This document provides an overview of empiricism according to John Locke and other key empiricist philosophers such as George Berkeley and David Hume. It discusses Locke's view of knowledge coming from sense experience and his distinction between primary and secondary qualities. It then explains Berkeley's idealism and rejection of the existence of material substance, arguing that objects only exist in the mind. Finally, it covers Hume's more radical empiricism, where he questions whether we can know anything beyond our impressions and ideas from experience. Hume argues we cannot distinguish how things appear from how they really are or know that the future will match the past based on limited observations. The document analyzes the empiricists' views on the origins and limits
Classic and Modern Philosophy: Rationalism and EmpicismMusfera Nara Vadia
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Rationalism and the rationalists, such as Plato, Descartes, and so on.
Empiricism and empiricists, such as Aristotle, Locke, Hume, Kant, William James.
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George Berkeley was born in 1685 in Ireland and died in 1753 (in Oxford, England, while visiting his son). âą He is, a great Irish philosopher and a member of the Church of Irelandâą Toward the end of his life he was appointed Bishop of Cloyne (which is now in the Republic of Ireland).
Classic and Modern Philosophy: Rationalism and EmpicismMusfera Nara Vadia
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Rationalism and the rationalists, such as Plato, Descartes, and so on.
Empiricism and empiricists, such as Aristotle, Locke, Hume, Kant, William James.
BerkeleyPrinciplesSelections. Ppt outsidethe mind will teach usMuhummadsaad1
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George Berkeley was born in 1685 in Ireland and died in 1753 (in Oxford, England, while visiting his son). âą He is, a great Irish philosopher and a member of the Church of Irelandâą Toward the end of his life he was appointed Bishop of Cloyne (which is now in the Republic of Ireland).
CHAPTER 4The Nature of Substance, Reality, and Mind Idealism,.docxchristinemaritza
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CHAPTER 4
The Nature of Substance, Reality, and Mind: Idealism, Dualism, and Materialism
There are a number of complex philosophical issues brought about by a discussion of substance. As you may recall from an earlier chapter, the Ancient Greeks were very much concerned about the question of substance. At present, science tells us everything is made up of material atoms, and yet, philosophers still debate this scientific conclusion. It is not to say that atoms do not exist (although no one has actually seen one, which is another question about scientific realism), but rather a question of what is reality made up of, mind, matter, or a combination of both.
These questions lead to other questions regarding the nature of the human mind. Is it just the brain or does it have an immaterial component? What of the soul? All these questions will be considered in the following sections below.
POWERFUL IDEAS: THE NATURE OF SUBSTANCE
Materialism claims that all real objects are physical. Dualism claims that all real objects are either physical or nonphysical. Idealism claims that all real objects are nonphysical.
Berkeley and Idealism
Berkeley contends that the only things that are real are ideas. This view is known as idealism. All the objects we encounter in the world (which is an idea as well) are nonmaterial objects. As bizarre as this may at first sound, what you should be aware of is the fact that the only objects that we do have direct access to in our mind (or brain) are ideas.
We assume that our idea of objects in the world is tied to or come from these objects; some underlying physical substance, yet Berkeley is denying that we have any good reason to infer to this material substance. Berkeley employs a radical empiricism. He thought that we can only acquire knowledge from our experiencesâfrom our per- ceptions. What is the nature of our perceptions? We assume that we perceive objects directly, yet in fact, what we are doing is experience an idea of the object, which has been constructed by our mind. Berkeley goes on to argue that âto exist is to be perceived.â
Berkeley contends that the only things that are real are ideas. All the objects we encounter in the worldâwhich is an idea as wellâare nonmaterial objects. As bizarre as this may at first sound, what you should be aware of is the fact that the only objects that we do have direct access to are our ideas. We assume that our idea of objects in the world are tied to or come from those objects (we think those ideas correspond to object in reality), some underlying physical substance, yet Berkeley is denying that we have any good reason to infer to is this material substance.
