Dwarka

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DWARKA
CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost CITY
Dr Uday Dokras Ph D SWEDEN

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DWARKA
CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost
CITY
Indo Nordic Author’s Collective 2020

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Circa 3230 BCE! Dwapar Yug, the end of the Third Age after Satya Yug and Treta Yug, described in
the Purans! It was midnight on Ashtami Tithi in the Hindu lunar month of Bhadrapad, corresponding
to August of the Gregorian calendar. After six of the darkest nights in seven years when all of his six
brothers were killed soon after their birth, there came another such night. Entire Mathura mourned
with winds howling and dusk giving way to an appalling rainy night. Nature seemed to enlighten one
and all about the birth of the eighth child specified in the prophecy. And a God was born on earth as
a mortal. Because the rising evil had to be suppressed!
He was Krishn.
The seventh fetus was transferred to its step-mother’s womb at three months. This fetus, after
completion of the gestation period, was born as the elder brother of the God. The incarnation of
Sheshnag, the king of all serpents and serpent deities, became the brother of the incarnation of
Vishnu! Fourteen years of twists and turns, one after another, in the life of Krishn! Who were his
friends? What games did he play? How did he grow up? When did he start playing the flute? Who was
his teacher? How did he become a hero by the time he became a teenager? Did he commandeer an
army in the battlefield at fourteen? Who was Radha? Who was she married to? Krishn awaits you in
DWARKA-A City He BUILT…..

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History or Mythology
The Lost City of
Dr Uday Dokras

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C O N T E N T S
Intoduction-Why cities sink 5
25 sunken cities of the world 15
Dwarka’s siking 20
CHAPTER-I-‘Dashavataram’ Ten avatars of Lord Vishnu 36
Chapter II Krishna 42
Literary sources-Mahabharata-Krishna in the Mahabharata 45
Bhakti Moement 55 onwards
South East Asia 62
CHAPTER III-/Dwarka, 12,000 Year Old City of LordKrishna in Gujarat 73
CHAPTER IV-Dwarka:Early History 77
CHAPTER V- LAST WORD 94
View 95
CHAPTER VI-Lost City of Dvaraka, SR Rao 105
CHAPTER VII-Architecture of Dwaraka 120
ANNEXURE-10InterestingFactsaboutTheSacredCityofDwarka
INTRODUCTION
Civilizations come and go. Some like Pompeii are buried in the ashes of a Volcano- others
like Atlantis reach the ocean floor.
Many of the world's largest and most rapidly growing cities are located along rivers and coasts,
exposing these focal points of economic and cultural activity to natural disasters. As countries
continue to invest people, assets, and infrastructure into these cities, the loss potential in these

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areas also increases. Sinking cities must overcome substantial barriers to properly prepare for
today's dynamic environmental climate.
Sinking cities are urban environments that are in danger of disappearing due to their rapidly
changing landscapes. The largest contributors to these cities becoming unlivable are the
combined effects of climate change (manifested through sea-level rise, intensifying storms, and
storm surge), land subsidence, and accelerated urbanization.
Development
The fundamental conditions that gave rise to ancient cities, like Mesopotamia, have long been
debated by scholars. A number of theories have been presented, and to date, there is insufficient
evidence to support a single root cause which led to the formation of cities. Agriculture,
increased economic productivity, and superior social organization are often cited as key
contributing factors that gave rise to these ancient cities, although there likely were other factors
at play. Today, similar forces continue to be drivers behind the urbanization of the global
population.
The vast majority of sinking cities are located in coastal lowlands. These areas are particularly
vulnerable to climate related hazards, but since ancient times, have also been preferred areas for
human settlement. Soil fertility, availability of fresh water from rivers, accessibility due to flat
topographical relief, and sea and waterways allowing for trade routes, have long made coastal
plains valuable agricultural and economic resources. Throughout history, these areas have
continued to develop, and today, are some of the most densely populated regions in the word.
Examples of Major Metropolises Located in Coastal Plains
City
Metro Population
(in millions)
Tokyo, Japan 38.0
Shanghai, China 23.7
Cairo, Egypt 18.8
Buenos Aires, Argentina 15.2
Tianjin, China 11.2
London, England 10.3
Jakarta, Indonesia 10.3

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Bangkok, Thailand 9.3
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam 7.3
Houston, USA 6.8
Saint Petersburg, Russia 5.0
Causes: The growing physical risks to many coastal cities stem from a combination of factors
relating to rapid urbanization, climate change, and land subsidence. Many of these “natural
hazards” are largely anthropogenic in origin. In many cases, the fundamental aspects that lead to
sinking cities become tightly interwoven, and over time, are increasingly difficult to resolve.
Urbanization
Global Population Urban vs. Rural
For the first time in human history the majority of people live in urban areas. The United
Nations estimates that approximately 68% of the world's population will be living in urban areas
by 2050. Urbanization has vast implications including the urban
planning, geography, sociology, architecture, economics, and public health of a regionThe rate at
which urbanization occurs is also important. Slower rates of urbanization allow city planners
time to make thoughtful planning decisions. Once cities reach maturity, it can take decades for
local governments to develop, fund, and execute major infrastructure projects to alleviate the
issues brought on by rapid urbanization.
In particular, some regions in Asia are currently experiencing unprecedented urban growth.
Currently, the Asian urban population is increasing by 140,000 per day and is expected to nearly

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double from 1.25 billion in 2006 to 2.4 billion by 2030. The more troubling fact is that much of
this growth is taking place along the coasts. In China, population growth in urban coastal
locations was three times the national growth rate.Rapid increases in population growth
challenge the carrying capacity of these urban environments often leading to mismanagement of
natural resources. For sinking cities, the most common result has been over-extraction of
groundwater ultimately resulting in land subsidence.
Climate Change
Throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, global warming has coincided with world's
urbanization. Climate change, a result of global warming, will impact all regions of the earth,
however, its impacts are unlikely to be evenly dispersed. Low lying cities are especially prone to
the most devastating effects of climate change.
The risks posed by climate change will continue to grow into the next century, even if a dramatic
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions is achieved, due to the built-in momentum from previous
emissions. Moreover, recent reports by the United Nations have shown that climate change may
be accelerating rather than slowing down. The 2019 Emissions Gap Report confirmed that GHG
emissions continue to rise, despite highly publicized political commitments.The report goes on to
emphasize that countries must increase their nationally determined contributions threefold to
remain below the 2°C goal and more than fivefold to achieve the 1.5°C goal.
Coastal cities will bear the largest impacts of climate change due to their proximity to the
sea. Storm surges and high tides could combine with sea level rise and land subsidence to further
increase flooding in many regions. Oftentimes even recently completed infrastructure projects
have not properly accounted for the rapidly changing climate. Asia's coastal megacities are
particularly at risk as certain cities' flood protection measures have been cited as inadequate even
for 30-year flood events.
Sea-Level Rise
Although reports vary widely in predicting the height of sea-level rise in the
future, IPCC estimates predict a 1-meter rise over the next century. Other reports consider the
IPCC estimates to be far too low and suggest levels closer to 1.9 meters by 2100. Nevertheless,
sea-level rise is an unavoidable reality. As sea-levels continue to rise, coastal cities face
challenges of properly modeling and preparing for the increased storm surges brought on by
tropical storms.
Intensifying Storms
Risks due to sea-level rise will only be compounded by intensifying storms. As the oceans
continue to warm, tropical cyclone rainfall rates and cyclone intensities are likely to increase.
Studies conducted by the NOAA also suggest a 2°C increase in global temperatures will lead to a
greater proportion of tropical storms that reach Category 4 and Category 5 levels. Hurricane
Sandy (2012), which was only a Category 3 storm, inflicted nearly 70 billion USD in damages.
Additionally, climate change may cause a change in the paths of tropical cyclones, bringing
storms to places which have previously not had to contend with major hurricanes. These
vulnerable areas are likely to be unaware and ill-prepared for the ever intensifying storms.

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Land Subsidence
Interconnected Aspects of Sinking Cities
Subsidence is the sudden sinking or gradual downward settling of the ground's surface with little
or no horizontal motion.[14]
Land subsidence can have both direct and indirect repercussions for
cities. Direct impacts are often in the form of structural damage to major infrastructure systems,
including water management networks, buildings, and highways. Land subsidence also further
adds to the growing risk of coastal flooding, and oftentimes, the net rate of subsidence exceeds
that of sea-level rise. In Bangkok, the Gulf of Thailand is rising 0.25 cm per year, but the city is
sinking at a far faster rate, up to 4 cm per year. This downward settlement significantly increases
flood vulnerability which can ultimately lead to major economic damages and loss of lives.[
Causes
Throughout the twenty-first century, as these cities continued to grow, fresh water became an
ever more precious resource. Due to the dense populations along river deltas, industrial
development, and relaxed or no environmental protections, river waters often became polluted.
This has become an ever more common phenomena in coastal mega-cities, particularly in Asia.
Many cities are unable to afford costly water treatment systems and are forced to rely heavily on
groundwater.[4]
When groundwater is extracted from aquifers in the subsurface more rapidly than
it is able to recharge, voids are created beneath the earth. As the ground is loaded, most often
through increased development, the soil compresses and land begins to subside. Depending on
the geology of the region, subsidence may occur rapidly, as in many coastal plains, or more
slowly if large bedrock exists in a region.

