Electrical activity of the brain
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Electrical activity of the brain as studied with the help of Electroencephalogram. Sleep wake cycle and circardian rythym. learn more about different brain waves.
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Evoked potential - An overview
Evoked potentials are low amplitude electrical potentials recorded from the brain or peripheral nerves in response to sensory stimuli. They are used to evaluate the function of sensory and motor pathways. There are several types including sensory evoked potentials from visual, auditory and somatosensory stimulation as well as motor evoked potentials. Recording techniques involve signal averaging to detect the low amplitude signals. Evoked potentials provide objective measures for diagnosing various neurological disorders.
Somatosensory evoked potential
Somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) measure electrical activity in the nervous system in response to stimulation of sensory nerves. SEPs of the median nerve and tibial nerve are commonly studied. Abnormalities can localize lesions along the sensory pathways. Prolonged latencies may indicate demyelination as in multiple sclerosis or transverse myelitis, while normal latencies with prolonged intervals suggest lesions of the spinal cord or brain. SEPs are useful for evaluating spinal cord and brain function and are often monitored during surgeries.
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Evoked Potentials.pptx
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Nerve conduction studies are used to evaluate the function of motor and sensory nerves. They involve stimulating nerves with controlled electrical pulses and recording the responses. For motor nerve conduction studies, the compound muscle action potential is recorded from muscles. Key measurements are latency, amplitude, and conduction velocity. For sensory nerve conduction studies, the sensory nerve action potential is recorded from sensory nerves. Common sites tested include the median, ulnar, and sural nerves. The results can help diagnose various peripheral nerve and neuromuscular disorders.
Brainstem auditory evoked potentials (baep)
Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials (BAEP) involves recording electrophysiological responses from the ear in response to auditory stimulation to assess the functioning of the auditory pathway. BAEP testing involves placing electrodes on the scalp to record waveforms representing activity in the auditory nerve and brainstem in response to click sounds. BAEP is useful for screening and monitoring conditions affecting the auditory pathway such as tumors near the cerebellopontine angle, multiple sclerosis, and coma. It can also be used for newborn hearing screening and evaluating stroke and tuberculous meningitis patients.
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Evoked potentials are low amplitude electrical potentials recorded from the brain or peripheral nerves in response to sensory stimuli. They are used to evaluate the function of sensory and motor pathways. There are several types including sensory evoked potentials from visual, auditory and somatosensory stimulation as well as motor evoked potentials. Recording techniques involve signal averaging to detect the low amplitude signals. Evoked potentials provide objective measures for diagnosing various neurological disorders.
Somatosensory evoked potential
Somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) measure electrical activity in the nervous system in response to stimulation of sensory nerves. SEPs of the median nerve and tibial nerve are commonly studied. Abnormalities can localize lesions along the sensory pathways. Prolonged latencies may indicate demyelination as in multiple sclerosis or transverse myelitis, while normal latencies with prolonged intervals suggest lesions of the spinal cord or brain. SEPs are useful for evaluating spinal cord and brain function and are often monitored during surgeries.
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1) There are three types of sensory fibers that carry different sensations at different speeds. Sensory input travels through different pathways in the spinal cord depending on the sensation.
2) The posterior column carries vibration and proprioceptive senses up the spinal cord. Fibers from this system end in the thalamus and project to the sensory cortex.
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The milgram shock experiment
The Milgram experiment was carried out many times whereby Milgram (1965) varied the basic procedure (changed the IV). By doing this Milgram could identify which factors affected obedience (the DV). Obedience was measured by how many participants were shocked to the maximum 450 volts (65% in the original study).
This File contains my perspective of the experiment and gives a better idea about the concept of obedience.
Blood group substances
Blood group substances biochemistry presentation.
this presentation helps in the better understanding of the topic h substances which are the primitive substances that help in the formation of the ABO blood groups.
Testes
General idea about the histology of the Testes. the gross anatomy and the major structures important for the understanding of the microscopic structures of testes including spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis can be found.
Also the practical identification of a testes can also be found in this presentation. the Staining used for each and every slide shown in the presentation are the H&E staining that gives the pink and purple coloured slides.