He may have a point. Consider a strawberry, for example. It has a certain color, shape, and weight; it has a particular texture, taste, and smell. These are all perceptions, ideas in your mind. If you take away the taste of the strawberry, take away its smell, its weight, its shapeâwhat do you have left? Nothing. The ...
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
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It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using âinvisibleâ attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
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The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesarâs dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empireâs birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empireâs society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
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Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
2. The 3 Anchor Points of Empiricism:
1. The only sense of genuine knowledge is sense
experience (ie. What you touch, taste, hear, smell, see).
2. Reason is an unreliable and inadequate route to
Knowledge unless it is grounded in the solid foundation of
sense experience.
3. There is no evidence of innate ideas within the mind that
are known apart from experience.
What shortcomings exist in viewing perception
as such a simple 2-way street?
3. The Tabula Rasa
The notion of innate ideas (ie. Rationalism), as we have already seen, presupposes that certain knowledge is
present from birth. This is different to saying that some types of knowledge are a priori (or true by definition).
Empiricists would not want to deny, for example, that "All bachelors are unmarried" is a truth independent of
experience. They would, however, deny that such a truth could be innate.
For the Empiricists, the mind is a Tabula Rasa (which is Latin for "blank slate"). When we learn or experience
things, it is as if the mind is being written on. For the Rationalists, however, the mind is like a computer: the
hardware already has some functions (innate ideas) before the software (experiences, specific knowledge) is
loaded.
knowledg
e
Through experience we âfillâ
our heads with knowledge
The new Will Farrell full of
knowing
Hi, kids!
5. Simple ideas:
The Empiricists want to argue that all our ideas come from experience. So, how do we understand the world?
Locke thought that our experiences provided us with what he termed simple and complex ideas. Simple ideas
might include the redness of a rose, the smell of coffee, the taste of sugar or the sensation of heat. We
thereafter use these ideas as the basis for reflection, combining and comparing them to form complex ideas in
order to understand the world.
Exercise:
Pick 3 objects in the room you are in and list five simple ideas about them. Once you have done this,
see what complex ideas each of the simple ones might help you form.
An example of this can be seen in the way we might get a better understanding of heat. I might burn
my hand on a flame, but also on an extremely cold piece of ice. Reflecting on this and other examples
I may come to the conclusion that it is not heat which is solely responsible for burns, but difference in
temperature (in this case, the difference between my hand and the hot and cold things). Thus, the
simple sensations and experiences form the basis for more abstract ideas such as this.
Taco Bell nachos
The Taco Bell nachos are red...
and green...and yellow...
and warm...and spicy...some are crispy...
some are soft...and salty smelling...
Hwhy hwouldn't you eat such hwonderfuly
tasty nachos? Hwhat in the hworld is
stopping you?
6. Primary and Secondary Qualities
If we reject, as the Empiricists do, the idea that all our knowledge comes from rational principles, we are left
with a major question: How can we tell which of our perceptions are real or true? Locke's answer is to suggest
the existence of what he calls primary and secondary qualities.
First of all, let us consider an object - a table, for example. Now, Locke's view is that certain qualities of the
table are primary qualities of the object (such as the table's shape and size), but others are produced by
powers in the object itself, which act on our senses to produce sensations and impressions. Such things as
colour, taste and temperature are therefore secondary whilst other primary qualities include number (how
many objects there are) and motion (an object's speed or movement).
The main thing Locke was trying to do is to limit knowledge to the things that could be said to be primary
qualities. So, as far as the table is concerned, such things as its size, shape and weight are fixed and
measurable. Its colour, on the other hand, is a matter of subjective opinion.
Exercise
Of the simple and complex ideas you listed in the previous example, which are primary and which are
secondary? Go through your lists and mark P or S next to each one.
7. Thought Experiment:
1. Have you found that the perceived color of a piece of clothing changes when you view it
by the light of a lightbulb, a neon light, semidarkness, or sunlight? For example, have you
ever thought that you were putting on matching socks only to find when you stepped outside
that one was black and one was blue?
