This document provides an introduction to principles of economics. It begins by posing questions to assess the reader's knowledge of current economic data. It then defines key economic concepts like scarcity, opportunity cost, and tradeoffs using examples of household and business decision making. Microeconomics is introduced as the study of individual agents, while macroeconomics looks at aggregate outcomes. Positive economics aims to objectively describe and predict economic systems, whereas normative economics judges whether outcomes are good or bad. Three key economic principles are outlined: people face tradeoffs, opportunity cost helps determine the best choice, and people respond to incentives. Diagrams are provided to illustrate production possibility frontiers and opportunity costs.
Lecture slides for an undergraduate course on Basic Macroeconomics that I taught in the Fall of 2007.
This first lecture serves as an introduction to economics in general.
Lecture slides for an undergraduate course on Basic Macroeconomics that I taught in the Fall of 2007.
This first lecture serves as an introduction to economics in general.
Issues in Business Ethics and Society Coursework questionsDavid Thompson
Explain the similarities and differences between an economic cost-benefit analysis and a utilitarian approach to moral reasoning. Use an example of a case from the unit readings to illustrate your explanation. (Focus especially on Grace & Cohen, Chapter 1 and Sorrell & Hendry, ‘Narrow and Broad Business Ethics’ in e-Reserve). See also Steven Kelman ‘Cost-Benefit Analysis: An Ethical Critique’ and H. Leonard & R, Zeckhauser, ‘Cost-Benefit Analysis Defended’ in e-Reserve)......
Issues in Business Ethics and Society Coursework questionsDavid Thompson
Explain the similarities and differences between an economic cost-benefit analysis and a utilitarian approach to moral reasoning. Use an example of a case from the unit readings to illustrate your explanation. (Focus especially on Grace & Cohen, Chapter 1 and Sorrell & Hendry, ‘Narrow and Broad Business Ethics’ in e-Reserve). See also Steven Kelman ‘Cost-Benefit Analysis: An Ethical Critique’ and H. Leonard & R, Zeckhauser, ‘Cost-Benefit Analysis Defended’ in e-Reserve)......
Fighting Against Chaotically Separated Values with EmbulkSadayuki Furuhashi
We created a plugin-based data collection tool that can read any chaotically formatted files called "CSV" by guessing its schema automatically
Talked at csv,conf,v2 in Berlin
http://csvconf.com/
This lecture - covers the basics introduction to economics . It helps you to understand why and how economics concepts are important in our day to day life . It helps you understand the concepts of Scarcity , Choice and Decision making. It also makes you learn the concept of opportunity cost- cost &benefit analysis.
share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptxTina Purnat
• Pitfalls and pivots needed to use AI effectively in public health
• Evidence-based strategies to address health misinformation effectively
• Building trust with communities online and offline
• Equipping health professionals to address questions, concerns and health misinformation
• Assessing risk and mitigating harm from adverse health narratives in communities, health workforce and health system
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
ABDOMINAL TRAUMA in pediatrics part one.drhasanrajab
Abdominal trauma in pediatrics refers to injuries or damage to the abdominal organs in children. It can occur due to various causes such as falls, motor vehicle accidents, sports-related injuries, and physical abuse. Children are more vulnerable to abdominal trauma due to their unique anatomical and physiological characteristics. Signs and symptoms include abdominal pain, tenderness, distension, vomiting, and signs of shock. Diagnosis involves physical examination, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. Management depends on the severity and may involve conservative treatment or surgical intervention. Prevention is crucial in reducing the incidence of abdominal trauma in children.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
2. Do you know…
• According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics,
since the 2009 financial crisis, there are now
9.6 million people in the U.S. who are still
unemployed?
3. Do you know…
• … Who are the richest people in the world?
4. Do you know…
• Answer (from Forbes):
No 1: Bill Gates
USD$79.2B
No 2: Carlos Slim
Helu
USD$77.1B
No 3: Warren
Buffett
USD$72.7B
5. Do you know…
• … what was the best-selling smart phone
in the world in 2014? What is the retail
price for the item?