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Examples
Venice is often referenced as an example of a city suffering from subsidence, however, it is a
relatively minor case with mostly historical origins. More serious, are the Asian metropolises
with concentrations of millions of people living at or even below mean sea level. Some cities,
such as Tokyo, have developed sophisticated techniques for measuring, monitoring, and
combating land subsidence. But many other large cities (Hanoi, Haiphong, Rangoon, Manila,
etc.), particularly in developing nations, have no record of their subsidence, which is far from
under control.[16]
Many cities do not possess the resources necessary to conduct complex, and
often expensive, geological, geotechnical, and hydrogeological studies required to accurately
measure and model future land subsidence.
Subsidence in Coastal Cities
City
Mean
Cumulative
Subsidence
in Period 1900-
2013 (mm)
Mean Current
Subsidence
Rate (mm/year)
Maximum
Subsidence
Rate
(mm/year)
Estimated
Additional Mean
Cumulative
Subsidence Until
2025 (mm)

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Jakarta,
Indonesia
2,000 75 - 100 179 1,800
Ho Chi Minh
City, Vietnam
300 up to 80 80 200
Bangkok,
Thailand
1,250 20 - 30 120 190
New Orleans,
USA
1,130 60 26 > 200
Tokyo, Japan 4,250 ≈ 0 239 0
Mexico City is an example of a sinking city that is neither coastal nor low lying. The city was
originally constructed by the Aztecs above a large aquifer in the 1300s. Subsidence was
originally caused by the loading of large Aztec and Spanish structures. The city grew rapidly
during the nineteenth century, and with it, so did the demand for water. By 1854 more than 140
wells had been drilled into the aquifer beneath Mexico City. Although the early cultures drew
water from the same lakes and aquifers, they were merely 300,000 people as compared to the
city's current population of 21 million. Today, the historic and densely populated city is rapidly
sinking at varying rates between 15 - 46 cm/year. The city is also currently plagued with water
shortage issues emphasizing a common positive feedback loop that exists within sinking cities.
Economic
As cities continue to grow, fueled by global urbanization, countries will continue to invest
additional resources to accommodate the growing populations. Every day, sinking cities are
becoming increasingly vulnerable to natural disasters, many of which, are a critical component
of their national economies', and some, of the global economy. While natural catastrophes cause
average economic losses between US$60-100 billion annually, a single large-scale disaster can
easily surpass this, as proven by Hurricanes Sandy and Maria. Numerous sinking cities
throughout the world are becoming ever more exposed to natural disasters, many of which, do
not have the financial means to prepare for the impending storms.
In July and August, floods at high tide often near the subway level in Mumbai, clearly indicative
of the impending climate dangers. One study put the cost to Mumbai of a 1-meter sea-level rise
at US$71 billion. Ho Chi Minh City currently accounts for 40% of Vietnam's GDP and has
become especially vulnerable due to rising sea-levels, land subsidence, and continued
urbanization.[2]
Bangkok is also highly exposed to river flooding, as a major storm could have
potentially massive impacts to the national economy. This was confirmed in 2011 when the Chao
Phraya River flooded and losses amounted to around 10% of Thailand's GDP
Although many US cities are less exposed and better equipped to handle the impacts of climate
change, in some cases, US cities are especially susceptible in terms of economic risk. In a study
conducted by Zillow, the real estate firm found that a combined $882 billion worth of real estate

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would be underwater if sea-level were to rise by six feet. Furthermore, the estimate only
accounts for sea-level rise and doesn't even consider the possibility of major storms or land
subsidence. New York City alone accounts for approximately 8% of the United States GDP and
has experienced costly storms within the past decade. Mega-projects, like The BIG U, have been
proposed to help protect against future super storms and long-term sea level rise. However,
major questions are being raised regarding the project's effectiveness and social responsibility.
Social/Ethical
Asian urbanization will be accompanied by a significant increase in the number of urban poor as
migrants continue to move to cities in hopes of economic prosperity. One report
by OECD examined the vulnerability of 130 major port cities to climate change and found that
by 2070 approximately half of the total population threatened by coastal flooding would reside in
just ten megacities, all but one located in Asia. Another report analyzed the 616 largest
metropolitan areas home to 1.7 billion people and cover approximately US$34,000 billion of
global GDP. The study found that flood risk threatens more people than any other natural
catastrophe.[3]
The urban poor will bear a disproportionate burden of climate change risk as they are likely to
settle in areas most prone to flooding. This has also been seen in many US cities as low income
housing is typically situated in the flood zones. Hurricane Katrina, in New Orleans,
disproportionately impacted low income and minority communities as the wealthiest
communities are situated above sea-level, and thus, further protected from major storms. Highly
impacted areas, such as Orleans Parish and the 9th Ward, predominately contain minority
communities and therefore the impacts are unevenly dispersed.

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Cities at Risk of Coastal Flooding, Ranked By exposed Population in 2070
Coastal City
Exposed Population Estimate
(millions)
Kolkata 14.0
Mumbai 11.4
Dhaka 11.1
Guangzhou 10.3
Ho Chi Minh City 9.2
Shanghai 5.5
Bangkok 5.1
Yangon 5.0
Miami 4.8
Hai Phon 4.7
In other countries, environmental refugees have become a particularly difficult problem for
governments. In Bangladesh, rising sea-levels and resulting floods have caused many people to
flee to cities in India. In the coming decades, as impending storms begin to damage large sinking
cities, environmental refugees are likely to become a global phenomena.
Sinking cities have even led some nations to make drastic political changes. Jakarta, the
capital of Indonesia, is home to 10 million people and is one of the fastest sinking cities in the
world. Almost half the city sits below sea-level, and some researchers believe if the subsidence
issues continue to go unchecked parts of the city will be entirely submerged by 2050.[24]
Jakarta's
environmental issues have become so dire that the Indonesian government has proposed the
capital be moved from Jakarta to a yet-to-be-built city in Kalimantan. The move hopes to ease
some of the inequality and growing population issues on Jakarta by relocating a large portion of
the population to the new capital. The controversial move is not unprecedented, but is likely one
of the first capital relocations to be driven by environmental forces.In many cases, urban
officials have been unable to manage the challenges associated with sinking cities. Although
every city has specific issues, the following are common general barriers to urban adaptation:

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 Urban officials' lack of awareness regarding the magnitude and vulnerability of coastal
flooding risk
 The need to cope with immediate problems such as housing, transportation, and poverty
 Financial constraints which limit infrastructure upgrades
 Governance issues
Mitigation
The first step in mitigating the risks associated with sinking cities is raising awareness among
citizens and city officials. Some of the vulnerabilities of sinking cities are unable to be controlled
by engineering projects, like climate change, so it is essential that urban officials are aware of the
risks and vulnerabilities posed on their region. This starts by conducting local and regional
assessments that analyze city-level flood risks, and culminates in creating a long term resiliency
plan for cities. At this stage, climate change can no longer be mitigated. International goals hope
to reduce its impact throughout the twenty-first century, however, cities must design with climate
adaptability in mind.
Land Subsidence
Other components of sinking cities are within the control of urban officials and can be
successfully mitigated. The first step toward a successful subsidence mitigation strategy is
measuring and understanding its root causes. Many different techniques are used today including

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optical leveling, GPS surveys, LIDAR, and InSAR satellite imagery. Ideally, a combination of
techniques will be used to conduct the initial studies. Many cities have successfully implemented
policies to reduce subsidence. In Tokyo, groundwater regulations were implemented in the early
1960s, and ten years later, subsidence came to a halt. Shanghai is another example of a city that
successfully implemented a subsidence mitigation strategy. Shanghai implemented an active
recharge technique, which actively pumps an equal amount of water back into the subsurface as
water is extracted.[1]
Assuming the pumping rates are in balance with the recharge rates, this has
been proven to be a successful strategy.
Adaptation
For many sinking cities, adaptation is a more realistic strategy as many of the feedback loops
associated with urbanization are too strong to overcome. For most sinking cities, the largest
challenge associated with adaptation often becomes cost. The cost of adaptation to climate
change required by developing countries, mostly in Asia, is estimated by the World Bank at
US$75-100 billion per annum. However, the United Nations adaptation fund remains pitifully
under-resourced at US$18 millionFor many countries, foreign assistance will be necessary to
fund large adaptation projects.
A major component of adapting to climate change is the installation of flood protections,
warning systems/evacuation planning, and land use and spatial planning.[2]
Construction of
large sea walls, dikes, and diversion channels, are underway in many cities, but these solutions
often only limit damage and must be combined with warning systems and evacuation plans.
Warning systems and evacuation plans are likely the only response in coping with large-scale
disasters to avoid significant loss of life. However, as seen during Hurricane Katrina, evacuation
is not easily executed, as residents are often unwilling to abandon their unprotected property.
As previously discussed, flood risk remains the largest natural risk to sinking cities throughout
the world. The need to regulate land use to reduce exposure to flood risk should be the highest
priority of many governments. The Netherlands has implemented a country-wide program coined
the "Room for the River" Programme, which aims to give the river more room to be able to
manage higher water levels throughout the country.[26]
By allowing buffer space for rivers the
flood naturally, sinking cities can reduce the risk of floods that impact the established built
environment.
Let us see the 25 Underwater Cities That Look Straight Out Of Aquaman( BY JACOB
ORMRODJAN 15, 2019
Despite the fact that, as a species, we have managed to explore pretty much every bit of land that
exists on this planet, there is still so much around that we know nothing about, especially when it
comes to what may lie below us! Not only does this include things that are underground, but
deals with things that are underwater as well. There is so much about the ocean we do not yet
know about, so it's no surprise that there are ruins waiting under there to be discovered!
With the success of the new Aquaman movie, we thought we would dive into these underground
cities, reminiscent of Atlantis and Arthur Curry's home underneath the rest of the world. We can't

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swim like a fish, but we can definitely imagine that these places once were inhabited more with
people like us, and less like him, but who really knows? We do. We know.
What we've done is pulled together some of the most amazing images we could find of places
that have been waiting to be discovered underwater.
25Dwarka - India
According to folklore, Dwarka is the home town of Lord Krishna, a placed believed to be an old
wives tale, a myth, that is until the ruins were discovered 131 feet below the ocean. The ruins
were found beneath the surface of modern-day Dwarka. The complexities and the beauty of this
city, has baffled even experts.
ording to folklore, Dwarka is the home town of Lord Krishna, a placed believed to be an old
wives tale, a myth, that is until the ruins were discovered 131 feet below the ocean." (Musafir)
It is amazing when myths and folklore are actually found to be true.
It's this sort of thing that makes us remember, sometimes the world can end up being more
fantastical than we can actually make up! Yes, no matter what we come up with, there's always a
chance the world will manage to surprise us.
24Titicaca's (Argentina)Pre-Incan Ruins
While all the submerged cities we’ve seen so far have been really ancient ones, this one is as
recent as it can get. A thriving community in the 1970s it had around 5000 residents and 300

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business. But in the late 1980s and early 1990s it sank beneath the waters of the lake Lago
Epecuen. In 2009, some of the water receded, giving a glimpse into the ghost town.
These places aren't like your traditional tourist spots. You can't take a flight ticket and set off to
witness them. But none the less, the knowledge of the existence of these places is enough to
make you stand apart in the crowd.
"As the world’s highest navigable lake, the beautiful Lake Titicaca has long been shrouded in
mystery. Even today, locals believe the lake is sacred." (Urban Ghosts Media)
We should obviously be respectful of the different cultures out there, but we should still
properly take a look at some of the places people consider sacred.
No matter how sacred these places are, we must see what we can learn from humanity's past
from them.
23Port Royal - Jamaica
Made of 4 forts and 2000 buildings, in the 17th century Port Royal was a hotbed for pirate
activity. Famed pirates, the likes of Blackbeard would often make Port Royal their base to raid
treasure ships. That was until 1692, when an earthquake dragged it under the Caribbean sea.