2. Why doesn't the shape, size, or motion of an object appear to change in different
lights?
3. Have you ever disagreed with a friend as to whether the room is too hot or the iced tea
too sweet? Why doesn't it make sense to say one of you is right and the other is
mistaken?
4. Hold a cut, raw onion under your nose as you bite into an apple. Does the normal taste of
the apple appear to be different under these circumstances?
These thought experiments illustrate the fact that
some properties, such as size, shape, or motion,
are constant, whereas other properties, such
as color, temperature, or taste, can change from
one circumstance to the next.
8. Empirical Knowledge
Locke considered that knowledge could be of certain types depending on how ideas could be compared. The
idea of black, for instance, could be contrasted with that of white; other ideas seem to share a common source,
such as light and fire, which quite often go together. These ways of building up information, Locke thought, are
the main means by which we turn simple ideas into complex ones.
But how certain is such knowledge? Locke considered that there are 3 main types of knowledge:
Intuitive. This form of knowledge is the most certain because it seems the most obvious to us and the most
difficult to doubt. This would be such things as "I have a body", "Black is not white", but also - according to
Locke - "God exists". These are so obvious that we accept them intuitively.
Demonstrative. When we begin to put simple ideas together to form complex ones, we are
demonstrating something. So, for example, if I compare the heat of the Sun with the heat of a fire, I
may demonstrate that they are both made of similar substances.
Sensitive. This form of knowledge is the most uncertain because it relies merely on the evidence of the
senses. If I look to see how many chairs there are in another room, I am relying on sensitive
knowledge, which - as Descartes has shown - can, in some cases, be mistaken.
I do believe this
is a most capital
idea! I particularly
rule.
9. Thought Experiment:
How would Locke give an empirical account of the origin of the following ideas by
compounding, relating, and abstracting from the ideas formed through experience:
1. Infinity
2. God
3. Moral goodness or evil
4) Me. Seth Rogen.
My awesomeness. How do you know
what my awesomeness is?
10. Berkley and Idealism
Locke's concept of primary and secondary qualities, whilst intended to help us make sense of the limits of
knowledge, also had an unintended use. Locke had argued that some of the information which we receive
through our senses is subjective and should not be trusted (secondary qualities), whilst other information
could be considered objective and constituted reliable knowledge (primary qualities).
From Locke's point of view, the thing that possessed these different qualities - the substance - could never
really be known in itself. If, for example, we consider once again the example of the table, we can be aware
of such things as its colour or texture (secondary qualities) or its shape and size (primary qualities). But we
cannot know the thing itself because everything we experience about the table will come under one of these
two categories.
The Irish philosopher George Berkeley (1685-1783), pointed out that the if all we ever see are secondary or
primary qualities, how do we know that substance really exists? In other words, there may be no such thing
as matter. This view is called Idealism.
11. Conclusion: from Locke's empiricism to
the
denial of the world of independently
existing matter.
Berkeley:
1) All we know is what we find in experience
2) We can never know or even make sense of a material world that allegedly
lies outside our own, private experiences
12. Berkeley's Criticism of Locke
Berkeley considered Locke and other philosophers to have opened the door to atheism and scepticism by
casting doubt on the senses. In an attempt to defend faith in God and knowledge from such attacks,
Berkeley attempted to show that, rather than sensations of objects arising from powers in the object itself
(as Locke thought), the experiences were in the perceiver (us).
What this means is that the object does not need to possess any powers with which it produces effects on
our senses, because the object does not exist apart from our perception of it. This allows Berkeley to deny
the sceptical argument that we do not see objects as they really are.
Berkeley's View of Reality:
My good man George Berkeley said âEsse est percipi,â
which means âTo be is to be perceived.â
13. Arguments for Idealism:
The main arguments for Idealism are based on the idea that our perceptions of objects are in us. In other
words, when we say that an object is red, its redness is part of our perception of it, not in the object or - as
Locke argues - an effect of some power of redness in the object.
