can into Could, May into Might, Must into Had to.
 However, modals like would, could, might, should, ought to, are
not changed in indirect speech.
a. Alex said, “I can swim.”
➡ Alex said that he could swim.
b. He said, “It may rain today.”
➡ He said that it might rain that day.
c. She said, “I must run fast.”
➡ She said that she had to run fast.
d. They said, “They would speak English.”
➡ They said that they would speak English.
e. He said, “It might cost me more money.”
➡ He said that it might cost him more money.

50. Contd….
Commands, Requests, and Advice in Indirect Speech
The following verbs can be used:
Advise, ask, beg, command, order, remind, tell, warn +
object + to/not to + infinitive
a. Alex said, “Please come here!”
➡Alex requested to come there.
b. He said, “Get your coat, Tom!”
➡ He told Tom to get his coat.
c. Mark said to students, “Do not take this exercise easy.”
➡ Mark advised students not to take that exercise easy.
d. “Don’t swim out too far, boys,” I said.
➡ I warned/told the boys not to swim out too far.

51. Contd….
Exclamations in Indirect Speech
 Exclamations usually become statements in indirect speech.
 The exclamation mark disappears.
 Exclamations begin What a ... or How ... can be reported by:
 Exclaim or Say that……..
a. He said, “What a dreadful idea!” or “How dreadful!”
➡ He exclaimed that it was a dreadful idea or Was dreadful.
 Other types of exclamation such as Good! Marvelous! Splendid!
Heavens! Oh! Ugh! etc. can be reported as:
a. “Good!” he exclaimed.
➡ He gave an exclamation of pleasure/satisfaction.
b. “Ugh!” she exclaimed, and turned the programme off.
➡With an exclamation of disgust she turned the programme off.

52. Contd….
 Note also the following examples.
DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH
He said, “Thank you!” ➡ He thanked me.
He said, “Good luck!” ➡ He wished me luck.
He said, “Happy Christmas!” ➡He wished me a happy Christmas.
He said, “Congratulations!” ➡ He congratulated me.
He said, “Liar!” ➡ He called me a liar.
He said, “Damn!” ➡ He swore.
The notice said: WELCOME
TO WALES!
➡ The notice welcomed visitors to
Wales.

53. RELATIVE CLAUSE
This is a clause that generally modifies a noun or a noun
phrase.
It is often introduced by a relative pronoun (which, that,
who, whom, whose).
It connects ideas by using pronouns that relate to
something previously mentioned and allows us to combine
two independent clauses into one sentence.
A relative clause is also known as an adjective clause.
a. The book that she read was important for her literature
review.
b. Addis Ababa, which is the capital city of Ethiopia, is a
very beautiful city.

54. Contd….
Types of Relative Clause
 There are two different types of relative clause.
A. Defining or Identifying Relative Clause
 Tells us which person or thing we are talking about.
 Gives essential information to define or identify the person or thing
we are talking about.
 It is not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
 It is also known as Restrictive or Essential Clause/Phrase.
a. Dogs that like cats are very unusual.
 In this sentence we understand that there are many dogs, but it is
clear that we are only talking about the ones that like cats.
Punctuation
 Commas are not used in defining relative clauses.

55. Contd….
Relative Pronouns in Defining Relative Clause
 The following relative pronouns are used in defining
relative clauses:
Person Thing Place Time Reason
Subject Who/that Which/that
Object
Who/whom
/that
Which/that Where When Why
Possessive Whose Whose

56. Contd….
Examples:
a. The student who sits in the back of the room asks a lot of
questions.
b. The journalist whose story I read yesterday has won
prizes for her work.
 When the relative pronoun functions as the object of the
sentence, it can (and usually is) omitted from the relative
clause.
 When relative pronoun used as object it is followed by
another subject + verb.
a. The results that I obtained may invoke positive social
change.
b. The participants who I interviewed met me at the local
library.

57. Contd….
 Who, whom and which can be replaced by that.
a. Where is the person who/that I should speak to?
b. The doctor whom/who/that I was hoping to see wasn’t on duty.
c. That is the company that/which we signed the agreement with.
 But, we use whom and which not who or that when we put the
preposition at the beginning of the clause.
a. Where is the person to whom I should speak?
b. That is the company with which we signed the agreement.
 Whose is used as possessive pronoun for both person and things
to show possession.
a. Flamingoes are birds whose feathers are pink because of the
food they eat.
b. This is the boy whose father is our school principal.

58. Contd….
 That normally follows words like something, anything,
everything, nothing, all, and superlatives.
a. There's something that you should know.
b. It was the best film that I've ever seen.
c. A clown is someone who makes you laugh.
d. Has anyone seen the book that I was reading?
e. Nothing that anyone does can replace my lost bag.

59. Contd….
B. Non-defining or Non-identifying Relative Clause
 Gives us additional information about the person or thing we are
talking about.
 It uses commas to show that the information is additional.
 If the information between the commas is omitted, readers will
understand the over all meaning of the sentence.
 It is also called Nonrestrictive or Nonessential Clause/Phrase.
a. Gorillas, which are large and originate in Africa, can
sometimes be found in zoos.
b. Hawassa, which is found in Sidama region, is a beautiful city.
c. Uru Kenyata, who is the president of Kenya, visited Ethiopia
last month.
Punctuation
 You must use commas with a non-defining clause.

60. Contd….
Relative Pronouns in Non-defining Relative Clause
 The following relative pronouns are used in non-defining
relative clauses:
Person Thing Place
Subject Who Which
Object Who/whom Which Where
Possessive Whose

61. Contd….
Notes
 In non-defining clauses, you cannot use 'that' instead of who,
whom or which.
 You cannot leave out the relative pronoun, even when it is the
object of the verb in the relative clause.
a. He gave me the letter, which was in a blue envelope.
b. He gave me the letter, which I read.
c. Tedy Afro, who is a famous Ethiopian singer, produced a
new song last month.
 The preposition in these clauses can go at the end of the
clause, e.g.
a. This is Stratford-on-Avon, which you have all heard
about.

62. Contd….
 Non-defining clauses can be introduced by expressions like all
of, many of + relative pronoun:
Expressions Person Thing
One of + whom + which
all of + whom + which
any of + whom + which
(a) few of + whom + which
both of + whom + which
each of + whom + which
either of + whom + which
many of + whom + which
most of + whom + which
none of + whom + which

63. Contd….
a. There were a lot of people at the party, many of whom I
had known for years.
b. He was carrying his belongings, many of which were
broken.
c. He had thousands of books, most of which he had read.
THE END!
THANK YOU!!