Dna Cloning

Dna Cloning
Ever thought about what's in your DNA? Extracting DNA from a single cell can expose a wide
variety of information about your ancestry, traits and even your health. Today there are many
molecular techniques that are used to isolate and amplify DNA fragments. The analysis of genes
requires multiple copies of the DNA sequences used. For many years gene cloning was the only way
to amplify DNA fragments. Gene cloning was labor intensive and requires at least a few days for the
bacteria to grow. The cloning method was used to amplify a specific piece of DNA fragment. That
method was to place the DNA fragments into a bacteria cell referred as a vector and allowing the
cell to replicate the DNA fragments. Today, PCR or Polymerase Chain Reaction makes ... Show
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The mixed PCR product was loaded into the gel, and the electrophoresing began in order to separate
genomic DNA. The second part of the experiment PCR reaction was DNA sequencing; which was
processed by the DNA Learning Center in Cold Spring Harbor, NY. The purpose of sequencing
DNA was to determine the exact sequence of nucleotide in a given piece of DNA. The third portion
was processed by the lab assistance. The purpose of the third method DNA repair was sequencing to
test the effect of UV–light on two different strains of yeast for identifying cell with a mutation
required for NER. The fourth process of PCR is DNA purification and RFLP. In DNA purification,
QIAquick PCR Purification Kit was used to purify amplicons from other contaminants following the
steps in material and methods. For RFLP analysis, the purified amplicons were cut using JOSH04
and JOSH05 PCR reaction with two different restriction enzymes. MsaI and RsaI were used to cut
mtDNA control regions from the purified DNA. The fifth method of PCR was running the RFPL
sample on gel electrophoresis. Most people within a population have many single nucleotide
differences within their genomes. These differences are often
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Dna Profiling And The National Dna Database System
Part B: Report
DNA Profiling: Is it ethical to have national DNA database system?
Introduction: Today, the advancing gene technology provides humanity with numerous benefits such
as Genetically Modified Food, CRISPER, and one of them is the use of DNA profiling for storing
bio–information. DNA fingerprint technology allows mapping of individual's genetic patterns that
can be stored into the database system (What is DNA fingerprint? 2016). The ability to profile gene
effectively, DNA fingerprinting is used as a problem–solving tool in the justice system and medical
science researches. At the same time, ethical and social issues such as privacy violations, human
rights and the possibility of discrimination cannot be ignored.
Biological Background: It is scientifically proven that DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) contains
genetic material and highly specific to individual. DNA fingerprint can be tested by restriction
fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) methods and Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods.
Although RFLP is considered more accurate, due to the cost and requirement of longer period to
complete, it is not commonly used. While only 1% of genetic materials are unique to individual, the
short tandem repeats (STR) sequences called minisatellites can be used to distinguish all humans as
it shows great variation between each person (What is DNA fingerprint? 2016).
DNA fingerprinting technique involves a number of steps. The DNA sample from fluid, hair or any
part of the

The DNA Saga
The DNA saga started in 1869, when Swiss biochemist Friedrich Miescher isolated a new substance
from the nuclei of white blood cells. Researchers were recently aware that cells were the basic unit
of life and Miescher was interested in their chemical components. Each morning, he called at the
local clinic to pick up dirty bandages, for in the days before antiseptics these were soaked in pus – a
good source of white blood cells with their large nuclei. Adding alkali made the cell nuclei burst
open, releasing their contents, from which Miescher extracted DNA (which he called nuclein).
Analysis of this nuclei showed that it was an acid, containing phosphorus, so it did not fit into any of
the known groups of biological molecules, such as carbohydrates and proteins. Miescher calculated
its formula as C29H49O22N9P3 – a gross underestimate, reflecting the fact that DNA is a long,
fragile molecule that readily fragments. Miescher must have used one of the fragments for the
determination of the formula. Nuclein was rechristened nucleic acid and, despite its chemical
novelty, its biological significance was not fully realised for many more decades. ... Show more
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In 1879 the German biologist Walther Flemming discovered tiny thread–like structures called
chromatin (later known as chromosomes) within the nucleus – so–called because they readily
absorbed colour from the new stains used to reveal cellular components. Studies on cell division
were to reveal the key role played by chromosomes in inheritance – how they double up before the
cell splits, and then divide into two sets, taking a fresh copy into each 'daughter'

Describe And Comparing The Chemical Functions Of DNAAnd DNA
DNA: Structure and Replication
1. Describe and compare the chemical compositions of DNA and RNA.
DNA and RNA are nucleic acids; they are characterized by being long chains that are called
polymers, from other units called nucleotides. With the DNA and RNA, it is expected to have a
variety of polynucleotide chains. The nucleotides are intertwined by means of covalent bonds
between sugar of a nucleotide and the phosphate of the next. This results in an ordered backbone
pattern. As well as the DNA as the RNA have purine nitrogenous bases adenine and guanine and the
pyrimidine cytosine.
2. Describe the key features of the overall shape of a DNA molecule.
The main activities of the DNA are thymine, cytosine, adenine, guanine, and uracil. Thymine is like
an individual ring structure, it is an organic compound that descends from the pyrimidine family
which is one of the main constituents of deoxyribonucleic acid, thymine is replaced by the uracil
nucleus base. A cytosine is a fundamental unit of nucleic acids; it is the main nucleotide of leukemia
and cancer. Adenine is a purine base found in DNA and RNA. Adenine is a fundamental compound
of adenine nucleotides, adenosine form which is a nucleoside when the ribosome is filled. Guanine
consists of a pyrimidine–imidazole fused ring system with double bonds. The uracil found in RNA
is paired with adenine and can also be replaced by thymine in DNA. In the body, the uracil helps to
carry out the synthesis of many enzymes that are

Consequences And Development Of The DNAAnd The Polymerase...
We start with a piece of DNA to the direction of 3' to 5' strand of DNA is called the template strand.
Initiation begins at the promoter region or the consensus sequences. The promoter region of the
DNA is at the beginning of the gene. Two important finding regions occur at 10 base pairs and 35
base pairs upstream of transcription. Both sequences are important as mutations can prevent
initiation. Common in Bacteria is the –10 region also known as the pribnow box. It is a series of
thymine and adenine residues. The pribnow box is important for the recognition of the promoter
region, other –10 and –35 consensus sequences exist but are recognized in a different manner.
Another important locator on the DNA strand is the initiation site or ... Show more content on
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In a given cell order there are numerous types of sigma factors. Under normal condition or under
stress different sigma factors recognize different promoter regions. Now that the holoenzyme is
complete, the formation of the transcription bubble can take place. The RNA polymerase unwinds
the DNA by itself. In order to start transcription energy from a ATP or GTP is required, where the
ribose from the triphosphate provides a 3' hydroxyl to attack the first phosphate in the first
nucleotide, this displaces the pyrophosphate. The new RNA therefore has a triphosphate at its 5' end.
Once transcription has started the sigma factor falls off.
The next stage is elongation. Elongation occurs when approximately 12 nucleotides have been
added to the RNA strand and the sigma subunit is dissociated and the polymerase has started to
move from the promoter region. When the RNA is synthesized it is made in opposite polarity to the
template DNA strand, meaning the 3' end of the RNA faces the same direction at the 5' end of the
DNA. Inside the transcription bubble nucleotides come inside the RNA polymerase to make a
complementary strand to the template strand of DNA. Here all base pairs match up like in DNA
synthesis only instead of thymine uracil is paired with Adenine for RNA synthesis. Constant
unwinding can lead to supercoiling of the DNA, which is like a telephone cord that is twisted at one
end. Eventually stress in the middle of