6. Do you know…
• Which movie has the highest grossing in
2014?
10. What is Economics?
• The word “economics” comes from the Greek
word “oikonomia” – meaning the
management of a household.
• As it turns out, managing an economy (today)
and a household have much in common –
they both involve making decisions.
11. What is Economics?
Household
• How much salary should
mom and dad earn?
• How much money to
spend on food, clothes,
and rent?
• Who does the cooking?
• Should we hire a maid?
• Where to go on vacation?
Economy
• How many goods and
services to be produced in
Malaysia this year?
• How many units of cars
should be manufactured next
year?
• How many doctors and
engineers should be trained?
• Should we import more
goods from China? Or India?
12. What is Economics?
• Why are these decisions relevant to us?
• Or put it another way, what do all these
decisions involve?
13. What is Economics?
• All of these decisions involve the managing of
scarce/limited resources!
• Example: time, money and energy. Nobody
has unlimited supply.
Can you name other types of
scarce resource?
14. What is Economics?
• Since these resources are limited, one must
use them with care.
• E.g. How would you spend your monthly
allowance? On food? Clothes? Transport?
Latest phones?
15. What is Economics?
• E.g. How would you spend your time in a day?
Work/study hard? Watch “The Walking Dead”
marathon? Etc.
16. What is Economics?
• E.g. Only 1 percent of the world’s water
supply is drinkable. Should we use it for
farming or producing luxury items instead?
1000 liter of water 1 T-Shirt
=
17. What is Economics?
• Specifically, managing scarce resources
involve:
– Deciding on how to use it… (e.g. using money
to buy food, instead of Iphone).
– Deciding who should get it (e.g. Mom gets
more food because she is pregnant).
19. What is Economics?
• Definition:
Economics is therefore “a study of how
individual and economies make decisions
about the use and allocation of their scarce
resources”.*
* Principles of economics (7th
International Edition), K.E. Chase & R.C. Fair (2004)
21. Microeconomics
• The word “micro” means… small or very
small.
• Microeconomics is the study of how
individual households and businesses
function or behave in a market.
22. Microeconomics
• Example: How much does your family spend on
basic necessities a day? Month?
• Example: How many movies should Marvel
Studios produce next year?
23. Macroeconomics
• The word “Macro” means… well, you
should have guessed what it means by
now!!
• Macroeconomics studies the workings of
an economy (national, regional) as a
whole.
24. Macroeconomics
• E.g. How much did Malaysia’s economy produce
in 2013? Did it grow or contract? What was the
amount of tax revenue collected?
Sources: IMF, Department of Statistics Malaysia.
GDP
RM1 Trillion
(2013)
GDP
+ 6.2%
(2013 vs. 2012)
Inflation
Rate
2.1%
(2013)
26. Positive Econs Vs Normative Econs
• Since the economy affect our everyday lives
(from the price for a kilo of sugar to national
unemployment rate), economists and
governments are interested in studying and
managing them.
• To do so, 2 methods of study are used.
27. Positive Economics…
• …attempts to understand how economic
systems work or behave without making
judgments.
• Example: What causes inflation rate go up?
What causes long-term unemployment?
28. Positive Economics…
• Positive economics is divided into 2
subcategories:
– Descriptive economics - the gathering of data that
describe facts and statistics.
– Economic theory - a tool to make sense of the
data and predict a cause and effect relationship.
E.g. Theory of demand and supply (lecture 2).
29. In contrast, Normative Economics…
• …attempts to find out if an economic outcome or
behaviour is good or bad, and whether they can
be made better.
• Example: A high inflation rate is bad for the
economy. How can it be reduced?
• Example: High employment rate is good. How
can we sustain it?
30. Positive Econs Vs Normative Econs
• Of course, most normative issues are related
to positive issues.
• Example: To judge whether high inflation is
good or bad (normative), economists needs to
first observe the effect of inflation on the
economy (positive).