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"Famed pirates, the likes of Blackbeard would often make Port Royal their base to raid treasure
ships. That was until 1692, when an earthquake dragged it under the Caribbean sea." (Musafir)
Did anyone else think it was impossible for an entire area of land to be dragged underneath
water? It's clearly just our lack of knowledge, our ignorance of these sorts of things, that means
our amazement at these sorts of places continues to grow by the minute!
22How Did They Get Pyramids Under The Water?
"To make things strange, these pyramids resemble those found in Mexico and Central America.
Here's where things get stranger, there are no other underwater structures found in this area."
(Musafir) This is the sort of thing that makes people come up with crazy conspiracy theories,
because it just feels as if there's no way of accepting that this sort of thing is just a coincidence.
What do you think? What is going on here?!
21Pavlopetri - Greece
"Having sunk 5000 years ago, no one knows what this city was called. Pavlopetri happens to be
the modern name given to it. Nobody knows who built this town or which civilization it
belonged to." (Musafir) Yet another place that people will be able to create all sorts of
conspiracy theories about, seeing as we have no real understanding of the origins of this place.
Not only is it underwater, it continues to elude is in so many ways!
Having sunk 5000 years ago, no one knows what this city was called. Pavlopetri happens to be
the modern name given to it. Nobody knows who built this town or which civilization it

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belonged to, but if archaeologists are to be believed, it was part of the Minoan dynasty. This
town is said to have been destroyed due to an earthquake.
20Seriously, Where Did It Come From?
"If archaeologists are to be believed, it was part of the Minoan dynasty. This town is said to have
been ruined due to an earthquake." (Musafir) Even the people who are in the know aren't
completely certain of where this place came from?!
It's no surprise that it continues to be interesting to those who find this sort of thing worth
looking into.
We say that we should always keep trying to figure out where things originally came from!
19Villa Epecuén - rgentina
"While all the submerged cities we’ve seen so far have been really ancient ones, this one is as
recent as it can get. A thriving community in the 1970s it had around 5000 residents and 300
business." (Musafir) Yes, believe it or not, but we don't have to delve too far into the past to see
the sort of things that can come about when water forces itself into this world. It's a lot sadder
when it takes down the homes of people who are still alive though...
18A Ghost Town
"But in the late 1980s and early 1990s it sank beneath the waters of the lake Lago Epecuen. In
2009, some of the water receded, giving a glimpse into the ghost town." (Musafir)
Imagine the sort of things we may find if the water around us started to recede even
further from the land?!
Can we ever truly know what is and is not hiding beneath us every single day that we're walking
around on this planet?
17The City Of Thonis-Heracleion
"Once situated on the northern coast of Egypt and established as one of the most important port
cities of the Mediterranean, this lost underwater city has been sitting at the bottom of the sea that
it once served." (Urban Ghosts Media)
It's important to remember that no matter how important somewhere is, it won't always be
that way.
The waters are rising, so it shouldn't be a surprise that one day some of our ports will be
underwater ruins!
16A Lost Trading Center

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"Artifacts brought to the surface indicate the ancient city was once a massive trading center and
bustling port city. More than 60 ancient shipwrecks have been found in the immediate area."
(Urban Ghosts Media)
To think that people will manage to find more than one thing in these underwater ruins is
amazing isn't it?
They first see the ruins, which is very quickly followed by them discovering what waits within
those ruins!
15Ancient City Of Baiae
"It was the playground of the elite, the rich and the famous, the site of permanent vacation homes
for people like Julius Caesar and Nero." (Urban Ghosts Media)
To think that there was a time when the most important people in the world would travel
to this place to relax, and yet it's now stuck at the bottom of the ocean.
We can only wonder at what this could've possibly looked like years ago!
14City In The Gulf Of Cambay
"In 2002, the ruins of another ancient underwater city were found in India’s Gulf of Cambay.
Resting beneath almost 40 meters of water, they were found quite accidentally by an
organization conducting a study of water pollution." (Urban Ghosts Media) We keep going on
about it, but this quote proves that there are so many things we don't know about underneath us,
that people can actually end up accidentally stumbling upon them.
13Take A Boat To The Dive Site
"Now, the ruins of Baiae form an archaeological dive site, where visitors can take a boat tour
above the ruins of the or scuba dive among them." (Urban Ghosts Media)
Yes, where people would once go to vacation, people can now go on their own vacation!
If you want to explore the underwater world, but want something a little more interesting than
just fish and coral reef, then this is where you need to head on your travels.
12Atlit Yam
"Atlit-Yam is the name given to the site of several lost Neolithic settlements found along the
Carmel coast. The sprawling underwater site includes ancient stone wells, the foundations of
homes and other buildings, and ancient roads." (Urban Ghosts Media) Amazing to think that we
may be able to learn about human life thousands of years ago just by finding where and how they
used to live all that way under the water.

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11A City Under A City
No matter what we may find, no matter how smart we are, there's always a chance that these
places will continue to baffle us.
"The ruins were found beneath the surface of modern-day Dwarka. The complexities and
the beauty of this city, has baffled even experts." (Musafir)
It's an important reminder that, whether we like it or not, there are things about this world that
none of us will ever fully understand.
10The Rulers Of The Sea
"Made of 4 forts and 2000 buildings, in the 17th century Port Royal was a place of pirate
activity." (Musafir)
To think that there was a time when this now underwater city would be overrun by the
very people that ruled the sea at the time.
Now, it lies underneath their natural habitat, where they probably ended up as well in the end!
9Japanese Pyramids
"These pyramids that lie underwater are fraught with mystery. Experts argue as to whether these
pyramids are man made or a naturally occurring phenomenon." (Musafir)
If you're anything like us, you thought that the Pyramids only existed in Egypt, so it's
amazing to learn that there are some of them underwater.
Let's all just remember that, just because somewhere is famous for something, doesn't mean it's
the only place with one of them.
8 Pyramids Of Yonaguni Jima - Japan

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These pyramids that lie underwater are fraught with mystery. Experts argue as to whether
these pyramids are man made or a naturally occurring phenomenon. If you believe with
the former, then these structures were made during the last ice age, around 10,000 BC. To
make things strange, these pyramids resemble those found in Mexico and Central America.
Here's where things get stranger, there are no other underwater structures found in this
area.
We know that there are a lot of things out there that were created long before we were born, but
we don't often take into consideration how long these places have been!
"These structures were made during the last ice age, around 10,000 BC." (Musafir)
We don't think that we will ever end up visiting somewhere that has been around on the planet
for this long. If we do, we'll be too scared to touch anything!
7Lion City - China
As far as the most stunning underwater city is concerned, China’s lion city is miles ahead
than the rest. Over 1400 years old, it was built during the Han dynasty and spans the area
of 62 football fields.
"As far as the most stunning underwater city is concerned, China’s lion city is miles ahead than
the rest. Over 1400 years old, it was built during the Han dynasty and spans the area of 62
football fields." (Musafir) If we're honest, we would find anywhere with these sorts of lions

23
pretty magic, but the fact that they're found underwater just adds to the beauty. Imagine being
one of the first people to stumble on this sort of thing while swimming around?
6Phanagoria Was Found In The Black Sea
"Phanagoria is the largest Greek city that now sits on Russian soil. Located on the Black Sea, it
was founded in the 6th century BC and, today, about a third of the city lies underwater, earning
its nickname the Russian Atlantis." (Urban Ghosts Media) This is quite possibly our favorite
image in this list, as it shows how the underwater world has completely taken over what was
once an important area on the planet.
5All But Fallen Apart
"Much of the underwater portion of the city is covered with sand, including port structures and a
large section of the city’s necropolis. Divers have also found marble plinths that were once the
base of great statues." (Urban Ghosts Media) We can only consider the size and scales of the
statues that once sat on these marble plinths. Everything is temporary, no matter how large and
important it may seem now!
4Face-To-Face With Olous
"While many lost underwater cities are either difficult to reach or protected archaeological sites,
the remains of the Minoan city of Olous are accessible to all." (Urban Ghosts Media) Yes, it's
hard to think of in these terms, but there are actually easy to access underwater ruins for those
with even basic expertise in how to properly traverse the underwater land and the mysteries that
lay within!
3The Residents Wouldn't Have Been Too Happy With It Submersed
"Olous once sat on the northeastern end of Crete, and was a thriving city with somewhere
between 30,000 and 40,000 residents." (Urban Ghosts Media)
If we ever get to a point where time travel is possible, these people are going to be annoyed
that we just let their city descend into the water!
They will probably think that people would spend more time looking after the precious little land
they have.
2The Mulifanua Site
"The discovery of more than 4,000 pottery shards off the coast of the Samoan island of Upolu
has confirmed that the ancient settlement now submerged beneath the Pacific waters was one of
the region’s Lapita villages." (Urban Ghosts Media) Something as small as shards of pottery can
be enough to help people who know what they're doing find entire ruins. No matter how small,
they always offer a chance for people to discover new ruins!

24
1Over 5000 Years Old
"The ancient underwater city is said to predate that which is currently known as far as
archaeological ruins go – by 5,000 years." (Urban Ghosts Media)
Just thinking about how long this place went unnoticed sends out head off into spirals of
confusion.
It's hard to get our heads around the fact that, even with people looking for them, some of these
things will probably always remain mysteries to the human race.

