Electoral systems overview
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There are several types of electoral systems for electing representatives. Plurality/first-past-the-post systems are used in the UK, where each constituency elects one member of parliament and the candidate with the most votes wins, even if they do not receive a majority. This system can result in overrepresentation of the largest parties and underrepresentation of others. Majority systems aim to elect candidates supported by over 50% of voters through methods like ranked voting and runoffs. Proportional systems allocate seats to parties based on their overall vote share through closed-list or open-list proportional representation. Hybrid systems combine elements of plurality and proportional systems.
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John rawls (1921 2002) – a brief
John Rawls (1921-2002) was a hugely influential US philosopher known for attempting to reconcile liberal beliefs in freedom with the need to prevent excessive inequality in society. His best known work, A Theory of Justice (1972), proposed a thought experiment where people create a just society from behind a "veil of ignorance" without knowing their place in it. Rawls argued this would lead people to choose principles guaranteeing equal rights, respect for all, and a minimum standard of living so that the worst off are not below a certain level, even if this requires some inequalities. He called this the "difference principle."
The house of lords – functions
The document summarizes the four core functions of the House of Lords: making laws, holding the government accountable, acting as a forum of independent expertise, and carrying out judicial work as the highest court in the UK. It provides details on how the House of Lords spends its time scrutinizing legislation, questioning government ministers, and debating policies. It also gives examples of how Lords committees have influenced policy areas like mental health and internet security by gathering evidence from experts.
The executive branch the presidency
The document provides information about the executive branch of the US government. It discusses the president's constitutional powers, notable past presidents, the increasing role of the president over time, and the president's ability to persuade rather than command. It also outlines the vice president's role and increasing responsibilities. Additionally, it examines the cabinet, federal bureaucracy, and Executive Office of the President, including key offices like the White House Office and roles like the Chief of Staff. Iron triangles and tensions between the cabinet and EOP are also mentioned.
The power of the president is limited to persuasion 30 marker
The document discusses the powers of the U.S. President and their dependence on Congress. It notes that the President feels they must "persuade people to do what they ought to have sense enough to do." It also outlines some of the tools Presidents can use to persuade or influence Congress, such as making calls/visits to build support. However, the President is still dependent on Congress for legislation and funding. Even when a party controls both branches, Congress does not always support the President's agenda.
The cabinet and exop
The document compares the Cabinet and the Executive Office of the President (EXOP) in terms of their importance to the President. The Cabinet tends to ensure the work of the executive branch is coordinated, but plays a limited role by meeting infrequently and members may not be close to the President. The EXOP consists of the President's personal aides in components like the NSC and OMB. EXOP members can play a more significant role through closer proximity and longer-term relationships with the President. However, some Cabinet members have also significantly shaped policy. The importance of each depends on the individual President's leadership style.
How can presidents win in congress
The document discusses the powers and responsibilities of the US Presidency. It outlines the President's role in proposing and signing legislation, submitting budgets, making nominations, and negotiating treaties. It also examines factors that influence a President's ability to pass proposals, such as popularity, whether the government is divided or united, crises, and relationships with Congress. Overall, the President must use a variety of formal and informal tactics to lead effectively, including bargaining, compromise and persuasion.
President and power of veto
The document discusses the presidential veto power granted by the Constitution. It allows the president to return unsigned bills to Congress with objections. Congress can override a veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both the House and Senate. The document provides examples of past presidents' veto records, showing Bill Clinton had the highest success rate at blocking legislation, while George W. Bush had the lowest due to multiple overrides by Congress.
How can the president circumvent congress
Executive orders allow presidents to manage operations within the federal government without congressional approval. However, the Supreme Court ruled that presidents cannot use executive orders to make new laws. Presidents since the 1950s generally cite which existing laws their executive orders are based on. Signing statements are issued when a president signs a bill into law and can be used to interpret statutes, though some argue this modifies laws without congressional approval. Executive agreements are international agreements made by the president without senate ratification and have the force of treaties despite questions over their constitutionality.
The imperial presidency
The term "Imperial Presidency" originated in the 1970s to describe the perceived abuse of power by presidents Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon during the Vietnam War and Watergate scandal. Historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. argued that the presidency had become dominant over Congress, with the executive branch resembling a royal court. Subsequent presidents, including Reagan with the Iran-Contra affair and Clinton with treaties and wars not authorized by Congress, were also said to expand presidential power beyond what the Founding Fathers intended in the Constitution by taking war-making authority for themselves. Whether modern presidencies should truly be considered "imperial" is still debated.