Dna, Evidence, And Dna Evidence
There are many types of evidence used in our justice system including testimony, documentary
evidence, real evidence, exculpatory evidence, inculpatory evidence, demonstrative evidence, and
DNA evidence. However, the piece of evidence I will choose to talk about is DNA evidence which
is also known as DNA profiling. This piece of evidence changed the landscape of the justice system
when it was first introduced 1986 by Professor Alec Jeffreys; he developed DNA fingerprinting
techniques to link two rapes/murders to a perpetrator named Colin Pitchfork while exonerating an
innocent man in the process (www2.le.ac.uk). According to the National Institute of Justice, there
are currently four types of DNA evidence Analysis but I will discuss three of them. The four types
are Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), Short Tandem Repeats (STR), Y–Chromosome, and
Mitochondrial DNA. "Sources collected for these analysis come from blood, semen, saliva, urine,
feces, hair, teeth, bone, tissue, and cells" (www.forensicsciencesimplified.org). These samples are
taken from clothing, tools, weapons, beddings, and just about everything else around a crime scene.
Basically, I will be going more into depth about the many forms of analysis for DNA evidence. First
off, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) consist of four reaction components, such as template DNA,
DNA polymerase, primers, and buffers. First component, template DNA which can be taken from a
person's skin cells and later be amplified. Next

Dna Report
Name: Sabina Shrestha Name partner: Marieke RoosStudent Numbers: 1215671/4228073 Practicum
assistants: Brijith Thomas,Room: 1 Joanna Pawlak, Lara van der Woude, Date: 12/12/2014 Valerie
SelsEmail: saburo_aikini441@yahoo.com |
Lab Report DNA: Plasmids and Nucleases
1. Abstract
The goal of this practicum was to isolate plasmid DNA from Escherichia coli (E. coli), to identify it,
to prove that the plasmid is circular and double–stranded and to give bacterial cells new genetic
properties via transformation. An unknown plasmid S was isolated from the ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
23–24)
The calculation of stock solutions can be found in the appendices.
3.3. Plasmid yield & Purification
3.3.A. Agarose–gel electrophoresis
This experiment was carried out by following the instructions given in the handbook (De Smit
& Vijgenboom, 2014, p. 25–26).
3.3.B. Purity A260/A280
This experiment was carried out by following the instructions given in the handbook (De Smit
& Vijgenboom, 2014, p. 27).
The calculation of purity can be found in the appendices.
3.4. Identification of plasmid
This experiment was carried out with the aim of identifying unknown plasmid S while comparing it
with reference plasmids indicated in the handbook (De Smit & Vijgenboom, 2014, p. 27–28).
The amount of DNA used for digesting was 3µl, determined by comparing the band pattern seen in
the photo of isolated plasmid in gel (see section 3.3 A). Then a DNA stock solution was prepared by
following the scheme shown in Table 2 (see appendices).
3.5. Transformation of E. COLI The transformation began with the plating of bacteria on agar plates,
one without antibiotic and the other with a suitable antibiotic. After one night incubation of bacteria
at 37 °C, the number of colonies multiplied were counted and the amount of plasmid transformed
was estimated. The details of the procedures can be found in the handbook ( De Smit &

The Study Of Ancient Dna
The study of geologically ancient DNA began in 1984 with Russell Higuchi and a handful of other
scientists. Hoping to determine whether ancient DNA survived and could be retrieved from samples
of preserved soft tissue, they examined samples of dried muscle taken from a museum specimen of
the quagga. Their attempts to extract genetic material were successful, and the samples yielded
slightly less than 1% of the DNA that would have been yielded by fresh muscle; from this, they
successfully sequenced two pieces of mitochondrial DNA (Higuchi and others, 1984).
They then compared the resulting sequences to the mitochondrial DNA of a living mountain zebra
and determined that the two species had a common ancestor between three and four million years
ago, a finding consistent with fossil evidence of the Equus genus (Higuchi and others, 1984). This
marked the first time that ancient DNA was successfully extracted and sequence, thus sparking an
entirely new discipline within paleontology: the study of ancient DNA.
The importance of this event is not to be underestimated. Prior to the sequencing of extinct quagga
DNA, the bulk of our understanding of past life forms comes from the fossil record. Pruvost and
others (2006) argue that analysis of DNA samples retrieved from the fossil record stand to vastly
increase our knowledge about the past. It has incredible potential to answer many questions posed
by studies in archeological anthropological disciplines. Furthermore, Yang (2005),

DNAAnd DNAAnalysis
Part A
Done on the attached paper.
Answers to questions
1) How were you able to derive amino acids from your DNA sequence?
First of all, from the sense strand given in the question, I derived the antisense strand for it. This is
done by using the complementary Nitrogenous base concept. Guanine complements Cytosine,
Thymine complements Adenine and vice versa. Once this is done, we obtain the antisense strand.
Now the antisense strand is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA). Again Cytosine becomes
Guanine, Guanine becomes cytosine, Adenine becomes Uracil and thiamine becomes Adenine. In
this way we obtain an (mRNA) strand with codons (combinations of three nitrogenous bases). Now
we obtain the tRNA by converting the codons into ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In transcription, a DNA sequence is read by an RNA polymerase, which produces a complementary,
antisense RNA strand called a primary transcript from a strand of DNA called sense strand.
In contrast with DNA replication, transcription results in an RNA complement that includes the
nucleotideUracil (U) in all cases where Thymine (T) would have been in a DNA complement.
Only one of the two strands of DNA act as a template for transcription. The antisense strand of DNA
is read by RNA polymerase starting from the 3' end to the 5' end during transcription which
proceeds from 3' end to the 5' end. The complementary RNA is created in the exact opposite
direction, i.e. the 5' to 3' direction, matching the sequence of the sensestrand with the exception of
replacing uracil with thymine. This directionality occursas RNA polymerase is only able to add
nucleotides to the 3' end of the elongating mRNA chain.
The non–template or sensestrand of DNA is termed as the coding strand as its sequence is the same
as the newly created RNA transcript (except for the replacement of uracil for thymine)
.
Transcription proceeds in the following general steps:
1. RNA polymerase, together with one or some other general transcription factors, binds to promoter
DNA.
2. RNA polymerase makes a transcription bubble, which divides the two strands of the DNA helix.
This is achieved by breaking the hydrogen bonds between complementary

Dna Essay
DNA is the hereditary structure material of life (Merriam), It tells us who we are, and why we are
who we are. For us to be whom we are, we have to have a lot of DNA. With that being said, you
should know that DNA is constantly replicating itself to make more. While DNA replication is
usually very accurate, there is always room for error. When errors occur in the DNA strand, it is
called a mutation. A mutation is the changing of the structure of a gene. This results in a variant
form that may be transferred on to upcoming generations, caused by the alteration of single base
units in DNA, or the deletion, insertion, or rearrangement of larger sections of genes or
chromosomes. A mutation can change an organism's life in many ... Show more content on
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The retina is a thin piece of tissue lining that back of the eye. It converts light into electrical signals
that the brain interprets as vision (Blindness) with RP experience a gradual decline in their vision,
because photoreceptor cells in the retina degenerate. RP is generally diagnosed in young adults, it is
a progressive disorder. The rate of progression and degree of visual loss varies from person to
person. Most people with RP are legally blind by age 40, with a central visual field of less than 20
degrees in diameter. Since it is a genetic disorder, it is almost always inherited by offspring. It is
estimated that at least 100,000 people in the U.S. have been diagnosed with RP. It is mainly caused
by a gene mutation –which varies) and is inherited from one or both parents. It has been discovered
that mutations in dozens of genes have been linked to RP. There are three different types of RP
which tell how they are transferred. The first is autosomal recessive RP which means both parents
carry one copy of the mutated gene, but they exhibit no symptoms themselves. Children have a 25%
chance of inheritance. The second type is autosomal dominant RP. This type usually happens when
one parent is affected and the only parent with the mutated gene. Children have a 50% chance of
inheritance. The last type is X Linked RP. This occurs when the mother has the mutated gene on the
X chromosome. Children both male and female have a 50% chance of inheritance