The discovery of the legendary city of Dvaraka which is said to have been founded by Sri
Krishna, is an important landmark in the validation of historical relevance of Mahabharata. It has
set at rest the doubts expressed by historians about the historicity of Mahabharata and the very
existence of Dvaraka city. It has greatly narrowed the gap of Indian history by establishing the
continuity of the Indian civilization from the Vedic age to the present day. The discovery has
also shed welcome light on second urbanization in the so-called 'Dark age', on the resuscitation
of dharma, on the resumption of maritime trade, and use of Sanskrit language and modified
Indus script. Incidentally, scientific data useful for a study of sea level changes and effects of
marine environment on metals and wood over long periods has also been generated by
underwater exploration. All this was possible because of the dedicated and daring efforts of

25
marine archaeologists, scientists and technicians of the Marine Archaeology Centre of the
National Institute of Oceanography
Dwarka Exploration
Dwaraka is a coastal town in Jamnagar district of Gujarat. Traditionally, modern Dwaraka is
identified with Dvaraka, mentioned in the Mahabharata as Krishna's city. Dwaraka was a port,
and some scholars have identified it with the island of Barka mentioned in the Periplus of
Erythrean Sea. Ancient Dwaraka sank in sea and hence is an important archaeological site. The
first clear historical record of the lost city is dated 574 A.D. and occurs in the Palitana Plates of
Samanta Simhaditya. This inscription refers to Dwaraka as the capital of the western coast of
Saurashtra and still more important, states that Sri Krishna lived here.
The first archaeological excavations at Dwaraka were done by the Deccan College, Pune and the
Department of Archaeology, Government of Gujarat, in 1963 under the direction of H.D.
Sankalia. It revealed artefacts many centuries old.
The Marine Archaeological Unit (MAU) of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) conducted
a second round of excavations in 1979 under the supervision of Dr S. R. Rao (one of the most
respected archaeologists of India). An emeritus scientist at the marine archaeology unit of the
National Institute of Oceanography, Rao has excavated a large number of Harappan sites
including the port city of Lothal in Gujarat. He found a distinct pottery known as lustrous red
ware, which could be more than 3,000 years old. Based on the results of these excavations, the
search for the sunken city in the Arabian Sea began in 1981. Scientists and archaeologists have
continually worked on the site for 20 years.
The project for underwater exploration was sanctioned in 1984, directly by the then Prime
Minister for three years. Excavation under the sea is a hard and strenuous task. The sea offers too
much resistance. Excavation is possible only between November and February, during low tide.
The sea has to be smooth and there should be bright sunshine. All these requirements effectively
reduce the number of diving days to 40 to 45 in one season.In order to make the maximum use of
the time available, divers use echo sounder to get a fairly accurate idea of the location and the
depth of the object under water. The side scan sonar offers a view of the sea floor. The sonar
signals sent inside the water return the signals. Reading of the signals reveals the broad nature of
the object under water. Underwater scooters, besides the usual diving equipment like scuba were
also pressed into service. Between 1983 and 1990, S.R.Rao's team came across discoveries that
cemented the existance of a submerged city.
In January 2007, the Underwater Archaeology Wing (UAW) of the Archaeological Survey of
India (ASI) began excavations at Dwaraka again. Alok Tripathi, Superintending Archaeologist,
UAW, said the ancient underwater structures found in the Arabian Sea were yet to be identified.
"We have to find out what they are. They are fragments. I would not like to call them a wall or a
temple. They are part of some structure," said Dr. Tripathi, himself a trained diver. Dr. Tripathi
had said: "To study the antiquity of the site in a holistic manner, excavations are being conducted
simultaneously both on land [close to the Dwarakadhish temple] and undersea so that finds from
both the places can be co-related and analysed scientifically."

26
The objective of the excavation was to know the antiquity of the site, based on material evidence.
In the offshore excavation, the ASI's trained underwater archaeologists and the divers of the
Navy searched the sunken structural remains. The finds were studied, dated and documented. On
land, the excavation was done in the forecourt of the Dwarakadhish temple. Students from
Gwalior, Lucknow, Pune, Vadodara,Varanasi and Bikaner joined in to help the ASI
archaeologists.

27
Gulf of Khambat Exploration (Gulf of Cambay)
In 2001, the students of National Institute of Oceanography were commissioned by the Indian
Government to do a survey on pollution in Gulf of Khambat, seven miles from the shore. During
the survey, they found buildings made of stones covered in mud and sand covering five square
miles. Divers have collected blocks, samples, artefacts, and coppers coins, which scientists
believe is the evidence from an age that is about 3,600 years old. Some of the samples were sent
to Manipur and oxford university for carbon dating, and the results created more suspicion since
some of the objects were found to be 9000 years old.
It is indeed overwhelming to find that what had been discovered underwater at the bay of
Cambat is an archaeological site, dating back to 7500 BC and older than any previously claimed
oldest sites of civilization.
Findings at the Dwarka excavation site
Marine archaeological explorations off Dwarka have brought to light a large number of stone
structures. They are are semicircular, rectangular and square in shape and are in water depth
ranging from inter tidal zone to 6 m. They are randomly scattered over a vast area. Besides these
structures, a large number of varieties of stone anchors have been noticed along the structures as
well as beyond 6 m water depth.These findings suggest that Dwarka was one of the most busy
port centers during the past on the west coast of India. The comparative study of surrounding
sites indicates that the date of the structures of Dwarka may be between Historical period and
late medieval period.The ruins have been proclaimed the remains of the legendary lost city of
Dwarka which, according to ancient Hindu texts, was the dwelling place of Krishna.

28
The underwater excavations revealed structures and ridge-like features. Other antiquities were
also found. All the objects were photographed and documented with drawings - both underwater.
While underwater cameras are used for photography, drawings are done on boards - a transparent
polyester film of 75 micron fixed with a graph sheet below. The graph sheet acts as a scale. One
or two divers take the dimensions and the third draws the pictures. The Public Works
Department routinely conducts dredging in these waters to keep the Gomati channel open. This
throws up a lot of sediments, which settle on underwater structures. Brushes are used to clear
these sediments to expose the structures.
* Explorations yielded structures such as bastions, walls, pillars and triangular and rectangular
stone anchors.
* A semi-spherical single-hole stone which might be the base for flagpost.
* L-shaped edges of stones for proper grip and arresting wave action on bastions.
* Seals, inscriptions, which have been dated to 1500 BC.
* Pottery, which have been dated to 3528 BC.
* Stone sculptures, terracotta beads, bronze, copper and iron objects.
Until recently the very existence of the city of Dwarka was a matter of legends. Now, that the
remains have been discovered under water, and with many clues seeming to suggest that this,
indeed, is the legendary Dwarka, dwelling place of lord Krishna, could it be that lord Krishna
and his heroics were more than just a legend?
Findings at the Gulf of Khambat excavation site
On the other hand explorations conducted in the Gulf of Cambay waters revealed sandstone
walls, a grid of streets and some evidence of a sea port 70 feet under water, and artefacts dating
back to 7500BC. Among the artifacts recovered were a piece of wood, pottery sherds, weathered
stones initially described as hand tools, fossilized bones, and a tooth. Artifacts were sent to the
National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) in Hyderabad, India, the Birbal Sahni Institute
of Paleobotany (BSIP) in Lucknow, India, and the Physical Research Laboratory in Ahmedabad,
India. The piece of wood was carbon dated to an age of 9,500 years old.
NIOT returned for further investigation in the Gulf from October 2002 to January 2003. During
these excavations, NIOT reported finding two paleochannels flanked by rectangular and square
basement-like features. Artifacts were recovered by means of dredging, including pottery sherds,
microliths, wattle and daub remains, and hearth materials. These artifacts were sent for dating at
the laboratories of Manipur University and Oxford University and were concluded to be 9000
years old
Mainstream scientists maintain that ancient Indian culture/civilization goes back some 4-5
thousand years. Yet the ruins below the Gulf of Cambay go back at least 9 thousand years
proving that the ancient indian civilization is much older than originally believed.

29
Correlation of Dwarka exploration site with the Dwarka of Mahabharata
A few years ago, when asked as to how sure he was that this was Krishna's Dwarka, Rao had
replied, "only the name board is missing." He submitted a proposal to the Ministry of Culture in
January 2000, that aimed at preserving the 'underwater cultural heritage of India Dwarka' and
also promoting it as a pilgrimage-tourism center. His proposal, in three stages, was to cost Rs 14
crores. It is sad that the proposal was not taken up. The then Secretary, Ministry of Culture,
visited Dwarka and promised help, but nothing has been heard so far.
In the project proposal, Rao writes, "The fort walls of the first town of Dwarka said to have been
founded at Kusasthali in Bet Dwarka island have been traced on shore and in the sea and also
dated by thermoluminescence dating method to 16th century BC." According to him, the clue to
the existence of ancient Dwarka near the modern town of Dwarka was found during
archaeological excavation near the Dwarkadhish temple in 1979-80. Eroded debris and pottery
provided evidence of a port town destroyed by sea about 3,500 years ago. This evidence is what
led to the early excavations in the Arabian Sea, near the mouth of the Gomati river, where the
modern town of Dwarka stands.
The Indian mythology is replete with accounts of how the original Dwarka looked like.
Mahabharat says that Dwarka had 900,000 royal palaces, all constructed with crystal and silver
and decorated with emeralds. The city was connected by an elaborate system of boulevards,
roads, market places, assembly houses and temples. These legends have been etched into the
Indian minds for so long that their authenticity is not questioned. Fortunately, due to the grace of
the marine archaeological department of India, the childhood stories have come to be a reality to
a great extent.
Marine archaeological explorations have thrown light on a number of structures of different
shapes, stone anchors and other artefacts. The exploration has found sandstone walls, a grid of
streets and remains of a sea port, some 70 feet beneath the sea. The evidence points to the fact of
the existence of a city some 9,000 years ago. Also according to them this was one of the most
important and busy ports during historical and medieval periods.
The detailed exploration and excavation of this sunken city was started in 1988 with certain
goals and results in mind:
1. The explorations were extended up to the Temple of Samudranarayan (Sea God), in order to
trace the extent of the port city and the purpose behind the massive stone walls built on the banks
of the ancient Gomati River.
2. Whether the architectural features were in conformity to the ones described in the Mahabharat.
3. To obtain a more corroborative evidence for reclamation referred to in the epic.
4. The nick point where the Gomati River joined the sea had to be determined.
5. The cause of the submergence
Dwarka was supposed to have been built on six blocks, two on the right bank and four on the
left. All the six sectors have protective walls built of dressed stones of sandstones. Whatever has