Powers of the president alone
The document outlines the various powers of the US President, including powers they wield alone such as serving as commander-in-chief of the armed forces, receiving ambassadors, and granting pardons. Some powers are shared with the Senate, like making treaties and appointing ambassadors and judges. Other powers are shared with Congress, such as approving legislation. The President also acts as the head of their party and uses the bully pulpit to push their agenda.
Imperial presidency v imperilled
The document contrasts the "Imperial Presidency" of the 1960s-70s, when presidential power grew due to expanding foreign policy roles and deference from Congress, culminating in Nixon's presidency and the abuses of Vietnam and Watergate, with the "Imperilled Presidency" of the 1970s, when Congress acted to increase oversight of the president through new organizations, laws, and by threatening Nixon with impeachment to reduce unchecked executive power in the aftermath of the Nixon presidency's abuses.
The british constitution
The British constitution is not set out in a single document but rather has evolved over many years through a combination of written laws, court rulings, conventions and traditions. It serves several functions including distributing power, protecting freedoms, defining limits on government, and providing stability. Unlike other nations like the US, the British constitution is partly written and uncodified, with sources scattered across documents, and can be amended through regular acts of parliament rather than a special process. Recent constitutional reforms under New Labour focused on areas like the House of Lords, devolution, freedom of information and human rights.
Civil service
The civil service originated in the East India Company and was formalized in the 19th century. A 1954 report recommended professionalizing the civil service by implementing examinations, merit-based promotions, and generalist roles rather than technical specialists. Civil servants are divided into service-wide administrators and specialists, and departmental groups. Reforms since the 1960s have aimed to increase efficiency and introduce private sector practices through initiatives like Next Steps agencies, the Citizen's Charter, and New Labour's Modernising Government white paper. However, critics argue reforms have overly politicized and businessized the civil service at the expense of its traditional impartiality and public service ethos.
As constitutional, parliamentary and electoral reform
The document discusses various electoral systems used in the UK, including majoritarian systems like FPTP and alternative vote (AV), proportional representation systems like party list and single transferable vote (STV), and hybrid systems like additional member system (AMS). It also examines the impact that electoral reform has had on different political parties in the UK and prospects for further reform.
As
The document provides an overview of the UK constitution, including what a constitution is, the sources of the UK constitution (both written and unwritten), the history and changes over time, key concepts like sovereignty and the unitary system, arguments for and against an uncodified constitution, and the branches of government and separation/fusion of powers. It covers the core structures and concepts that make up the UK's unwritten constitution.
Judges
This document presents information about the court system and human rights in the UK in a slideshow format. It discusses the different levels of courts, including magistrates courts, crown courts, appeal courts, and the Law Lords. It also addresses civil courts like county courts and the high court. Additionally, it covers ways that human rights are protected, such as through judicial review, administrative tribunals, and political processes. Finally, it discusses police accountability to the public, MPs, and authorities like the Complaints Authority and Police Authority.
Independence or neutrality
Judges in many countries are intended to be independent and impartial arbiters of the law who are not influenced by political pressures or personal biases. They aim to decide cases fairly based solely on the facts and law, and avoid any conflicts of interest, in order to uphold the principle that everyone is equal before the law. However, it can be difficult to be completely unaffected by one's own background or experience.
Judicial review as
Judicial review refers to the process by which courts scrutinize actions by the legislature, executive, and other government bodies. Courts have the power to interpret statutes and review administrative actions for legal authority. While UK courts cannot strike down legislation due to parliamentary sovereignty, they can review statutes for compliance with EU law or human rights and determine whether executive actions exceed legal powers. Courts balance interpreting the letter and intention of the law, and their scrutiny of government has increased in recent decades in the UK.
As the judiciary
The judiciary upholds and interprets the law, and is intended to perform these functions independently and neutrally. Judicial independence means judges can resist political pressure, as they cannot be easily removed and are appointed based on ability rather than politics. However, critics argue judges may still be influenced by their social backgrounds or political considerations in some cases. The judiciary can defend civil liberties through judicial review and interpreting laws, but is ultimately constrained by the law and parliament.
Pm & cabinet
The document discusses the balance of power between the Prime Minister and the Cabinet in the British government. It presents different views on whether the Prime Minister or Cabinet wields more influence over policy decisions and the direction of the government. It also outlines some of the formal powers held by both the Prime Minister and Cabinet Ministers, as well as factors like party support, public opinion, and unfolding events that can impact the balance of power between the two.
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