DNA is Everywhere
DNA is found in everything everywhere. DNA is shaped like a double helix, which means it is
double stranded and is connected by hydrogen bonds. Mendel did an experiment that showed the
principles behind inheritance. The structure of DNA essentially explains how genetic information is
passed from the parents to the offspring. One of the two strands in the double helix of DNA can be
used as a blank template for creating an identical DNA molecule. Then sexual reproduction happens
and genetic information is passed but if any complications or errors occur then mutations can
happen. Turner Syndrome is only found in females. This syndrome is caused by the absence of an X
chromosome or the nondisjunction of the X chromosome. This is a chromosomal disorder meaning
"an abnormal condition due to something unusual in an individual's chromosomes." Turner
Syndrome is due to a chromosome mutation rather than a gene mutation. The missing X
chromosome affects the development of the female. Usually Turner Syndrome is not inherited from
the parent and "occurs as a random event during the formation of reproductive cells in the affected
person's parent." Sometimes the egg loses a sex chromosome as a result to nondisjunction and in this
case resulting in Turner Syndrome. As you can tell you cannot necessarily predict if your child is
going to have Turner Syndrome because it is random. Fortunately, it is rare that Turner Syndrome is
passed from one generation to the next generation.
Turner

DNAAdaptation In DNA
Much of how the human body operates is due purely to one's genetic disposition. This is due to the
way proteins are produced. In protein production, DNA is read three base pairs at a time making up
for a codon which codes for a specific amino acid. These amino acids are produced in translation,
and they will be strung together by something called tRNA to make full proteins. In DNA
replication, there are many factors that determine the efficiency and effectiveness of what product is
achieved and how it functions. When base pairs are incorrect, are deleted, or extra pairs inserted,
what is called a mutation occurs. Mutations often times change the structure of a protein, how it
performs, or what protein is produced altogether. They can ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
When an offspring has parents with similar genes, mutations in the parents are much more likely to
be expressed. For example, the genes of first cousins share roughly one eighth of their DNA. If one
shares this much DNA with their partner, the likelihood of specific genes or DNA being donated to
the offspring increases exponentially in comparison to that of an offspring produced from non–
similar parents. This allows recessive mutations in the genetic code to be expressed which is why
many deformities, mutations, or handicaps are commonly seen in those produced from an incestuous
relationship. Usually, common mutations that are seen are actually due to recessive alleles.
However, even if the allele is recessive, having two parents who carry said recessive gene mate can
easily cause an expression of a mutation. In cases of incest, due to relation, mating relationships can
often have this recessive allele and will pass it on to an offspring. As it is commonly known by way
of a punnet square, if two carriers for a recessive gene mate whose genotypes are (Xx) and (Xx), the
offspring will have a 25% chance of expressing the mutated gene in the form of (xx) alleles. One
may think that it is still not a high chance for mutation; however, in comparison to the chance of a
mutation without a common recessive gene it is seen as an extreme risk. Knowing that such
relations can cause mutations and health concerns helps the population to remove possible

Dna Profiling
DNA profiling is a method of identifying an individual by unique characteristics of their DNA. A
specific DNA pattern, called a profile, is obtained from an individual or a sample of tissue. This
allows the comparison of the base sequence of two or more DNA samples to determine whether they
are related.
DNA profiling has many uses, in prevention of economic fraud, dietetic work, and classifying
species, identifying bodies, forensic science, screening for disease, and investigating paternity. Most
importantly DNA profiling is used in forensic science; used to identify who committed the crime. It
is estimated that roughly one percent of all criminal cases employ this technique. However, DNA
profiling has been used to acquit several ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Sarah Ley, Dietitian, says "in the future we would expect to use DNA profiling to check out the risk
of getting a disease such as heart disease more closely and what sorts of reactions food might have
for some people."
The last common use for DNA profiling is for paternity testing. This can be used for immigration
issues by screening people claiming citizenship on the basis of their relations holding
British/American citizenship. If parents are unsure who is the father of a child a DNA sample can be
taken from the child and profiled beside that of the possible fathers and the result can be read against
that, resolving the paternity dispute.
DNA profiling meets human demand in all these categories of uses from keeping endangered
species safe to identifying killers. More detail to the cancer research is needed as a struggle for a
cure is continued. The recent sequencing of the human genome, coupled with advances in
biotechnology, is enabling the comprehensive molecular profiling of human tissues. In particular,
DNA microarrays are powerful tools for obtaining global views of human tumor gene expression.
Complex information from tumor expression profiling studies can, in turn, be used to create novel
molecular cancer diagnostics. DNA profiling of tumor DNAs' may reveal important new diagnostic
therapys' targets to improve prediction and treatment of advanced cancer patients. In a breast cancer
study, the American Association for Cancer Research

Dna Deoxyrimidine
DNA is known as deoxyribonucleic acid, which is a hereditary material that all eukaryotic
organisms have. DNA is mostly located in the nucleus of cells but can also be found in
mitochondria. The information of DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemicals. Two of these
chemicals are purines, the other two pyrimidines. The purines are Adenine and Guanine. The
pyrimidines are Thymine and Cytosine and the purines pair with the pyrimidines. Specifically
Adenine with Thymine, and Guanine with Cytosine. Every strand of deoxyribonucleic acid uses the
same bases, just arranged in different orders. DNA strands are in a shape of a double helix, if you
were to get a closer look, you would see nucleotides. A nucleotide are the basic unit of structure for
DNA. They consist of a sugar, the base, and phosphate. The phosphate group on the outside, ...
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Cloning is typically the action of creating a genetic copy of an organism. Clones can come about
naturally, or in a lab. Naturally, bacteria and some plants are able to produce on their own. They do
this by pretty much splitting in half and growing from there. They reproduce how our cells do so to
speak. Natural cloning can also occur in animals. In animals, clones can occur when a zygote, or
embryo splits in half at least once. This creates two identical eggs with the same DNA. According to
the National Human Genome Research Institute's section on cloning, there are three different types
of artificial cloning. Those types of cloning include gene cloning, therapeutic cloning, and
reproductive cloning. Gene cloning is when they take a piece of foreign DNA, or a gene, and insert
it into a vector, which

DNA Technologies
The structure of DNA was discovered in 1953 and revealed to the world by James Watson and
Francis Crick.1 Since then, there has been a whirlwind of activity and discovery in the fields
associated with DNA. We have found that DNA is not only a set of instructions for the body, but that
it also contains a lot of information about the individual who "owns" the DNA. As it is rapidly
becoming cheaper and easier to process DNA, it is becoming more difficult to make sure that there
is adequate legislature to protect members of society.
Most genes are actually shared by all of humanity. In fact, 98% of human DNA is also shared with
chimpanzees.2 However, some repeating units are unique and they can tell us much information
about the individual ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Media such as mystery and crime television programs have made some procedures used by forensic
scientists public knowledge so it would be easy for the perpetrator to know the sorts of evidence he
could use to frame the innocent party. As seen in the Lydia Fairchild chimera case, DNA is seen by
some as "100 percent foolproof"9 even though it can only tell us the probability that the DNA
belongs to a certain person rather than someone else.10 Sometimes it is not definitive like in rare
cases of chimerism and also in multiples, for example twins and triplets. It is important that people,
especially people with legal authority like judges, remember that DNA is not necessarily perfect and
to consider all possibilities and evidence before coming to a conclusion about a case.
Industries that use DNA technologies are rapidly growing and changing the ways that we can use
information obtained from DNA. Currently, we use it for tests including whether people are related
to one another and whether to exonerate or charge suspects of criminal acts. We are able to do these
because of repeating combinations of DNA bases that are unique to an individual. As technology is
developing so fast, it is important that people in authority, for example judges and politicians, make
sure that there are laws in place that protect the rights and safety of citizens in terms of how their
DNA information is used and stored. They also need to make sure that they consider DNA as a piece
of