32. Economic Principles
• 1st
Principle: People face tradeoffs
– To get something we want, we must give up
another thing in return.
– E.g. Should you spend your evening studying or go
to a party with your friends?
– For every hour you spend on studying, you lose
one hour on spending time with your friends.
33. Economic Principles
• 1st
Principle (continued)…
–Businesses also face the same principle.
–E.g. Apple Inc. has $1 billion to spend on
research. For every $ it spends on
researching a new iPhone model, it has less
$ to spend on researching Macbooks.
34. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle : Opportunity Cost
–If individuals and businesses face trade-offs,
then how do they decide what is the best
choice?
35. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle : Opportunity Cost
–First, they have to know the opportunity
cost for each choice.
–Then they will compare the opportunity
costs of these choices.
36. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle : Opportunity Cost
–What is an opportunity cost?
- An opportunity cost is the benefit you lose
when choosing one decision over another.
37. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle : Opportunity Cost
– The best choice is the one where your
opportunity cost (or benefits lost) is the
lowest or smallest.
38. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle (continued)…
–If you decide to study, the opportunity cost
(or benefit lost) is missing out fun times…
–If you decide to go out with friends, the
opportunity cost (or benefit lost) is not
getting good grades…
39. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle (continued)…
–So which decision has the lowest
opportunity cost for you? Would you rather
lose some fun or lose some good grades?
40. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle (continued)…
– For Apple Inc., if it spends $1 billion on IPhone
research, it can make better IPhone and
generate $2 billion profit.
– If it spends the money on MacBook research, it
can sell more upgraded Macs and make $1.5
billion.
41. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle (continued)…
– If Apple does research on IPhone, its
opportunity cost is $1.5b profit lost from the
better MacBook.
– If research is done on MacBook, the
opportunity cost is $2b profit lost from
researching better IPhone.
42. Economic Principles
• Which option has a lower opportunity cost?
Research
iPhone
Research
MacBook
Lose $1.5 Billion Lose $2 Billion
44. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle (continued)…
– The PPF can be used to illustrate the concepts of
tradeoff and opportunity cost.
– The PPF curve (see point A, B and C) shows the
different possible combinations of Product A and
B that can be produced by a firm when resources
are used efficiently.
45. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle (continued)…
– Due to scarce resources, if a firm wants to
produce more of Product A, then it must produce
less of Product B (see point A).
– On the other hand, if a higher amount of Product
B is produced, then there will be less resource for
Product A (see point C).
– This is Tradeoff!
46. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle (continued)…
– The PPF can also be used to find out the
opportunity cost of Product A and Product B.
– For example, if the firm wants to increase Product
A by 10 units but needs to give up 20 units of
Product B to do so, then the opportunity cost of
each unit of Product A is 2 units of Product B.
20 units of Product B
10 units of Product A = 2 B : 1 A
47. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle (continued)…
– Conversely, this also means that the
opportunity cost for producing an extra unit of
product B is ½ unit of Product A:
10 units of Product A
20 units of Product B = ½ A : 1 B
48. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle (continued)…
– Point X, on the other hand, shows a
production combination that is not efficient as
it is below the curve.
– For example, point X could be caused by
outdated technology, inadequate
management skills or practices that waste
resources.
49. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle (continued)…
– Point Y shows a production combination that
cannot be reached yet as it require more
resources than what the firm can currently
obtain, or it requires technology that is beyond
what is currently technically possible.
50. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle (continued)…
– However, Point Y can be achieved
(eventually) in the following means:
• A) The firm or economy acquires new
resources e.g. a bigger labor force, discovery
of a new energy source.
• B) The firm or economy continues to use
better and better production technology.
51. Economic Principles
• 2nd
Principle (continued)…
– The best way to think about point Y is to
compare our country through the last 50 years…
Was there a difference in our standard of living?
This is known as economic growth!
52. Economic Principles
• 3rd
Principle: People respond to incentives
– Let’s go back to our earlier example on choosing
between study and going out.