30
been traced so far conforms to the description of Dwarka in the Mahabharat to a large extent. For
example, the enclosures may correspond to the Antahpurs (harems) of the texts.
Similarly, the large number of stone anchors is indicative of overseas trade. The large ships were
anchored to the sea, whereas the small ones were near to the warehouses on the Gomati, part of
which has been submerged.
The layout of the excavated city, the spread and the location of fort walls and bastions match the
descriptions mentioned in Harivamsha, a prologue to Mahabharata. Harivamsha described the
city of Dwarka in minute details. According to it, the area of Dwarka was 12 yojanas. It was
connected to the mainland by a strip, which is visible even now, in low tide. The city excavated
is of the same size.
Harivamsha, detailing the security arrangements, says that there were seals, without which one
could not enter the city. Seals of a particular description were found on the seabed. A stone
image of Vishnu, chert blades and pottery are all part of the recovered objects. Certain coins
were found during excavations underwater having inscriptions similar to details found in
Mahabharata.
Elaborating on the town plan of first Dwarka, Rao's proposal says, "There were two fortification
walls. One in the lower terrace and another in the middle terrace. The walls which extended over
a length of 4 km on the eastern shore are mostly destroyed by sea action. The walls of the lower
terrace are of massive, dressed sandstone blocks while that of the upper terrace are of rubble. The
houses and other public buildings, built of smaller size stones within the enclosure are all
destroyed and levelled up by the encroachment of the sea. These structures lie in a depth of 7 to
10 meters, below the present mean sea-level, indicating a rise of 10 meters in sea-level during the
last 3,600 years." The reclamation of land from water-logged areas, referred to in Mahabharata,
in order to build the city, is also
attested by the boulder foundations over which walls and bastions were raised.
Marine archaeology has proved that the existence of the Dwarka and its submergence in the
second millennium B.C referred to in the Mahabharat, Harivamsa, Matsya and Vayu Purans
(Sanskrit texts) is a fact and not fiction. The implications of accepting the archeologists’ finds as
proof that the sunken city is indeed the legendary Dwarka would be very significant for the
understanding of what the Mahabharata is. It would no longer be merely a book of myths and
legends, but in fact, at least to some extent, a genuine account of past events.
Speculations and Conclusions
Based on the correlation between the excavated structures and artefacts with the description of
Dwarka in Harivamsha purana, and the fact that the carbon dating of artefacts fall around
3500BC, the same period concluded by many astronomical analysts as the period of the
Mahabharata war and the submersion of Dwarka, it is more than reasonable to conclude that the
excavated site near Bet Dwarka is indeed the legandary city of Dwarka.

31
The discovery of the second exploration at Gulf of Khambat proves that it was not just Dwarka
that got submersed, but more costal regions got encroached by the sea over centuries, and the
dating of artefacts to 7500BC indicates that the ancient indian civilization is more than 9000
years old, and the entire coastal regions has been going under sea from 9000BC, and this
phenomenon took over the city of Dwarka by around 3500BC.
Before the discovery of the legendary city of Dwaraka, some scholars were of view that the
Hindu Epic Mahabharata is only a myth and that it would be futile to search for the remains of
the ancient city and that too in the sea. Few scholars also believe that the Mahabharata battle was
a family feud which was exaggerated into a war. Excavations of Dr S. R. Rao at Dwaraka prove
that the descriptions found in the texts are not to be discarded as fancy stories but are to be
treated as based on logic and reasoning.
Thus the results have proved that the account in Mahabharata as to the existence of a beautiful
capital city of Dwaraka of Sri Krishna
was not a
mere figment of imagination but it did exist.

32
What really happened to Dwarka
The rise in the sea-level in Dwarka is a scientific truth. Studies have proved that the sea
considerably and suddenly rose to submerge the city. Harivamsha describes the submerging of
Dwarka saying Krishna instructed Arjuna, who was then visiting Dwarka, to evacuate the
residents of the city as the sea was going to engulf the city. "On the seventh day (of Krishna

33
saying this), as the last of the citizens were leaving the city, the sea entered the streets of
Dwarka."
According to experts, there could have been three reasons why the sea entered the land. One, a
change in the level of seabed, two, a massive earthquake and three, sudden increase in the level
of sea water. Of the three, the last is the most plausible. If it was a change in the level of seabed,
some remains of the "tearing off action" on the shore would be visible, which is absent.
Earthquake can be ruled out as the structures have not collapsed because of the shake. The third
reason
is most acceptable as a similar phenomenon had occurred in the shores of Bahrain, around the
same time, as some recent findings indicate. It is to be noted here that considerable work has
been done on shore and offshore underwater excavations in Bahrain, which has indicated a deep
and regular trade and other relations between the western coast and the coasts of the present-day
Bahrain region.
Unfortunate halting of the excavation.
But the work on further excavation has met a formidable roadblock in the form of academic
indifference and government apathy. A proposal submitted to the government by Dr S.R. Rao,
renowned marine archaeologist, who led the underwater investigations is collecting dust for over
four years now.
It is clear that for almost a decade the Central Government had not shown much interest in the
excavations in Dwarka or the one at Gulf of Cambay. Though the discoveries at Gulf of Cambay
by the National Institute of Ocean Technology established carbon-14 date of 7,500 to 9,000 years
for the wood samples excavated from under the sea and the existence of a civilization dating to
that period, it might not be directly connected with Krishna's Dwarka which Shri Rao believes
existed some 4,000 years ago. This, however, might help in ascertaining the rise in the sea-level
about 30 meters in 7,500 years, approximately at the rate of 10 meters in 3,500-3,800 years. Dr
Rao is on record that Dwarka excavation was carried out almost fully but the excavation in the
inter-tidal zone of Balapur Bay in Bet Dwarka where further antiquities may be found, has not
been carried out partly due to the lack of funds and mainly due to lack of interest in the CSIR.
Dwarka, as of today is still one of the best-studied underwater sites in India.
S.R.Rao's proposals.
The proposal envisaged a three-stage heritage conservation. This was to be done along with
further excavations in Bet Dwarka. It was suggested that access to the submerged city in Dwarka
water can be given to visitors, in fair season, through underwater acrylic tubes or viewing
chambers at specific points. Such facilities exist in Singapore and Auckland (New Zealand).
Alternatively, underwater video cameras can be used to project images above water, in monitors.
The project also mooted the idea of a submarine museum of dolphins as they are in good
population in deeper water, off Dwarka. There is also a strong case for a Maritime Museum of
Antiquities found in excavations at Dwarka, Bet Dwarka, Somnath, Nageswar and dioramas of
Lothal port and Dwarka city. As of now, the Dwarka antiquities are lying in NIO, Goa.

34
It is again a telling story of the system in India, which is the cause of lack of interest in the
project. Such a discovery in any other country would have been approved and encouraged. The
excavation on Dwarka was done by Rao, who was with the National Institute of Oceanography,
Goa. Though work remained to be done, the CSIR, under whom falls the NIO, did not release the
funds. Further extension to Rao was not given as he had already reached the age of 72.
It is indeed surprising that the history associations, archaeologists and historians have taken little
notice of the findings at Dwarka. In its early days, the project received UNESCO support and
several foreign marine archaeologists also offered help. However, the government's indifference
to the project has kept them away. Unlike several other land excavations, the underwater
excavations can be done only with total government help. Several levels of permissions are
needed. While land excavations are demanding in labor, the underwater explorations need
machinery and equipment. Skillful divers, who are trained to look for meaningful objects are
required too.
For an Indian, Dwarka is not a mere archaeological site, nor is it a proof. Indians have all along
believed Mahabharata to be a historical narration. But the excavations are a national heritage, a
symbol of pride, an honor that is shared by all who are born in this land of Bharata. It is a call for
action on Dwarka.
Reference:
Dwarka to Kurushetra. Dr. S. R. Rao. Journal of Marine Archaeology (1995-96).
Underwater Cultural Heritage. A.S Gaur and K. H Vora. Current Science Volume 86 No 9 May
2004.
Further Excavations of the Submerged City of Dwarka. S. R. Rao. Recent Advances in Marine
Archaeology
News Articles (Hindu, Deccan Herald, Reuters)
http://rafalreyzer.com/the-underwater-ruins-of-dwarka/

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CHAPTER-I
‘Dashavataram’ Ten avatars of Lord Vishnu
We all are aware of ten avatars of Lord Vishnu also called
‘Dashavataram’. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu is considered to
be one of the most important deities of Hinduism. The three gods form
the principal trinity of Hinduism. The Hindu scriptures talk about the
divine help provided by Lord Vishnu whenever humanity is threatened by
chaos or evil, during the various eras by appearing on earth in the
following incarnations.
Matsya (The Fish)
 This was the first incarnation of Vishnu where he takes the form Matsya.
 It is said to be the avatar that rescued the first man, as well as other creatures of the earth, from a
great flood.

36
 Kurma or Koorma is the tortoise incarnation that appeared in the Satya Yuga while the deities
and the demons were churning the ocean to obtain the nectar of immortality and treasures
dissolved in the ocean of milk.
 Lord Vishnu held the mountain ‘Mandarachala’ on his back as it soon as it started to sink, during
the time of the churning of the ocean.
 To support the churning stick on his back, Vishnu took the form of a tortoise. However, the
Kurma avatar of Vishnu is usually seen in a mixed human-animal form.
Varaha (The Boar)
 This incarnation as a Boar appeared in the Satya Yuga. He raised the earth from the bottom of
the sea after the demon Hiranyaksha dragged it to the bottom.
 It is described as the cosmic ocean in the scriptures. This battle between Varaha and Hiranyaksha
lasted for a thousand years, at the end of which Varaha carried the Earth out of the ocean
between his tusks and restored it to its place in the universe.

37
Narasimha (The Man-Lion)
Narasimha incarnation appeared in Satya Yuga as half-man half-lion. As the legend goes, the
demon Hiranyakashipu obtained a boon from Brahma that he could not be killed or harmed by
any means.
After gaining this boon he got arrogant of his powers and began causing trouble both in heaven
and on the earth. He didn’t even spare his own son ‘Prahlad’ who was a Vishnu devotee.
When he tried to kill his own son Lord Vishnu appeared in the
form of half-man half-lion, to kill this powerful demon and to establish the win of good over
evil one more time on earth.
Vaamana (The Dwarf)

38
This incarnation appeared in the Treta Yuga. According to Rig Veda, Vamana (the dwarf)
appears when the demon king Bali ruled the universe and the gods lost their power.
All the gods appealed to Lord Vishnu for protection and he took this avatar for the purpose of
restraining Bali.
Parasurama (The Angry Man)
 In this avatar, Vishnu appeared as a priest with an axe in the Treta Yuga.
 He comes to the world to kill Demons and protect humanity.
 He received an axe after undertaking a tough penance to please Shiva, from whom he learned the
methods of warfare and other skills to protect mankind.
Lord Rama (The Perfect Man)

39
 It is the seventh avatar of Vishnu and is one of the major Hindu deities.
 This Avatar is considered one of the supreme avatars of Vishnu according to some cultures. The
prince and king of Ajodhya appeared in the Treta Yug.
 Lord Rama defeated Ravana the king of Sri Lanka and killed him for capturing and imprisoning
his wife Sita in the Ashoka Garden in Sri Lanka.
Lord Krishna (The Divine Statesman)
 It is the eighth avatar of Vishnu and is one of the most widely revered deities of Hinduism that
appeared in the Dwapara Yuga along with his brother Balarama.
 Krishna has been portrayed in a variety of forms because there are so many stories surrounding
him. His form of Divine lover is the most common of all of these stories.