DNA : The Roles Of DNA, DNAAnd DNA
In a RNA nucleotide the organic bases can be uracil, adenine, guanine or cytosine. Where as in a
DNA nucleotide there can be thymine, adenine, guanine or cytosine. In RNA the pairs are UA or CG
and in DNA the pairs are TA or CG.
Also in DNA the five–carbon sugar is deoxyribose and in RNA the five–carbon sugar is ribose.
P1 task 2
DNA: DNA is what is inside the nucleus of mostly all cells. It carries the genetic information which
is what gives a living thing specific trait such ad brown hair or the amount of pigment in our skin. It
is a double stranded molecule made of nucleotides which are made from a nitrogenous/ organic
base, deoxyribose (a 5–carbon sugar) and a phosphate> mRNA: mRNA is also known as messenger
RNA. Like the other RNA molecules, it is a single stranded molecule and its role is to transport the
coding information from the DNA to the place of protein synthesis, the ribosomes. tRNA: TRNA is
also known as transfer RNA. tRNA is the rna molecule that picks up a specific codon and brings it
to the correct amino acid. It is a single stranded molecule. rRNA: rRNA is a single stranded
molecule and it is the substance that ribosomes are made from. The ribosomes are made of two
parts, the large subunit and the small subunit. (1)
M1 task 3
Triplet code: is the code in which DNA is written in that is made up of the different nitrogenous
bases.
Codon: is a sequence of three nucleotides that makeup DNA and RNA.
Anticodon: is the set of three nucleotides on the tRNA

The Dna And Its Structure
Genes hold biological information that must be copied accurately for transmission to the next
generation. Before the DNA double helix was discovered two biological question were unanswered:
how can information for specifying an organism be carried in chemical form? and how is it
accurately copied? It was not until the 20th century when the DNA molecule was discovered and
suggested answers to both these questions. (Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al, 2002) With the
help of many scientists we now know exactly what the DNA molecule is, its structure, and its
function. The knowledge gained throughout the years on DNA has allowed many things such as that
of genetic genealogy. Knowing the structure of the DNA is what has helped/continues ... Show more
This is the molecule that contains the biological instructions that make each species unique.
(Deoxyribonucleic Acid DNA, 2012) Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the primary chemical
component of chromosomes and is the material of which genes are made of. It is also referred to as
the "molecule of heredity." This is because parents transmit copied portions of their own DNA to
their offspring during reproduction (The DNA Molecule, n.d.). Before completely understanding
DNA it is important to look at the development of the study of DNA throughout the years and finally
look at the structure as well as what this knowledge now allows us to do. The information of DNA is
not something that scientists and others have always been aware of. The knowledge in which we
hold today is somethings that is a product of multiple studies from multiple people who discovered
different aspects of the molecule. Such explanations of explorations of DNA are possible because of
the many scientists who paved the way. This began almost a century before the Nobel Prize, in
1868, was awarded to James Watson, Franklin Crick, and Maurice Wilkins. It was a young Swiss
physician Friedrich Miescher who located something no one had ever seen before from the nuclei of
cells. He named this new found compound "nuclei". Today we refer to this as nucleic acid, the "NA"
in DNA. Gregor Mendel, a Czech monk just two

Dna Essay
Abstract
This paper explores the history and some interesting facts about DNA. The last couple centuries
have seen an exponential growth in our knowledge of DNA. The history of the DNA can be traced
back to multiple devoted scientist. This article attempts to summarize, and review the basic history
of DNA while providing some fascinating information about it.
A Brief Historic Review Throughout the early 19th and 20th century, many scientists have studied
deoxyribonucleic acids in order to attain higher understanding over the matter. Johann G. Mendel
had figured out and understood the laws of heredity. Friedrich Miescher amazingly discovered DNA
in 1869, even though scientists did not understand DNA was the genetic material ... Show more
The pictures were shown to James Watson and Francis Crick by Maurice Wilkins. They were then
able to confirm their theory about the 3D structure of DNA. In 1962, they were awarded the Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine for solving the structure of DNA. The Nobel committee could not
award it to Franklin because the Nobel prize could only be shared by three people and also because
she was already dead (DNA from the Beginning, 2011)
Origin of the Four Bases' Names The four names of the nitrogenous bases of the DNA are adenine,
thymine, guanine, and cytosine. The word "adenine" was created in the 19th century in German
from the Greek words "adēn" "gland" and "in". The word "cytosine" was coined in the 19th century
from the German word "cytosin" from cyto– "cell", –ose and the chemical suffix –ine. The word
"guanine" comes from the English words "guano" and "ine" and was also created in the 19th
century. The word "thymine" comes from words "thymus" and the suffix –ine.
Interesting Facts Although DNA molecules seem minuscule, if all the DNA in a human body was
unwound and placed from end to end, it would cover about 10 billion miles. That's approximately
the same distance as traveling from the Earth to Pluto and back. (Helmenstine, 2017). "If a person
typed 60 words per minute, eight hours a day, it would take approximately 50 years for them to type
the human genome" (Kawasaki, 2010). Scientist have calculated that DNA has a 521–year half–life,
which

Dn Dna And Dna
Question 1
To clone complementary DNA (cDNA), it is necessary to obtain a library including the sequence of
interest. Then the clones that are of interest are isolated and tested to ensure they are the right
clones. cDNA is then synthesized through reverse transcription by the reverse transcriptase enzyme
which yields a complementary DNA from the RNA. The cDNA is incorporated into a vector to
allow for manipulation. Screening is then done using cultures such as E.coli bacterial lawns. The
cDNA is then tested to ascertain that it achieves the required objective. (A cDNA library comprises
of sequences complementary to the mRNA.)
Question 2
Genomics is a discipline of genetics that deals with sequencing and analysis of an organism's
genome. Genomics is achieved by applying recombinant DNA, gene sequencing methods and
bioinformatics to analyze the structure and functions of a genome (the complete set of DNA within a
single cell of an organism). Gene sequencing is the determining of the exact order of bases in a
strand of DNA. It is done in genome projects so that scientists can assemble the sequence to
replicate the original chromosome which they can then study and analyze. This enables the scientist
to study the expression of the genes on the chromosomes under lab conditions.
Proteomics is the study of proteins' structure and functions of proteins produced by an organism at a
cellular level. Proteomics includes variations made to the proteins as well as interacting partners and

Dna Fingerprinting
Human Awareness Essay
Should all people convicted of a crime have their DNA fingerprints stored on a database?
A DNA fingerprint is the same for every cell, organ and tissue in an organism. DNA fingerprinting
has many uses, some of which include providing the evidence needed to solve criminal
investigations, determining genetic relationships and solving paternity disputes. DNA fingerprinting
has many benefits in the use of criminal investigations as it can provide the evidence to solve crimes
and current mysteries, can free innocent suspects and can also cut out a great deal of investigation
time. However, there are also many negative issues involved in the matter, such as privacy concerns,
which may lead to discrimination and the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Although there are many benefits of DNA fingerprinting of criminals, there are also some negative
issues that cannot be overlooked. If the DNA evidence from the crime scene is not handled
professionally and properly, it can lead to misinterpretation of the evidence and can also lead to a
guilty person being freed and an innocent person being wrongly convicted. Some religions and
organisations, such as the European Court of Human Rights, believe that DNA fingerprinting is a
violation on the right to a private life. If the information from the database becomes available to
insurance companies or employers, it is likely that discrimination will occur. Another negative issue,
as stated by Flinders University Forensic Science chairman Adrian Linacre, is that 'forensic evidence
is not always dependable, as with any human activity and needs to be considered in context of a
case' (2011). According to statistics, there are over 4 million DNA samples collected from crime
scenes being stored on the database, with approximately 1.5 million of these being innocent people.
The current management of the issue is the use of CrimTrac. The CrimTrac database contains
profiles from samples of DNA collected at crime scenes from convicted offenders, suspects and
identified bodies. CrimTrac is ensured to the safe storage and security of information, and has
stringent security measures in place to protect the personal information in its systems. This personal