– What if, while choosing between studies or going
out, you were told that your dream girl (guy) will
be there as well?
53. Economic Principles
• 3rd
Principle: People respond to incentives
– Now your opportunity cost has changed - if you
study, your opportunity cost is missing out fun
and meeting that special person.
– Now, you may become more motivated to choose
going out with friends.
54. Economic Principles
• 3rd
Principle (continued)…
– Another example: you can get rid of your garbage
by the usual means or travel extra 5km to a
recycle center.
Opportunity Cost:
Pollution
Opportunity Cost:
Time and energy
55. Economic Principles
• 3rd
Principle (continued)…
– But what if you were told that every Kg of garbage
that you recycle earns you an extra $5?
– This would indeed motivate more people to
recycle instead of disposing the usual way.
56. Economic Principles
• 4th
Principle: Marginal Cost and Benefit
– Let’s say that you have decided to spend the evening
study for your exams (instead of going out).
– The following is a table showing the relationship
between hours studied and the expected exam score:
HoursHours
studiedstudied 22 33 44 55
ExpectedExpected
scorescore 6565 8585 9595 9999
MarginalMarginal
scorescore
increaseincrease
00 2020 1010 44
57. Economic Principles
• 4th
Principle (continued)…
– As you can see, even after you have made your
choice by comparing the opportunity cost, it does
not mean that repeating the same decision will
keep giving you the same benefits.
58. Economic Principles
• 4th
Principle (continued)…
– If you continue to study more than 5 hours, the 6th
hour (the marginal cost) onwards will not provide
better exam scores (marginal benefit).
– In fact, you might even get a headache and ruin
your exam performance the next day!
59. Economic Principles
• 4th
Principle (continued)…
– In that case, you can decide to go out with
your friends after studying for 4 - 5 hours –
hopefully they haven’t gone home yet!!
60. Economic Principles
• 4th
Principle (continued)…
– Marginal cost is the additional input needed
to produce an extra unit of output (e.g. each
hour of study).
– Marginal benefit is the additional
benefit/output generated from an extra unit
of input (e.g. extra test score).
61. Economic Principles
• 4th
Principle (continued)…
– Imagine that Apple has decided to spend the $1 billion to
research on IPhone. If Apple was to spend more research
money on IPhone, its expected marginal (extra) profit will
decrease (for example, the upgraded model may become
more and more complicated for customers)
AmountAmount
SpentSpent $1b$1b $2b$2b $3b$3b $4b$4b
ExpectedExpected
revenuerevenue $2b$2b $3.3b$3.3b $3.5b$3.5b $3b$3b
MarginalMarginal
profitprofit
increaseincrease
00 $1.3b$1.3b $0.2b$0.2b -$0.5b-$0.5b
63. Types of Economic Systems
• Most countries these days practice the free market
system or capitalistic system.
• In this market system, people have the freedom to
set up, grow, sell or shut down their businesses.
• Likewise, buyers have the freedom of choice (i.e.
what to buy and at what price & quantity).
64. Types of Economic Systems
• On the other hand, there are a few countries
that practice(d) planned economy.
• In an planned economy the government
decides what to produce and sell. It controls
all the factors of production (e.g. labour, raw
materials, and machinery).
65. Types of Economic Systems
• Although buyers in a planned economy can still
decide what to buy, etc., their choices are very
limited.
• Example of planned economies: former Soviet
Union, China (under Mao) and North Korea.
66. Types of Economic Systems
• However, it is probably more correct to say that
most countries these days adopt a “mixed market”
approach that combines the 2 systems above.
• For instance, although you are free to set up a shop
to sell cigarettes, you are controlled by the
government as to whom you can sell it to i.e. no
minors.
67. Summary
• Economics is the study of how people and societies
choose to use the scarce resources available to hem
• Microeconomics vs. Macroeconomics
• Normative vs. Positive Economics
• Economic Concepts
– Tradeoffs
– Opportunity Costs
– People Respond to Incentives
– Marginal Benefits and Costs
• Types of Economic Systems