So what arguments does Berkeley use? First he attacks the idea that secondary qualities can exist in the
object:
Sensation. When you put your hand in cold water, the temperature feels different depending on the
temperature of our hand. If your hand is hot, the water will feel colder; if your hand is cold, the water will feel
warmer. The water cannot be hot and cold at the same time. Therefore the perception of temperature must
be in the perceiver.
Taste. If a taste is pleasurable, such as the sweetness of sugar, how can we say that pleasure exists in the
object itself (the sugar)? Therefore, since we cannot separate the taste of sweetness from our pleasure,
both must exist in the perceiver and not in the object (the same obviously goes for displeasure).
I see a red chicken. But why?
14. Next he tries to show that some perceptions are relative, attacking both primary and secondary
qualities:
Colour. If two people see the same object from different perspectives, one might think it was a
different colour to the other. Both colours cannot exist in the object at the same time, so the colour
must exist in the perceiver and not in the object.
Speed. If I am standing still and I see a train passing, the people on that train are moving at a
certain speed, but to each other they appear to be sitting still. If speed exists in the object, how
can the people on the train be both moving and at rest? The answer must be that the quality
exists in the perceiver.
Here Berkeley trues to show that there is no difference between real and apparent qualities:
The Master Argument. Berkeley's main argument is meant to show that it is impossible for
something to exist without being perceived (or, as he says, esse est percipi, Latin for "To be is to
be perceived"). This means that if we cannot imagine what the perception of something must be
like, we cannot really say that it exists. Berkeley uses this idea to attack the notion of substance or
matter, for if all the qualities that we ascribe to it are either primary or secondary qualities, can we
actually say that the substance itself exists?
15. According to Berkeley, only a mind can produce ideas (ie. Without the mind there can be no
experiences). If our minds did not produce the ideas or experiences we encounter, then God's
mind must have created them within us. God directly gives us the world of our experience
without the intermediate step of external physical matter.
Furthermore, God continuously maintains the world in existence, for even if we
are not experiencing a particular object, it still exists within God's mind.
*** Berkekey is challenging the traditional notion of what it means for
something to âexist.â
We can still enjoy the coolness of water and the warmth of fire. The only difference is that
we will realize that these experiences are in the form of mental events provided us by God.
16.
17. Thought Experiment:
Does Berkeley's argument for the Mental Dependency of Ideas seem possible to you? If not,
why not?
Let's explore Berkeley's line of reasoning further. Pick up a pencil or pen.
What are you experiencing? You are probably having visual sensations of a
particular color, visual and tactile sensations of an extended length with
round or hexagonal sides, and tactile sensations of hardness.
Press the point of the pencil or pen into your palm and now you will have the
experience of pain associated with the pencil. But where is your pain?
Obviously, it is not located out in the external world. Pain is an idea (in Berkeley's sense of
the word) or an item within your experience. Yet this mind-dependant idea is part of your
experience of the pencil. And Berkeley would say that all the other properties of the pencil
have the same status. The sensations of color, shape, and extension in your experience are
just thatâitems within your experience. In describing the properties of the pencil, you did
not refer to anything external to your experience.
18. 1) Sensory objects (houses, mountains, rivers, and so on) are things
present to us in sense experience.
2) What is presented to us in sense experience consists only of our
ideas (or sensations).
3) Ideas exist solely in our mind.
4) Therefore, sensible objects exist only in our minds.
The Argument for the Mental Dependency of Ideas
Conclusion: there is no external
physical world that exists apart from us
19. And now for our last Empiricist, a most erudite and intellectual
dude......although you may disagree with him
David Hume
20. Hume was an empiricist, for he believed that all information about the world comes
through experience. He is radical in his beliefs.
The contents of consciousness are what he calls perceptions.
A) Perceptions include our original experiences, which he labels impressions.