Dna Extraction
Introduction
DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) is a nucleic acid that has many names, each representing the
phases that it undergoes (chromosomes, chromatin, genes/alleles); it resides in the nucleus (bound
by 2 *phospholipid bilayers) of almost every cell in the body (red blood cells being an exception).
DNA (your genotype) is double stranded and is responsible for replicating (from 46 to 92) during
Interphase, so that mitosis can make new cells, repairing and allowing for growth in the body. It is
also responsible for transcription and translation, a series of processes that allows for the genotype
to become a phenotype (what you look like and metabolic processes). DNA is ~ 2 M long, and yet
fits into a cell that is ~ 100 µM in size! Simple ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Also wash out the cap, then place them on the drying rack. Rinse out the funnel and place it on the
drying rack as well. Wipe down the desk with cleaner and a paper towel. Throw the paper cup and
pipette away in the regular trash bin.
Evaluation
1. Describe what you see inside the test tube after you allow the solution to sit with the sports drink
and cheek cells for 2–3 minutes.
The DNA solution mixed with the sport drinks but not much precipitation, and not much of a change
at all, a bit cloudy, but nothing too radical.
2. Describe what you see inside the test tube when you add the cold alcohol to your cheek cell
solution.
Ethanol, the cold alcohol we used is non–polar. When DNA (our cheek cell solution with sports
drink) is placed into a solution of 100% Ethanol, it became insoluble and precipitated out of
solution. The coldness also stop the DNA strands from breaking apart. According to our textbook,
DNA strands are held together by "fragile" hydrogen bonds. Adding ethanol decreases the dielectric
constant of the solution.
The tube with the DNA/Cold Alcohol mixed had numerous tiny air bubbles freed from the alcohol
which was warming up. And quickly, there were less bubbles and the DNA is observed as a milky
substance.
3. After allowing the solution to sit undisturbed for 15 minutes, describe what you see. How does
this differ compared with your initial observation?

Since we kept

Mitochondrial DNA
GENOMIC AND MITOCHONDRIAL DNA IN FORENSIC DENTISTRY
The genomic DNA is found in the nucleus of each cell in the human body and represents a DNA
source for most forensic applications. The teeth are an excellent source of genomic DNA because
PCR analyses allow comparing the collected postmortem samples to known antemortem samples or
parental DNA. Mitochondrial DNA is another type of material that can be used for body
identification. Its main advantage is the high number of copies per cell (from hundreds to thousands
of organelles). When the extracted DNA samples are too small or degraded, such as those obtained
from skeletonized tissues, the likelihood of obtaining a DNA profile from mitochondrial DNA is
higher than that with any marker found ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In forensic samples, the study of DNA (genomic and mitochondrial) is usually performed by STR
(short tandem repeats) analysis, which can be defined as hypervariable regions of DNA that present
consecutive repetitions of fragments that have 2 to 7 base pairs (bp). The VNTR (variable number of
tandem repeats) testing, which may present short repeated sequences of intermediate size (15 to 65
base pairs), is rarely used in forensic analyses due to the poor quality DNA provided with this
method. The most valuable STRs for human identification are those that present greater
polymorphism (greater number of alleles), smaller size (in base pairs), higher frequency of
heterozygotes (higher than 90%) and low frequency of mutations11.
CAREFUL HANDLING OF SAMPLES, DNA EXTRACTION AND PCR AMPLIFICATION
As observed, several protocols are used for DNA extraction and analysis, and there is no standard
methodology. Therefore, researchers must carefully evaluate the conditions of the material to be
examined, especially when dealing with forensic cases, in which there is a greater risk of sample
contamination and influence of environmental factors, in addition to a small amount of material
available in most situations. The PCR technique has

Dna And Pyrimidines
DNA is a double helix structure which helps to keep the structure of the molecule stable. DNA has a
phosphate sugar back bone and covalent bond which also help with the stability of the DNA. DNA
also has coiling which is also very helpful with the stability of the molecule. DNA has two types of
bases, these are known as purines and pyrimidines. Purines are adenine and guanine and the
pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine. Purines are double ringed structures whereas pyrimidines are
a single ring structure. Adenine is complementary to thymine and cytosine is complementary to
guanine. Due to the different complementary base pairings within the two groups it allows
information to be transcribed. In between the different bases there is hydrogen

DNA Translocation
A DNA translocation occurs when chromosomes that do not contain the same genetic information,
also known as nonhomologous chromosomes, rearrange and fuse portions of their chromosomes to
one another. This results in a portion of a chromosome and possibly genes becoming a part of a
chromosome they are not traditionally found on, resulting in defective, partially functional, or
nonfunctional genes and chromosomes. Julia has acute promyelocytic leukemia; the high amount of
immature blood cells, anemia, and thrombocytopenia are all crucial indicators of this type of cancer.
The fatigue, formation of frequent bruises, and non–painful lumps are all symptoms of this cancer as
well, since the leukemia affects the blood cells; the reduced number of ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The specific gene that RARa suppresses is those involved with the differentiation of white blood
cells past their promyelocyte phase.
In the mutated hybrid version of these two genes, they still act as gene repressors, and bind the
sections of the DNA related to white blood cell proliferation. Instead of responding to signals that
would normally cause RARa or PML to dissociate, the gene repressor remains on the DNA,
effectively almost always blocking transcription of the gene. Since the proteins involved in assisting
a white blood cell differentiate past the promyelocyte phase are rarely, if ever, transcribed, new
white blood cells remain in this unmatured stage and cannot complete their differentiation into fully
functioning leukocytes. In addition, the PML protein also loses other functions, such as inducing
apoptosis and preventing uncontrolled cell proliferation. Because of this, cells that should begin
apoptosis remain alive, and cell proliferation is not regulated, allowing uncontrolled growth. As a
result of the cumulation of protein function abnormalities, PML–RARa blocks promyelocyte stage
differentiation, and allows excess promyelocytes to proliferate. These immature cells then go on to
accumulate in the bone marrow and joints, leading to pain and possible metastasis as they travel
through the bloodstream.
Other Genes Involved in Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia FLT3 is another gene involved in the onset
of promyelocytic leukemia, and produces fms–like

Dna And Sequence Of Dna Essay
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a self–replicating nucleic acid that carries the genetic information in
cells in a double helix structure. The 2 stranded helix is composed of 4 nucleotides, Adenine (A),
Thymine (T), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C). The base pairs only form between A and T connected
by 2 Hydrogen bonds and G and C connected by 3 hydrogen bonds. Foremost DNA wrapping
comes about as DNA wraps around protein called histones. These combined loops of DNA and
protein are called nucleosomes and the nucleosomes are packaged into a thread called chromatin.
Chromosomes are made up of packaged chromatin and can be seen in the nucleus of dividing cells
and form around DNA replication. Furthermore, DNA replication begins with 2 DNA strands being
separated by the helicase enzyme. Single stranded DNA binding proteins attach to these strands to
keep them from re–connecting. 1 DNA strand begins to encode called the leading strand, which
Forms from 5' to 3' end using DNA polymerase 3 the primary polymerase. The other strand is
referred to as the lagging strand, which presents problems because it has to form from the 5' to 3'end
as well. As continuous replication of the leading strand continues the lagging strand forms in pieces
called Okazaki fragments. RNA primase forms as RNA primer and polymerase III lay down new
DNA. This process repeats again and again. DNA polymerase I replaces RNA primers with DNA
and DNA ligase links the Okazaki fragments. Along with the process of DNA