40
Buddha
 This incarnation of Vishnu came to Earth to delude beings away from the Vedic religion.
 Buddhism is a religion that was spread by Gautam Buddha.
Kalki (The Mighty Warrior)
 It is the last incarnation of Vishnu. Who will come to end the present age of darkness and
destruction known as Kali Yuga the time period in which we currently exist.
 It was believed that he will come to rid the world of oppression by unrighteous rulers.
 It is said that he will appear riding a white horse and carrying a fiery sword and re-establish the
superiority of Virtuosity and religiousness.
 Vishnu will appear as a priest had appeared with the axe, in the Treta Yuga.

41
CHAPTER II
Krishna (/ˈkrɪʃnə/, Sanskrit pronunciation: [ˈkr̩ ʂɳɐ]; Sanskrit: कृ ष्ण, IAST: Kṛṣṇa) is a
major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of the god Vishnu and also as
the supreme God in his own right. He is the god of compassion, tenderness, love and is one of
the most popular and widely revered among Indian divinities. Krishna's birthday is celebrated
every year by Hindus on Krishna Janmashtami according to the lunisolar Hindu calendar, which
falls in late August or early September of the Gregorian calendar. Krishna is usually depicted
with a flute in his hand.
The anecdotes and narratives of Krishna's life are generally titled as Krishna Leela. He is a
central character in the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana and the Bhagavad Gita, and is
mentioned in many Hindu philosophical, theological, and mythological texts.[18]
They portray
him in various perspectives: a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and as the
universal supreme being. His iconography reflects these legends, and shows him in different
stages of his life, such as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a flute, a young boy
with Radha or surrounded by women devotees, or a friendly charioteer giving counsel to Arjuna.
The synonyms of Krishna have been traced to 1st millennium BCE literature.[21]
In some sub-
traditions, Krishna is worshipped as Svayam Bhagavan, and this is sometimes referred to
as Krishnaism. These sub-traditions arose in the context of the medieval era Bhakti
movement Krishna-related literature has inspired numerous performance arts such
as Bharatanatyam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Odissi, and Manipuri dance. He is a pan-Hindu god,
but is particularly revered in some locations such as Vrindavan in Uttar
Pradesh, Dwarka and Junagadh in Gujarat; the Jagannatha aspect in Odisha, Mayapur in West
Bengal ; in the form
of Vithoba in Pandharpur, Maharashtra, Nathdwara in Rajasthan,Udupi Krishna
in Karnataka, Parthasarathy in Tamil Nadu and Guruvayoorappan in Guruvayoor in Kerala Since
the 1960s, the worship of Krishna has also spread to the Western world and to Africa, largely
due to the work of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON).
List of titles and names of Krishna
The name "Krishna" originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective
meaning "black", "dark", "dark blue" or “the all attractive”. The waning moon is called
Krishna Paksha, relating to the adjective meaning "darkening".[
The name is also interpreted
sometimes as "all-attractive".
As a name of Vishnu, Krishna is listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama. Based on
his name, Krishna is often depicted in idols as black- or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by
various other names, epithets, and titles that reflect his many associations and attributes. Among
the most common names are Mohan "enchanter"; Govinda "chief herdsman",Keev "prankster",
and Gopala "Protector of the 'Go'", which means "Soul" or "the cows". Some names for Krishna
hold regional importance; Jagannatha, found in Puri Hindu temple, is a popular incarnation
in Odisha state and nearby regions of eastern India.

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Krishna may also be referred to as Vāsudeva-Krishna, Murlidhar, and Chakradhar. The honorary
title "Sri" (also spelled "Shri") is often used before the name of Krishna.
Names in different States
Krishna is worshipped as:
1. Krishna Kanhaiyya: Mathura
2. Jagannath: Odisha
3. Vithoba: Maharashtra
4. Srinath: Rajasthan
5. Dwarakadheesh: Gujarat
6. Ranchhod: Gujarat
7. Krishna: Udipi, Karnataka
8.
Historical Sources: The tradition of Krishna appears to be an amalgamation of several
independent deities of ancient India, the earliest to be attested being Vāsudeva. Vāsudeva was a
hero-god of the tribe of the Vrishnis, belonging to the Vrishni heroes, whose worship is attested
from the 5th-6th century BCE in the writings of Pāṇini, and from the 2nd century BCE in
epigraphy with the Heliodorus pillar. At one point in time, it is thought that the tribe of the
Vrishnis fused with the tribe of the Yadavas, whose own hero-god was named Krishna.
Vāsudeva and Krishna fused to become a single deity, which appears in the Mahabharata, and
they start to be identified with Vishnu in the Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita.[38]
Around
the 4th century CE, another tradition, the cult of Gopala-Krishna, the protector of cattle, was also
absorbed into the Krishna tradition.
Early epigraphic sources-Depiction in coinage (2nd century BCE)
Vāsudeva-Krishna, on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria, c. 180 BCE. This is "the earliest
unambiguous image" of the deity.
Around 180 BCE the Indo-Greek king Agathocles issued some coinage bearing images of deities
that are now interpreted as being related to Vaisnava imagery in India. The deities displayed on
the coins appear to be Saṃkarṣaṇa-Balarama with attributes consisting of the Gada mace and
the plow, and Vāsudeva-Krishna with attributes of the Shankha (conch) and the Sudarshana

43
Chakra wheel. According to Bopearachchi, the headdress on top of the deity is actually a
misrepresentation of a shaft with a half-moon parasol on top (chattra).
Inscriptions
Heliodorus Pillar in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, erected about 120 BCE. The inscription
states that Heliodorus is a Bhagvatena, and a couplet in the inscription closely paraphrases a
Sanskrit verse from the Mahabharata.
The Heliodorus Pillar, a stone pillar with a Brahmi script inscription was discovered by
colonial era archaeologists in Besnagar (Vidisha, central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh). Based
on the internal evidence of the inscription, it has been dated to between 125 and 100 BCE, and
now known after Heliodorus – an Indo-Greek who served as an ambassador of the Greek
king Antialcidas to a regional Indian king Kasiputra Bhagabhadra. The Heliodorus pillar
inscription is a private religious dedication of Heliodorus to "Vāsudeva", an early deity and
another name for Krishna in the Indian tradition. It states that the column was constructed by
"the Bhagavata Heliodorus" and that it is a "Garuda pillar" (both are Vishnu-Krishna-related
terms). Additionally, the inscription includes a Krishna-related verse from chapter 11.7 of
the Mahabharata stating that the path to immortality and heaven is to correctly live a life of three
virtues: self-temperance (damah), generosity (cagah or tyaga), and vigilance (apramadah). The
Heliodorus pillar site was fully excavated by archaeologists in the 1960s. The effort revealed the
brick foundations of a much larger ancient elliptical temple complex with a sanctum, mandapas,
and seven additional pillars. The Heliodorus pillar inscriptions and the temple are among the
earliest known evidence of Krishna-Vasudeva devotion and Vaishnavism in ancient India.

44
Balarama and Krishna with their attributes at Chilas. The Kharoshthi inscription nearby reads Rama [kri]ṣa.
1st century CE.
Vasudeva Anakadundubhi carrying baby Krishna in a basket across the Yamuna. Circa 1st
Century CE, Gatashram Narayan Temple. Mathura Museum.
The Heliodorus inscription is not an isolated evidence. The Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions, all
located in the state of Rajasthan and dated by modern methodology to the 1st century BCE,
mention Saṃkarṣaṇa and Vāsudeva, also mention that the structure was built for their worship in
association with the supreme deity Narayana. These four inscriptions are notable for being some
of the oldest-known Sanskrit inscriptions.
A Mora stone slab found at the Mathura-Vrindavan archaeological site in Uttar Pradesh, held
now in the Mathura Museum, has a Brahmi inscription. It is dated to the 1st century CE and
mentions the five Vrishni heroes, otherwise known as Saṃkarṣaṇa,
Vāsudeva, Pradyumna, Aniruddha, and Samba.
The inscriptional record for Vāsudeva starts in the 2nd century BCE with the coinage of
Agathocles and the Heliodorus pillar, but the name of Krishna appears rather later in epigraphy.
At Chilas II archeological site dated to the first half of 1st-century CE in northwest Pakistan,
near the Afghanistan border, are engraved two males along with many Buddhist images nearby.
The larger of the two males holds a plough and club in his two hands. The artwork also has an
inscription with it in Kharosthi script, which has been deciphered by scholars as Rama-Krsna,
and interpreted as an ancient depiction of the two brothers Balarama and Krishna.
The first known depiction of the life of Krishna himself comes relatively late with a relief found
in Mathura, and dated to the 1st-2nd century CE. This fragment seems to be showing Vasudeva,
Krishna' father, carrying baby Krishna in a basket across the Yamuna. The relief shows at one
end a seven-hooded Naga crossing a river, where a makara crocodile is thrashing around, and at
the other end a person seemingly holding a basket over his head.
Literary sources
Mahabharata-Krishna in the Mahabharata
The earliest text containing detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the
epic Mahabharata, which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu. Krishna is central to
many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of
the epic that constitute the Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to Arjuna on the
battlefield. The Harivamsa, a later appendix to the Mahabharata contains a detailed version of
Krishna's childhood and youth.