Transport across cell membrane
cell biology topic transport across cell membrane. transport of important structures accross plasma mebrane of different types of cell in humans. structure and function of cell membane
Thermodynamics
thermodynamics. in physical world outside and inside the living body. important factor for heat and energy for the living.
different forms of energy, kinetic energy and pottential energy.
different forms of system, open and closed. laws of thermodynamics and gibbs free energy. entrophy and enthalphy
Retina
histological and physiological discription of the retina or tunica interna or tunica nervosa.
an important structure in the eye to conduct the visual impulses from physical world to the brain.
Peristalsis
motion of the gastro intestinal tract. movement of the food or bolus from the mouth to the anus. biophysics of smooth muscle contraction in the git.
Muscles of mastication
anatomy of head and neck. muscles of mastication is an important topic to learn. muscles of the tongue.
Medical ai and healthcare
Artificial intelligence in the field of medicine and healthcare.
use of Information Technology in everyday lifestyle.
Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is an increasing and pretty dangerous disorder that is spreading all over the world due to week imunity, or genetic reasons.
this condition is harmful not only for the sweet tooth but also the fairly fit people too. to prevent and learn more about diabetes mellitus and its types please check the slide
Day 13
During the 13th day of development, primary villi form from cells of the cytotrophoblast that proliferate and penetrate the syncytiotrophoblast. The primary villi are cellular columns surrounded by syncytium. Additionally, cells from the hypoblast migrate along the exocoelomic membrane and form the secondary yolk sac or definitive yolk sac within the original exocoelomic cavity. As the secondary yolk sac forms, portions of the exocoelomic cavity are pinched off to form exocoelomic cysts in the chorionic cavity. The extraembryonic coelom expands and forms the large chorionic cavity, and the extraembryonic mesoderm lining is now referred to
Chemical kinetics
This document discusses key concepts in chemical kinetics including:
1. Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry concerned with understanding reaction rates.
2. Factors that affect reaction rates include temperature, pressure, concentration, surface area, and the presence of catalysts.
3. A catalyst lowers the activation energy of a reaction, increasing the reaction rate without being consumed in the process.
Beta oxidation
1. Beta oxidation is the major mechanism of fatty acid oxidation, occurring in the mitochondrial matrix. It removes two-carbon units as acetyl-CoA per cycle.
2. Fatty acids must first be activated through attachment to Coenzyme A before undergoing beta oxidation. The activated fatty acyl-CoA cannot enter the mitochondria on its own and requires the carnitine shuttle system for transport.
3. Each cycle of beta oxidation involves four steps: dehydrogenation, hydration, dehydrogenation, and thiolytic cleavage. This releases acetyl-CoA while shortening the fatty acid chain by two carbons.
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Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune Disease
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
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Breast cancer: Post menopausal endocrine therapy
Breast cancer in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive (HR+) status is a common and complex condition that necessitates a multifaceted approach to management. HR+ breast cancer means that the cancer cells grow in response to hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. This subtype is prevalent among postmenopausal women and typically exhibits a more indolent course compared to other forms of breast cancer, which allows for a variety of treatment options.
Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is generally reserved for patients with high-risk features, such as large tumor size, high-grade histology, or extensive lymph node involvement. Regimens often include anthracyclines and taxanes.
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LOW BIRTH WEIGHT. PRETERM BABIES OR SMALL FOR DATES BABIES
low birth weight presentation. Low birth weight (LBW) infant is defined as the one whose birth weight is less than 2500g irrespective of their gestational age. Premature birth and low birth weight(LBW) is still a serious problem in newborn. Causing high morbidity and mortality rate worldwide. The nursing care provide to low birth weight babies is crucial in promoting their overall health and development. Through careful assessment, diagnosis,, planning, and evaluation plays a vital role in ensuring these vulnerable infants receive the specialize care they need. In India every third of the infant weight less than 2500g.