Dna Damage, Repair, And Dna Methylation Essay
Introduction:
Modification of damaged DNA seems to be an understudied subject, there is much to understand on
the restoration of DNA damage, repair and DNA methylation. Genomic DNA can be modified by
methylation but much of it is affected on a gene when silenced. When epigenetic modification has
been implicated with cancer and aging it causes DNA methylation to also have an impact on the
double strand of DNA analysis. Modification as such provoke deteriorating changes like aging
found in multicellular organisms and DNA damage may magnify biochemical pathways that
regulate a cells growth or control DNA replication with DNA repair. In the article "DNA Damage,
Homology–Directed Repair, and DNA Methylation" written by Concetta Cuozzo, Antonio
Porcellini, Tiziana Angrisano, et al. they hypothesize how DNA damage and gene silencing may
induce a DNA double–strand break within a genome as well as when DNA methylation is induced
by homologous recombination that it may somewhat mark its reparation through a DNA segment
and protect its cells against any unregulated gene expression that may be followed by DNA damage.
The experiments used to demonstration how gene conversion can modify methylation pattern of
repaired DNA and when that occurs methylation is able to silence the recombined gene. When
exploring the molecular mechanisms that link DNA damage and the silencing gene then there is an
induced double strand break that can be found at a specific location or DNA sequence in where the

Dna And Human Dna Has Transformed Genetics
Done in the past decades, progress of new and great techniques for learning and manipulating DNA
has transformed genetics. The cloning plasmid shown in figure 16.1 is one example of the tools that
are now available. These techniques have permitted biologist to occur directly in the genetic fate of
organisms for the first time, the ability to directly isolate and manipulate genetic material was one of
the most profound change in the twenty first century, plasmid vectors (small, circular chromosomes)
are typically used to clone relatively small pieces od DNA, up to a maximum of about 10 kilo bases
(kb).
A plasmid vector must have (1) an origin of replication to allow it to be replicated in E. coli
independently of the chromosome, and (2) a selectable maker , usually antibiotic resistance. The
selectable maker allows the presence of the plasmid to be easily identified through selection, cells
that contain the maker will live when plated on antibiotic –containing growth media, and cells that
lack the plasmid will not live (they are killed by the antibiotic). A fragment of DNA is inserted by
the techniques described in figure 16.2 in a region of the plasmid called the multiple cloning site
(MCS).
This region contains a number of unique restriction sites such that when the plasmid is cut with any
of these enzyme, it will produce a linear plasmid. The DNA interest can then be ligated into this site,
after which plasmid DNA is introduced into cells. Next, the presence of

Dna Analysis : Strawberry Dna Extraction
Strawberry DNA Extraction
Sara Awad 795149 Ms. Hynes October 30, 2017
Introduction: Deoxyribonucleic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Article: ("Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)", 2015). Many assume that DNA is infinitely small that it
could only be observed through a high definition microscope, but that is in fact false. In this lab,
DNA is extracted from a grocery store strawberry called Fragaria virginiana using common,
household items. In addition,The native strawberry has two sets of chromosomes, called diploids.
Each set of chromosomes is inherited from each parent, which then are called haploids. There are
Polyploids in plants, which is a condition that occurs when there are multiple pairs of chromosomes
present in the organism 's genetic component. The strawberry used in the lab is an octoploid
meaning it has eight sets of chromosomes. Fragaria virginiana is one of the 20 species of Fragaria
plants. In addition, Octoploids supply an abundance of DNA which produce enzymes that break
down the cell walls making it simple for DNA extraction. In this procedure, chromosomal DNA is
extracted from strawberries. First, the strawberry is placed in a sealable plastic bag and pressed in
order to crack open the plant 's cell wall. Next, a detergent is added to dissolve the cell membrane,
this process is called cell lysis. The cell contents will flow out after cell lysis. This cell lysis solution
is then placed in a water bath to allow for a further breakdown. Lastly, to make the DNA evident an
alcohol–based precipitation is added to the cell lysis solution, then using a splint to

DNA Designer Dna Berkowitz
DNA Designer
The research question of the article Designer DNA by Rachel Berkowitz was how the
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) portrays a unique sequence of protein for every organism.
Biologically, all animals including humans have a unique DNA. The study focuses on how the
arrangement of four nucleotide bases determines the DNA sequence. For decades, scientists have
altered the DNA of various organisms to manipulate the life of living things. They have inserted
genes into algae, yeast cells, and bacteria to produce enzymes that appear in different shapes and
structures. The researchers hypothesized that software makes it less tedious for scientists to predict
the behaviors of host organisms whose DNA have been manipulated. In reality, the actions

What Is DNA Replicated From DNA?
In cells, DNA is replicated from chromosomes with two points of regulation: a six protein complex
forms at an origin and is activated by proteins that can modify others (Gambus et al, 2006; Labib,
2010; Zegerman and Diffley, 2006). This draws more proteins towards the origin for initiation to
occur. Origins are specific DNA sequences where the two DNA strands are unwound for replication,
creating fork–like structures (Labib, 2010). Origin unwinding occurs by the six protein complex
mentioned with other initiator proteins and a four protein complex called GINS (Gambus et al,
2006). Another six protein complex called the Origin Recognition Complex orders these
components at the origin (Takeda et al, 2005). DNA replication is then carried ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The ability to create an artificial origin allows for more research into the start of replication
including the protein involved (Takeda et al, 2005).
DNA Replication Initiation One paper used bypassing proteins in the replicative process of yeast to
find that modification of proteins Sld2 and Sld3 by a modifier protein is only required for replication
activation (Zegerman and Diffley, 2006). Sld3 modification allows it to bind one end of a bridge–
like protein Dpb11 while Sld2 binds the other. The Sld modifying protein modifies up to two
hundred different proteins and is activated by other modifying proteins used earlier in the replication
process and its levels are kept low in these earlier stages as to avoid replicating DNA too early
(Labib, 2010; Zegerman and Diffley, 2006). This paper could have suggested a role for the Sld2/3–
Dpb11 interaction but does provide greater insight into various modifying proteins' functions in
replication (Zegerman and Diffley, 2006). Gambus et al showed that in yeast GINS interacts with
the initial six protein complex mentioned and many regulatory proteins, through multiple methods
such as related to their mass, and investigated the interaction strengths by incremental inhibition of
their bonding (Gambus et al, 2006). GINS positions these extra proteins around the six protein
complex and allows their interaction for DNA unwinding and replication. Understanding GINS