45
Krishna is celebrated in the Vaishnava tradition in various stages of his life, such as Maakhan
chor (butter thief).
The Chandogya Upanishad, estimated to have been composed sometime between the 8th and
6th centuries BCE, has been another source of speculation regarding Krishna in ancient India.
The verse (III.xvii.6) mentions Krishna in Krishnaya Devakiputraya as a student of the sage
Ghor' of the Angirasa family. Ghora is identified with Neminatha, the twenty-
second tirthankara in Jainism, by some scholars.[64]
This phrase, which means "To Krishna the
son of Devaki", has been mentioned by scholars such as Max Müller as a potential source of
fables and Vedic lore about Krishna in the Mahabharata and other ancient literature – only
potential, because this verse could have been interpolated into the text, or the Krishna
Devakiputra, could be different from the deity Krishna.[66]
These doubts are supported by the fact
that the much later age Sandilya Bhakti Sutras, a treatise on Krishna,[67]
cites later age
compilations such as the Narayana Upanishad but never cites this verse of the Chandogya
Upanishad. Other scholars disagree that the Krishna mentioned along with Devaki in the ancient
Upanishad is unrelated to the later Hindu god of the Bhagavad Gita fame. For example, Archer
states that the coincidence of the two names appearing together in the same Upanishad verse
cannot be dismissed easily.
Yāska's Nirukta, an etymological dictionary published around the 6th century BCE, contains a
reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura, a motif from the well-known
Puranic story about Krishna. Shatapatha Brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka associate Krishna
with his Vrishni origins.
In Ashṭādhyāyī, authored by the ancient grammarian Pāṇini (probably belonged to the 5th or
6th century BCE), Vāsudeva and Arjuna, as recipients of worship, are referred to together in the
same sutra.
Bala Krishna dancing, 14th century CE Chola sculpture, Tamil Nadu, in the Honolulu Academy
of Arts.
Megasthenes, a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to the court
of Chandragupta Maurya towards the end of 4th century BCE, made reference to Herakles in his
famous work Indica. This text is now lost to history, but was quoted in secondary literature by
later Greeks such as Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo. According to these texts, Megasthenes
mentioned that the Sourasenoi tribe of India, who worshipped Herakles, had two major cities
named Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river named the Jobares. According to Edwin

46
Bryant, a professor of Indian religions known for his publications on Krishna, "there is little
doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which
Krishna belonged".[74]
The word Herakles, states Bryant, is likely a Greek phonetic equivalent of
Hari-Krishna, as is Methora of Mathura, Kleisobora of Krishnapura, and the Jobares of Jamuna.
Later, when Alexander the Great launched his campaign in the northwest Indian subcontinent,
his associates recalled that the soldiers of Porus were carrying an image of Herakles.
The Buddhist Pali canon and the Ghata-Jâtaka (No. 454) polemically mention the devotees of
Vâsudeva and Baladeva. These texts have many peculiarities and may be a garbled and confused
version of the Krishna legends. The texts of Jainism mention these tales as well, also with many
peculiarities and different versions, in their legends about Tirthankaras. This inclusion of
Krishna-related legends in ancient Buddhist and Jaina literature suggests that Krishna theology
was existent and important in the religious landscape observed by non-Hindu traditions
of ancient India.
Other sources

47
The ancient Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali in his Mahabhashya makes several references to
Krishna and his associates found in later Indian texts. In his commentary on Pāṇini's verse
3.1.26, he also uses the word Kamsavadha or the "killing of Kamsa", an important part of the
legends surrounding Krishna.
Puranas
Many Puranas, mostly compiled during the Gupta period (4-5th century CE), tell Krishna's life
story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana,
contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna's story, but the life stories of Krishna in these and
other texts vary, and contain significant inconsistencies. The Bhagavata Purana consists of
twelve books subdivided into 332 chapters, with a cumulative total of between 16,000 and
18,000 verses depending on the version. The tenth book of the text, which contains about 4,000
verses (~25%) and is dedicated to legends about Krishna, has been the most popular and widely
studied part of this text.
Iconography
Krishna with cows, herdsmen, and Gopis.
Krishna is represented in the Indian traditions in many ways, but with some common features.
His iconography typically depicts him with black, dark, or blue skin, like Vishnu. However,
ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material
out of which he is formed, both in India and in southeast Asia. In some texts, his skin is
poetically described as the color of Jambul (Jamun, a purple-colored fruit).
Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock-feather wreath or crown, and playing
the bansuri (Indian flute). In this form, he is usually shown standing with one leg bent in front of
the other in the Tribhanga posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, which
symbolise the divine herdsman Govinda. Alternatively, he is shown as a romantic young boy
with the gopis (milkmaids), often making music or playing pranks.

48
Krishna lifting Govardhana at Bharat Kala Bhavan, recovered from a Muslim graveyard in
Varanasi. It is dated to the Gupta Empire era (4th/6th-century CE).
In other icons, he is a part of battlefield scenes of the epic Mahabharata. He is shown as a
charioteer, notably when he is addressing the Pandava prince Arjuna character, symbolically
reflecting the events that led to the Bhagavad Gita – a scripture of Hinduism. In these popular
depictions, Krishna appears in the front as the charioteer, either as a counsel listening to Arjuna,
or as the driver of the chariot while Arjuna aims his arrows in the battlefield of Kurukshetra.
Alternate icons of Krishna show him as a baby (Bala Krishna, the child Krishna), a toddler
crawling on his hands and knees, a dancing child, or an innocent-looking child playfully stealing
or consuming butter (Makkan Chor), holding Laddu in his hand (Laddu Gopal) or as a cosmic
infant sucking his toe while floating on a banyan leaf during the Pralaya (the cosmic dissolution)
observed by sage Markandeya. Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his
different forms, such as Jaganatha in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra, Shrinathji in
Rajasthanand Guruvayoorappan in Kerala.
Guidelines for the preparation of Krishna icons in design and architecture are described in
medieval-era Sanskrit texts on Hindu temple arts such as Vaikhanasa agama, Vishnu
dharmottara, Brihat samhita, and Agni Purana.[104]
Similarly, early medieval-era Tamil
texts also contain guidelines for sculpting Krishna and Rukmini. Several statues made according
to these guidelines are in the collections of the Government Museum, Chennai.
This summary is a mythological account, based on literary details from the Mahābhārata,
the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana. The scenes from the narrative
are set in ancient India, mostly in the present states of Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Haryana, Delhi, and Gujarat. The legends about Krishna's life are
called Krishna charitas (IAST: Kṛṣṇacaritas).

49
Birth
Nanda and Yashoda pushing baby Krishna on a swing
In the Krishna Charitas, Krishna is born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva of
the Yadava clan in Mathura. Devaki's brother is a tyrant named Kamsa. At Devaki's wedding,
according to Puranic legends, Kamsa is told by fortune tellers that a child of Devaki would kill
him. Sometimes, it is depicted as an akashwani made an announcement about Kamsas' death.
Kamsa arranges to kill all of Devaki's children. When Krishna is born, Vasudeva secretly carries
the infant Krishna away across the Yamuna and exchanges him. When Kamsa tries to kill the
newborn, the exchanged baby appears as the Hindu goddess Yogmaya, warning him that his
death has arrived in his kingdom, and then disappears, according to the legends in the Puranas.
Krishna grows up with Nanda and his wife Yashoda near modern-day Mathura. Two of Krishna's
siblings also survive, namely Balarama and Subhadra, according to these legends.The day of
birth of Krishna is celebrated as Krishna Janmashtami.

50
Childhood and youth
Krishna playing the flute (15th century artwork).
The legends of Krishna's childhood and youth describe him as a cow herder, a mischievous boy
whose pranks earns him the nickname Makhan Chor (butter thief) and a protector who steals the
hearts of the people in both Gokul and Vrindavana. The texts state, for example, that Krishna
lifts the Govardhana hill to protect the inhabitants of Vrindavana from devastating rains and
floods.
Other legends describe him as an enchanter and playful lover of the gopis (milkmaids) of
Vrindavana, especially Radha. These metaphor-filled love stories are known as the Rasa lila and
were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. They are also central to
the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna.
Krishna's childhood illustrates the Hindu concept of lila, playing for fun and enjoyment and not
for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or Rasa-lila is an example.
Krishna plays his flute and the gopis come immediately, from whatever they were doing, to the
banks of the Yamuna River and join him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not
physically be there join him through meditation. He is the spiritual essence and the love-eternal
in existence, the gopis metaphorically represent the prakṛti matter and the impermanent
body.[114]:256
This lila is a constant theme in the legends of Krishna's childhood and youth. Even when he is
battling with a serpent to protect others, he is described in Hindu texts as if he were playing a
game. This quality of playfulness in Krishna is celebrated during festivals as Rasa-lila

51
and Janmashtami, where Hindus in some regions such as Maharashtra playfully mimic his
legends, such as by making human gymnastic pyramids to break open handis (clay pots) hung
high in the air to "steal" butter or buttermilk, spilling it all over the group.
Adulthood
Krishna with his consorts Rukmini and Satyabhama and his mount Garuda, Tamil Nadu, India, late 12th–
13th century
Krishna legends then describe his return to Mathura. He overthrows and kills the tyrant king, his
uncle Kamsa/Kansa after quelling several assassination attempts by Kamsa. He reinstates
Kamsa's father, Ugrasena as the king of the Yadavas and becomes a leading prince at the court.
In one version of the Krishna story, as narrated by Shanta Rao, Krishna after Kamsa's death leads
the Yadavas to the newly built city of Dwaraka. Thereafter Pandavas rise. Krishna
befriends Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom. Krishna plays a key role in
the Mahabharata.
The Bhagavata Purana describes eight wives of Krishna that appear in sequence as
(Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti (also called
Satya), Bhadra and Lakshmana (also called Madra). According to Dennis Hudson, this is a
metaphor where each of the eight wives signifies a different aspect of him. According to George
Williams, Vaishnava texts mention all Gopis as wives of Krishna, but this is spiritual symbolism
of devotional relationship and Krishna's complete loving devotion to each and everyone devoted
to him.
In Krishna-related Hindu traditions, he is most commonly seen with Radha. All of his wives and
his lover Radha are considered in the Hindu tradition to be the avatars of the goddess Lakshmi,
the consort of Vishnu. Gopis are considered as Lakshmi's or Radha's manifestations.