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Electrical activity of the brain
- 1. ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY OF THE BRAIN.. By : Shlok Mathur
- 2. Introduction.. ◦ Electrical activity of the brain is complicated when compared to that of a single nerve fiber or neuron. ◦ It is due to the involvement of large number of neurons and synapses. ◦ Electroencephalography is the study of electrical activities of brain. Electroencephalogram (EEG) is the graphical recording of electrical activities of brain. ◦ EEG measures voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current within the neurons of the brain. ◦ Neurons use electrical signaling to receive and send information. When a neuron is stimulated, an action potential is fired, which enables the message signals to travel rapidly down the axon terminal.
- 3. EEG… Electroencephalogram… Electroencephalograph is the instrument used to record EEG. The electrodes called scalp electrodes from the instrument are placed over unopened skull or over the brain after opening the skull or by piercing into brain.
- 4. Waves of EEG.. Electrical activity recorded by EEG may have synchronized or desynchronized waves. Synchronized waves are the regular and invariant waves, whereas desynchronized waves are irregular and variant. In normal persons, EEG has three frequency bands : 1. Alpha waves 2. Beta waves 3. Delta waves In addition to these the EEG in children show Theta waves.
- 5. Alpha Waves.. Alpha Block.. ◦ Alpha block is the replacement of synchronized alpha waves in EEG by desynchronized and low voltage waves when the eyes are opened. ◦ Desynchronization is the common term used for replacement of regular alpha waves with irregular low voltage waves. Alpha waves are neural oscillations in the frequency range of 8–12 Hz arising from the synchronous and coherent electrical activity of thalamic pacemaker cells in humans. They are also called Berger's waves after the founder of EEG. Alpha rhythm is obtained in inattentive brain or mind as in drowsiness, light sleep or narcosis with closed eyes.
- 6. Beta Waves.. Beta wave, or beta rhythm, is a neural oscillation in the brain with a frequency range of between 12.5 and 30 Hz. Beta waves can be split into three sections: Low Beta Waves; Beta Waves; and High Beta Waves. Beta states are the states associated with normal waking consciousness.
- 7. Delta Waves.. A delta wave is a high amplitude brain wave with a frequency of oscillation between 0.5 and 4 hertz. Delta waves are usually associated with the deep stage 3 of NREM sleep, also known as slow-wave sleep, and aid in characterizing the depth of sleep.
- 8. Theta wave.. Theta brainwaves occur most often in sleep but are also dominant in deep meditation. Its frequency is 3 to 8 hz. Theta is our gateway to learning, memory, and intuition. In theta, our senses are withdrawn from the external world and focused on signals originating from within.
- 9. Sleep.. ◦ Sleep is the natural periodic state of rest for mind and body with closed eyes characterized by partial or complete loss of consciousness. ◦ Sleep requirement is not constant. However different age groups have different sleep requirements. Physiological changes during sleep : ◦ Plasma volume ◦ Cardiovascular changes ◦ Respiratory system ◦ Gastrointestinal system ◦ Excretory system ◦ Sweat secretion ◦ Lacrimal secretion ◦ Muscle tone ◦ Reflexes ◦ Brain
- 10. Types of sleep… Rapid Eye Movement sleep.. Rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep or REMS) is a unique phase of sleep in mammals and birds, distinguishable by random/rapid movement of the eyes, accompanied with low muscle tone throughout the body, and the propensity of the sleeper to dream vividly. Non Rapid Eye Movement Sleep.. NREM sleep: NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep is dreamless sleep. During NREM, the brain waves on the electroencephalographic (EEG) recording are typically slow and of high voltage, the breathing and heart rate are slow and regular, the blood pressure is low, and the sleeper is relatively still.
- 11. Stages of Sleep.. Rapid Eye movement sleep. Non rapid Eye movement sleep : 1. Stage of Drowsiness 2. Stage of light sleep 3. Stage of medium sleep 4. Stage of deep sleep
- 12. Mechanism of sleep.. Sleep occurs due to the activity of some sleep-inducing centers in brain. Stimulation of these centers induces sleep. Sleep Centers : • Raphe Nucleus • Locus Cereleus of pons
- 13. Applied Physiology.. Sleep Disorders : • Insomnia • Hypersomnia • Narcolepsy and cataplexy • Sleep apnea syndrome • Nightmare • Night terror • Somnambulism • Nocturnal enuresis • Movement disorder during sleep.
- 14. Thank you.. Doubt .. ?