The Definition of DNA
DNA:
DNA is a double–stranded nucleic acid that contains the genetic information for cell growth,
division, and function. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and
almost all other organisms. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus but a small amount of DNA can
also be found in the mitochondria .The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four
nitrogen bases which are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). these nitrogen
bases are bind with each other through hydrogen bond. [1]
History of DNA research
dna structure dna replication
Before a cell can divide, it must duplicate all its DNA. In eukaryotes, this occurs during S phase of
the cell cycle.
The Biochemical Reactions * DNA ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Identification * DNA is often referred to as a double helix because of its appearance. DNA is made
of two long strands called nucleotides that run in opposite directions from one another. Nucleotides
are made of sugars and phosphate groups that are joined together by ester bonds. Attached to each of
the sugars is a molecule called a base. Four different types of bases encode the information that is
used for cell replication.
Evolution
* As organisms evolve, DNA sequences change to produce new qualities and weed out qualities that
are no longer needed. Sometimes this happens because of a process of natural selection. Qualities
that help people survive certain diseases and conditions continue to be passed on to offspring; less
desirable qualities are slowly removed from the population. These DNA evolutions help species to
survive and reproduce despite changing conditions.[8]
Disease Diagnosis and Treatment
One important area of DNA research is that of genetics and medical research. Due to our discovery
of DNA, our ability to actually diagnose diseases early on has been vastly improved. In addition, we
have been able to better assess a person's genetic susceptibility to specific diseases. In doing so, we
have also paved the pathway to formulate brand new drugs to treat these diseases. In fact, drugs can
essentially be custom made to complement a person's personal biochemistry and genetic makeup.
For those diseases that were previously considered

Dna Essay
2.10 binding analysis of investigated complexes with Calf thymus DNA (CT–DNA)
2.10.1 Viscosity for DNA in the presence investigated complexes
Oswald micro‐viscometer was used for measuring the viscosity of investigated complexes at
constant temperature 25 oC. With maintaining the concentration of CT–DNA constant (420 uM), the
Fluidity times were registered for different concentrations of investigated complexes (0 – 250 μM)
[13,16,19,20,26,27,28,29,30,34,39]. Bubbling nitrogen gas is used for mix the solution through the
viscometer. Viscosity for DNA in the presence investigated complexes was determined from the
mean value of the three of readers. ηo is relative viscosities for DNA with investigated complexes
and estimated from the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The investigated complexes were dissolved in DMF solvent. Electronic spectra experiments were
performed by keeping investigated complexes concentrations constant while changing the CT–DNA
concentration in the interaction medium. The absorption due to free CT–DNA was eliminated by
adding a proper amount of CT–DNA to both compound solution and the reference solution and the
spectra data obtained were considered to result from the DNA–metal complex aggregation. From the
electronic spectra data, Kb (the intrinsic binding constant) was estimated from plotting [DNA] /(εa –
εb) versus [DNA] according to the following relation :
([DNA])⁄((ε_a–ε_f))=[DNA]1/((ε_b–ε_f))+1/K_b 1/([(ε_b–ε_f )]) (16)
Where [DNA] is the molar concentration of CT–DNA in base pairs εf, εa and εb are the extinction
coefficients of free, apparent and fully bound complex, respectively. εf and εa were estimated from
the isolated metal complex calibration curve Aobs / [complex] and DNA calibration curve Aobs /
[DNA], respectively. Kb was calculated from the ratio of slope to intercept where a slope is equal to
1/(εb – εf) and y– intercept is equal to 1/Kb (εb – εf) from this plot. ∆G_b^≠ (the standard Gibb,s
free energy) for DNA binding was calculated from the following equation
[13,16,19,20,26,27,28,29,30,34,39]:
∆G_b^≠=–RT LinK_b (17)
2.11 Molecular docking
Dell Precision™ T3600 Workstation [Intel Xeon E5–1660

Dna Essay
The beginning of this story can be considered as a joke. "We just opened the secret of life," – said
one of two men, who entered the Eagle pub in Cambridge 64 years ago. Those people did not
exaggerated. One of them was Francis Crick, another – James Watson. Watson and Crick discovered
structure of deoxyribonucleic acid – a substance that contains all hereditary information. A few
months after the historic statement in the pub came a careful publication of the work of two
researchers in the journal Nature (Watson and Crick 738–740). The article ended with the
assumption that the discovery of the structure of DNA could explain the copying mechanisms of
genetic material. With the structure of DNA in hand, molecular biology became the fastest ... Show
Watson cut out of the cardboard four types of nucleotide models – guanine (G), cytosine (C),
thymine (T) and adenine (A) – and began to lay them on the table. He discovered that adenine binds
to thymine, and guanine – to cytosine on the principle of "key–lock." It is in this way two strands of
DNA are connected together, that is opposite to thymine, one thread will always contain adenine
from the other, and nothing else. The two strands of the Watson–Crick model are complementary to
each other, so that wherever an adenine appears on one strand, a thymine occurs directly opposite
from it in the other strand (Garland 219). Watson and Crick got the Nobel Prize in1958. The
discovery of the spatial structure of DNA revolutionized the world of science and led to many new
discoveries without which it is impossible to imagine not only modern science, but also modern life
as a whole. In 60th another important discovery was made – the genetic code. DNA contains
information about everything that is inherited, including the linear structure of each protein in the
body. Proteins, like DNA, represent long molecular chains of amino acids. There are 20 amino
acids. Accordingly, it was unclear how the "language" of DNA, consisting of a four–letter alphabet,
is translated into the "language" of proteins, where 20 "letters". It revealed that the combination of
three nucleotides of DNA clearly

Dna Analysis : Dna And Dna
DNA polymerases are vital in how an organism can sustain life. DNA polymerases are enzymes that
synthesize DNA molecules from deoxyribonucleotides and are accountable for DNA replication.
They are absolutely critical for DNA replication and will typically work in sets so that they can
create two identical sets of DNA strands from one single strand of DNA. DNA polymerase will
catalyze the reaction: deoxynucleoside triphosphate + DNAn diphosphate + DNAn+1. DNA
polymerases are extremely important because each time a cell divides, DNA polymerases have to be
involved in order to assist in duplicating the cell's DNA. Duplication of a cell's DNA allows for the
daughter cell to get a copy of the genetic information so that it can carry to multiple generations
after. Helicase unwinds DNA so that it separates the two strands making them each single stranded,
which will be used as "templates for replication" (Mandal, 2014). DNA polymerase becomes
important as now it can add nucleotides to the 3' end so that the 5' to 3' will be extended. DNA
polymerase is a very precise and accurate process although, a mistake of one in a billion base pairs
copied can be made. DNA polymerase proofreads the DNA so that the base pairs can be corrected if
need be. As a visual, "DNA polymerases are shaped like a hand with fingers, palm and thumb
subdomains" (Benoît). DNA polymerases are extremely significant in replication of a genome
because they guarantee that the genetic information can be

Dna Essay
The Interesting History and Facts of DNA
Kevin T. Hoang
James Martin High School
Abstract
This paper explores the history and some interesting facts about DNA. The last couple centuries
have seen an exponential growth in our knowledge of DNA. The history of the DNA can be traced
back to multiple devoted scientist. This article attempts to summarize, and review the basic history
of DNA while providing some fascinating information about it.
A Brief Historic Review Throughout the early 19th and 20th century, many scientists have studied
deoxyribonucleic acids in order to attain higher understanding over the matter. Johann G. Mendel
had figured out and understood the laws of heredity. Friedrich Miescher discovered DNA ... Show
The pictures were shown to James Watson and Francis Crick by Maurice Wilkins. They were then
able to confirm their theory about the 3D structure of DNA. In 1962, they were awarded the Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine for solving the structure of DNA. The Nobel committee could not
award it to Franklin because the Nobel prize could only be shared by three people and also because
she was already dead (DNA from the Beginning, 2011)
Origin of the Four Bases' Names The four names of the nitrogenous bases of the DNA are adenine,
thymine, guanine, and cytosine. The word "adenine" was created in the late 19th century in German
from the Greek words "adēn" "gland" and "in". The word "cytosine" was coined in the late 19th
century from the German word "cytosin" from cyto– "cell", –ose and the chemical suffix –ine. The
word "guanine" comes from the English words "guano" and "ine" and was also created in the 19th
century. The word "thymine" comes from words "thymus" and the suffix –ine.
Interesting Facts Although DNA molecules seem minuscule, if all the DNA in a human body was
unwound and placed from end to end, it would cover about 10 billion miles. That's approximately
the same distance as traveling from the Earth to Pluto and back. (Helmenstine, 2017). If a person
typed 60 words per minute, eight hours a day, it would take approximately 50 years for them to type
the human