52
Kurukshetra War and Bhagavad Gita
In the foreground, An iconographic symbol of Krishna with Arjuna during the Kurukshetra war – the
context for the Bhagavad Gita. The background depicts Krishna's Vishvarupa (cosmic form) described in
the Bhagavad Gita.
According to the epic poem Mahabharata, Krishna becomes Arjuna's charioteer for
the Kurukshetra War, but on the condition that he personally will not raise any weapon. Upon
arrival at the battlefield and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather and his
cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart will not allow him to fight and kill
others. He would rather renounce the kingdom and put down his Gandiv (Arjuna's bow). Krishna
then advises him about the nature of life, ethics and morality when one is faced with a war

53
between good and evil, the impermanence of matter, the permanence of the soul and the good,
duties and responsibilities, the nature of true peace and bliss and the different types of yoga to
reach this state of bliss and inner liberation. This conversation between Krishna and Arjuna is
presented as a discourse called the Bhagavad Gita.
Death and ascension-Mausala Parva
It is stated in the Indian texts that the legendary Kurukshetra War leads to the death of all the
hundred sons of Gandhari. After Duryodhana's death, Krishna visits Gandhari to offer his
condolences when Gandhari and Dhritarashtra visited Kurukshtra, as stated in Stree Parva.
Feeling that Krishna deliberately did not put an end to the war, in a fit of rage and sorrow
Gandhari said, 'Thou were indifferent to the Kurus and the Pandavas whilst they slew each other,
therefore, O Govinda, thou shalt be the slayer of thy own kinsmen !' According to
the Mahabharata, a fight breaks out at a festival among the Yadavas, who end up killing each
other. Mistaking the sleeping Krishna for a deer, a hunter named Jara shoots an arrow that fatally
injures him. Krishna forgives Jara and dies. The pilgrimage (tirtha) site
of Bhalka in Gujarat marks the location where Krishna is believed to have died. It is also known
as Dehotsarga, states Diana L. Eck, a term that literally means the place where Krishna "gave up
his body". The Bhagavata Purana in Book 11, chapter 31 states that after his death, Krishna
returned to his transcendent abode directly because of his yogic concentration. Waiting gods
such as Brahma and Indra were unable to trace the path Krishna took to leave his human
incarnation and return to his abode.
Versions and interpretations
Krishna iconography appears in many versions across India. For example (left to right): Srinath,
Jagannath, Vithoba.
There are numerous versions of Krishna's life story, of which three are most studied:
the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana. They share the basic storyline
but vary significantly in their specifics, details, and styles.[132]
The most original composition,
the Harivamsa is told in a realistic style that describes Krishna's life as a poor herder but weaves
in poetic and allusive fantasy. It ends on a triumphal note, not with the death of

54
Krishna. Differing in some details, the fifth book of the Vishnu Purana moves away
from Harivamsa realism and embeds Krishna in mystical terms and eulogies. The Vishnu
Purana manuscripts exist in many versions.
The tenth and eleventh books of the Bhagavata Purana are widely considered to be a poetic
masterpiece, full of imagination and metaphors, with no relation to the realism of pastoral life
found in the Harivamsa. Krishna's life is presented as a cosmic play (lila), where his youth is set
as a princely life with his foster father Nanda portrayed as a king. Krishna's life is closer to that
of a human being in Harivamsa, but is a symbolic universe in the Bhagavata Purana, where
Krishna is within the universe and beyond it, as well as the universe itself,
always. The Bhagavata Purana manuscripts also exist in many versions, in numerous Indian
languages.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is considered as the incarnation of Krishna in Gaudiya Vaishnavism and
by the ISKCON community Ramdev pir is considered as an incarnation of Krishna.
Vedic-Puranic chronology and History of Hinduism
14th-century fresco of Krishna in Udaipur, Rajasthan
The date of Krishna's birth is celebrated every year as Janmashtami.
According to Guy Beck, "most scholars of Hinduism and Indian history accept the historicity of
Krishna—that he was a real male person, whether human or divine, who lived on Indian soil by
at least 1000 BCE and interacted with many other historical persons within the cycles of the epic
and puranic histories." Yet, Beck also notes that there is an "enormous number of contradictions

55
and discrepancies surrounding the chronology of Krishna's life as depicted in the Sanskrit
canon."
Lanvanya Vemsani states that Krishna can be inferred to have lived between 3227 BCE – 3102
BCE from the Puranas.[
A number of scholars, such as A. K. Bansal, B. V. Raman places
Krishna's birth year as 3228 BCE. A paper[
presented in a conference in 2004 by a group of

56
archaeologists, religious scholars and astronomers from Somnath Trust of Gujarat, which was
organised at Prabhas Patan, the supposed location of the where Krishna spent his last moments,
fixes the death of Sri Krishna on 18 February 3102 BC at the age of 125 years and 7 months.
In contrast, according to mythologies in the Jain tradition, Krishna was a cousin of
Neminatha. Neminatha is believed in the Jain tradition to have been born 84,000 years before the
9th-century BCE Parshvanatha, the twenty-third tirthankara.
A wide range of theological and philosophical ideas are presented through Krishna in Hindu
texts. Ramanuja, a Hindu theologian whose works were influential in Bhakti movement,
presented him in terms of qualified monism (Vishishtadvaita) Madhvacharya, a Hindu
philosopher whose works led to the founding of Haridasa sect of Vaishnavism, presented
Krishna in the framework of dualism (Dvaita). Jiva Goswami, a saint from Gaudiya Vaishnava
school, described Krishna theology in terms of Bhakti yoga and Achintya Bheda Abheda.
Krishna theology is presented in a pure monism (advaita, called shuddhadvaita) framework
by Vallabha Acharya, who was the founder of Pushti sect of vaishnavism. Madhusudana
Sarasvati, an India philosopher, presented Krishna theology in nondualism-monism framework
(Advaita Vedanta), while Adi Shankara, who is credited for unifying and establishing the main
currents of thought in Hinduism, mentioned Krishna in his early eighth-century discussions
on Panchayatana puja.
The Bhagavata Purana, a popular text on Krishna considered to be like a scripture in Assam,
synthesizes an Advaita, Samkhya, and Yoga framework for Krishna but one that proceeds
through loving devotion to Krishna. Bryant describes the synthesis of ideas in Bhagavata Purana
as,
The philosophy of the Bhagavata is a mixture of Vedanta terminology, Samkhyan metaphysics
and devotionalized Yoga praxis. (...) The tenth book promotes Krishna as the highest absolute
personal aspect of godhead – the personality behind the term Ishvara and the ultimate aspect
of Brahman.
— Edwin Bryant, Krishna: A Sourcebook
While Sheridan and Pintchman both affirm Bryant's view, the latter adds that the Vedantic view
emphasized in the Bhagavata is non-dualist with a difference. In conventional nondual Vedanta
all reality is an interconnected and one, the Bhagavata posits that the reality is interconnected and
plural.
Across the various theologies and philosophies, the common theme presents Krishna as the
essence and symbol of divine love, with human life and love as a reflection of the divine. The
longing and love-filled legends of Krishna and the gopis, his playful pranks as a baby,[174]
as well
as his later dialogues with other characters, are philosophically treated as metaphors for the
human longing for the divine and for meaning, and the play between the universals and the
human soul. Krishna's lila is a theology of love-play. According to John Koller, "love is
presented not simply as a means to salvation, it is the highest life". Human love is God's love
Other texts that include Krishna such as the Bhagavad Gita have attracted
numerous bhasya (commentaries) in the Hindu traditions. Though only a part of the Hindu
epic Mahabharata, it has functioned as an independent spiritual guide. It allegorically raises

57
through Krishna and Arjuna the ethical and moral dilemmas of human life, then presents a
spectrum of answers, weighing in on the ideological questions on human freedoms, choices, and
responsibilities towards self and towards others. This Krishna dialogue has attracted numerous
interpretations, from being a metaphor of inner human struggle teaching non-violence, to being a
metaphor of outer human struggle teaching a rejection of quietism to persecution.
Vaishnavism
The worship of Krishna is part of Vaishnavism, a major tradition within Hinduism. Krishna is
considered a full avatar of Vishnu, or one with Vishnu himself. However, the exact relationship
between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse, with Krishna sometimes considered an
independent deity and supreme. Vaishnavas accept many incarnations of Vishnu, but Krishna is
particularly important. Their theologies are generally centered either on Vishnu or an avatar such
as Krishna as supreme. The terms Krishnaism and Vishnuism have sometimes been used to
distinguish the two, the former implying that Krishna is the transcendent Supreme Being
All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as the eighth avatar of Vishnu; others identify
Krishna with Vishnu, while traditions such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism,[186][187]
Vallabha
Sampradaya and the Nimbarka Sampradaya regard Krishna as the Svayam Bhagavan, the
original form of Lord or the same as the concept of Brahman in Hinduism.
Gitagovinda of Jayadeva considers Krishna to be the supreme lord while the ten incarnations are
his forms. Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, also worshipped
Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of
Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala of the late Vedic
period. Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.
Early traditions
The deity Krishna-Vasudeva (kṛṣṇa vāsudeva "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva Anakadundubhi")
is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism. It is believed
to be a significant tradition of the early history of Krishna religion in antiquity.[194]
Thereafter,
there was an amalgamation of various similar traditions. These include ancient Bhagavatism, the
cult of Gopala, of "Krishna Govinda" (cow-finding Krishna), of Balakrishna (baby Krishna) and
of "Krishna Gopivallabha" (Krishna the lover). According to Andre Couture,
the Harivamsa contributed to the synthesis of various characters as aspects of Krishna.
Bhakti movement and Bhakti yoga

58
Krishna has been a major part of the Bhakti movement.

59
The use of the term bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However,
Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotionalism tradition within Hinduism,
particularly among the Vaishnava sects. Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of lila,
meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the universe. It is a form of bhakti yoga, one of
three types of yoga discussed by Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita.
Indian subcontinent
The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to
9th centuries CE. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil Nadu. A
major collection of their works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popular collection
of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest
works in this genre.
The movement originated in South India during the 7th CE, spreading northwards from Tamil
Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the 15th century, it was established in Bengal and
northern India. Early Bhakti pioneers include Nimbarka (12th or 13th century CE),[206]
but most
emerged later, including Vallabhacharya (15th century CE) and (Lord Sri Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu. They started their own schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha
Sampradaya, and Gaudiya Vaishnavism, with Krishna as the supreme god.
In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Warkari sect such
as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath, and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba, a
local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late
18th century.[19]
Before the Warkari tradition, Krishna devotion became well established in
Maharashtra due to the rise of Mahanubhava Sampradaya founded by Sarvajna Chakradhara. In
southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the
Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism has compiled a
comprehensive summary of bhakti called Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.[198]
In South India, the acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya have written reverentially about Krishna in
most of their works, including the Thiruppavai by Andal and Gopala Vimshati by Vedanta
Desika
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala states have many major Krishna temples,
and Janmashtami is one of the widely celebrated festivals in South India.

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