There are two kinds of impressions:
1) Sense Data Impressions (such as visual data, sounds, odors, tastes, and
touching
2) Internal Impressions (âinternalâ impressions are made from the contents of our
psychological experiences)
Hume defines these impressions as âall our more lively perceptions, when we hear, or see,
or feel, or love, or hate, or desire, or will.â
B) Perceptions also include what he calls ideas, or the contents of our memories and
imagination.
Obviously our impressions are more
vivid and trustworthy that the copies of
them we find in our ideas. Why?
Because for an idea to have any
legitimacy, it must be traced back to our
original impressions or combinations of
impressions
-I am an empiricist.
-I am a capricorn.
-I like Woody Allen films.
-I like long walks on the beach
-Every Thursday I order in
Chinese food.
-I'm on MySpace. Look for me
at Humey@myspace.com
21. 180Âș
Hume believed there's a huge gap between reason and the world. He
agrees with the rationalists that the logical relations between our ideas are
absolutely certain and necessary For example, there must be 180 degrees
in the concept of a triangle. BUT this conclusion only establishes a certain
relationship between a set of ideas.
IT DOES NOT DEMONSTRATE THAT THIS GEOMETRICAL RULE
IS TRUE IN THE PHYSICAL WORLD.
According to Hume, we can only know this truth from observation.
The fact that this concept has always been the case when we've
used it to construct buildings does not guarantee that it will work that
way tomorrow.
Relations of Ideas (ie. Mental ideas) = always true
Matters of Fact (ie. âreal lifeâ) = not necessarily true
We can, according to Hume, deny ANY matter of fact. (ie. The sun will always rise in the
morningâ)
The fact that we feel confident about certain facts about the world is
merely the result of our expectations, which are based on past
experience.
From here, Hume drives empiricism to
a radical extreme...
Maybe the sun won't rise
22. ....From here, Hume drives empiricism to a radical extreme
Hume's basic argument:
If all we know are the contents of
our experience, how can we know
anything about what lies outside our
experience?
(Think about what this means if it's true)
- For Hume, all we can know are the personal contents of our individual
minds. All we can truly know is what we have experienced. It is
impossible to distinguish between the way things appear to us and the
way they really are. We cannot have knowledge concerning any mind-
independent reality.
- We don't know with certainty that the future will be like the past. A limited number of examples
cannot prove a necessary truth (ie. 100 times doesn't mean the 101st
time will be the same way)
He thinks Locke and Berkeley have been inconsistent in working out the implications of their ideas.
Also, Hume sees miracles as being unlikely for this exact reason - that they have not been
observed often enough. Can this view be criticized?
If accepted, Hume's viewpoint makes it pointless to try to prove the existence of God (for example) as a
matter of fact. If God is not literally made up of physical matter, and does not have an observable effect on
the world, making a statement about God is not a matter of fact. Therefore, a statement about God must be
a relation of ideas. In this case if we prove the statement "God exists," it doesn't really tell us anything about
the real world; it is just playing with words. Do you agree with Hume's viewpoint? Why or why not?
23. Another point made by Hume: How do you know that if you touch a flame right now,
you will experience pain? How do you know that if you taste sugar, it will be sweet?
You are probably reasoning in this way:
(1) In the past, I have found that fire causes pain and sugar is sweet
Therefore
(2) When I encounter similar examples of fire or sugar, their effects will be similar to the
past cases.
Statement (1) is certainly true, but does it provide irrefutable evidence for statement (2)?
To get from statement (1) to statement (2) you need the following intermediate step:
(1a) The future will always be like the past.
But how do you know statement (1a) is true? Is it possible to prove the truth of such a
statement?
24. This is why hume is seen as a so science-friendly. He believed
firmly in inductive logic and reasoning. We arrive closer and
closer to certainty by observing the repetitive patterns in nature.
We do this through experience, not apprehending immaterial
rational truths (ie. rationalism).