DNA Essay
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid are two chemical substances involved in transmitting
genetic information from parent to offspring. It was known early into the 20th century that
chromosomes, the genetic material of cells, contained
DNA. In 1944, Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty concluded that DNA
was the basic genetic component of chromosomes. Later, RNA would be proven to regulate protein
synthesis. (Miller, 139)
DNA is the genetic material found in most viruses and in all cellular organisms.
Some viruses do not have DNA, but contain RNA instead. Depending on the organism, most DNA
is found within a single chromosome like bacteria, or in several chromosomes like most other living
things. (Heath, 110) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(Grolier Encyclopedia, 1992)
DNA does not act directly in the process of protein synthesis because it does not leave the nucleus,
so a special ribonucleic acid is used as a messenger
(mRNA). The mRNA carries the genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus out to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm during transcription. (Miller, 76)
This leads to the topic of replication. When DNA replicates, the two strands of the double helix
separate from one another. While the strands separate, each nitrogenous base on each strand attracts
it's own complement, which as mentioned earlier, attaches with hydrogen bonds. As the bases are
bonded an enzyme called
DNA polymerase combines the phosphate of one nucleotide to the deoxyribose of the opposite
nucleotide.
This forms a new polynucleotide chain. The new DNA strand stays attached to the old one through
the hydrogen bonds, and together they form a new DNA double helix molecule. (Heath, 119)
(Miller, 144–145)
As mentioned before, DNA molecules are involved in a process called protein synthesis. Without
RNA, this process could not be completed. RNA is the genetic material of some viruses. RNA
molecules are like DNA. They have a long chain of macromolecules made up of nucleotides. Each
RNA nucleotide is also made up of three basic parts. There is a sugar called ribose, and at one end of

the sugar is the phosphate group, and at the other end is one of several nitrogenous bases.
There are four main nitrogenous bases found in

DNA Essay
DNA
After staying on the plant Earth reaching the human genetic technology, I have come up with this
report the four things I am going to talk about in this report are: 1) What is the chemical basis of the
plant Earth 2) What do human mean by
"genetic technology" and how is it possible 3) How have human used this technology 4)
Are humans concerned about this technology
1)The chemical basis of the plant earth is deoxyribonucleic acid (generally shortened to DNA), it
has the shape of a long twisted ladder each rung of this ladder is made up of a pair of chemical
bases, the information that human body need to make proteins is coded and contained in the order of
these bases along the length of the DNA ladder. All DNA molecules ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
By using this technology it is possible to alert characteristics of living organisms in specific ways.
The chemical languages of DNA in all living thing are the same so it is possible to take one gene
from one living thing and transfer into another living thing. To give an animal permanent genetic
change the new gene must be inserted into the single cell embryo from which all the cell's will
develop in the adult animal's body. It is much difficult to introduce DNA into plant cells. So humans
take one microbe that infects the plant normally and puts it in a virus or bacterium and make the it
carries the
DNA into the plant cell.
3)Humans has already used 'genetic technology' and here are the three examples of the living thing's
human have used 'genetic technology' on. First example is the environmentally friendly cotton
(cotton is any of various shrubby plants grown for the soft, white, downy fibers surrounding oil–rich
seeds' humans use the fibers to make cloth). On the cotton there is a kind of pest called cotton
bollworm, it ate the fiber to live. Each year humans have to spend a lot of money on pesticides to
kill those worms. Now with 'genetic technology' humans are trying to make bollworm resistant
cotton. Humans have found a bacterium that kills the bollworm, they are going to put this new gene
into the cotton so it will produce a protein that kills the bollworm, but the protein is harmless to all
the other living things.

The Contributions Of DNA Sequences : DNA Is Not Destiny
DNA is Not Destiny
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is made up of nucleotides which contain three parts: a phosphate
group, a sugar group, and one of four types of nitrogen bases. DNA then forms a double helix, with
alternating phosphate and sugar groups linked to a chain of nucleotides. DNA is important because it
gives instructions to an organism on how to develop, survive, and reproduce through DNA
sequences. These sequences contain instructions on how to make proteins, which are complex
molecules that do most of the work in the human body. DNA Sequences that contain instructions on
how to make proteins are genes which also determine physical traits. The complete DNA instruction
book, or genome, for a human, contains about three billion ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
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The scientific studies conducted for epigenetics have given light and has helped disprove a common
fact that DNA is a person's destiny. A person's destiny is instead due to multiple factors. These
factors range from the mother's diet during pregnancy to the person's lifestyle (Watters 33). An
experiment conducted by Randy Jirtle, a professor at Duke University, has proven the mother's diet
during pregnancy has a profound impact on child's epigenome. The experiment took mice that have
the agouti gene and bred them. Typically, the child would have the agouti gene like the parents,
which would make them yellow, fat, and prone to diseases, but it did not. The offspring did not
phonetically posses the agouti gene but were slender brown mice. This was due to the mother's rich
diet of methyl foods rich during pregnancy which altered the epigenome and phonetically turned off
the agouti gene (Watters 33). These methyl–rich foods are the type of victims usually found in the
victim's pills pregnant woman take so this data can be applied to humans like most mice
experiments and results from them. Scientists have conducted other studies and have found that
identical twins having the same DNA can be drastically different by the time they are twenty years
old due to their different experiences in life (Fraga, Mario F., et al). Epigenetics marks are affected
by experiences a

DNA Profiling
It is incredible to think that a single piece of evidence can be used to convict or acquit a suspect, but
such is the case with DNA profiling. Throughout the past few decades, DNA profiling has evolved
immensely from a genetic fingerprint discovered by Sir Alec Jeffreys in 1984 into an aspect of
everyday forensics affecting millions of cases and trials today. Since a suspect's conviction or
acquittal rests on the proper collection of DNA evidence, regulations have been put into place, as a
result of the 'DNA wars', to ensure the evidence is admissible. DNA profiling has been made famous
through trials such as OJ Simpson versus Nicole Brown. Genetic fingerprinting has also begun to
branch from the forensic field into discovering a person's ancestry ... Show more content on
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The prosecution would continually be successful due to the idea that this new DNA profiling
technique had never been challenged for validity. However, the technique flaws came to light. Once
the defense began to contest the reliability of the evidence being admitted in court, it became
apparent that the evidence was not entirely accurate. This became known as the 'DNA Wars'.
"Aronson's historical narrative shows that 'DNA profiling was a deeply problematic technology
when it was unveiled'–vulnerable to error, lacking quality controls, and, in its interpretation of test
results, 'based more on assumptions than empirical evidence.' Dedicated defense lawyers brought
such deficiencies to light, leading to debates (soon to be known as the 'DNA Wars')" (Caudill 691).
When DNA evidence first began to be admitted in court, the research wasn't there to back the
forensic technology. At the start, the prosecution would ask expert witnesses to testify to the DNA's
validity that worked for the forensic technology companies and the court would generally accept the
evidence. Gradually, the defense attorneys found scientists who were willing to question the
reliability of the new DNA technologies which flipped the cases more in favor of the defense
(Edmond 129). According to Jay D. Aronson, there was no one resolution to the DNA wars. There
was, rather, a combination of new FBI regulations, judicial decisions, and federal legislature
regarding the collection and testing of DNA evidence that slowly brought the wars to a close
(Aronson 4). To emphasize, "In the middle of 1989, claims about the validity and reliability of DNA
evidence were sufficiently destabilized (largely by defense challenges) and the technology seen as
sufficiently important

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