Dna Essay

The Discovery of DNA Essay
DNA – the very molecule that defines who we are. It is still fascinating that a molecule that is so
small that is not visible to the naked eye determines not just our physical appearance but also our
mental wellbeing. Over 60 years, the discovery of the double helix DNA had impacted various fields
relating to Biology and Chemistry, contributing to the advancement of technology and subsequently
mankind too. The discovery of DNA had opened up many opportunities in the field of genetics. By
analysis a DNA of an individual, we are able to diagnose diseases that are hereditary at an early
stage. Genetic diseases are diseases that arise from one or more abnormalities in a genotype (or
genotypes) (Elston, 311). Genetic diseases such as sickle...show more content...
Paternity tests are done to identify a child's biological parents, which, according to Ian Murnaghan,
"has a significant effect on a child's upbringing and his or her life". Many cases of paternity testing
is done to ensure that the biological parent takes responsibility for his or her child. This is not
limited to the entertainment industry, where famous artists such as Mick Jagger were made to take
responsibility over his biological son through a paternity testing (Watson, 286). On the other hand,
families are being reunited through the use of DNA as well. Relatives that were separated due to
extreme circumstances were able to reunite with their family. Long lost relatives and children that
were given up for adoption had benefitted from this, allowing them to gain a sense of belonging and
a true "home" to return to. Mary–Claire King, who was then a professor of epidemiology and
genetics at the University of California at Berkeley, used genetic testing to reunite children with their
grandparents after their parents had "disappeared" during Argentina's "dirty war" (Kaye, 98).
Apart from humans, DNA had also impacted other living things such as animals and plants. With the
discovery of DNA, the agriculture field had improved tremendously in both quality and quantity. The
quest to produce plants that contains better traits had been initiated by Gregor Mendel. Mendel had
worked with the characteristics of pea plants and coined the
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DNA EXTRACTION Essay
Much can be learned from studying an organisms DNA. The first step to doing this is extracting
DNA from cells. In this experiment, you will isolate DNA from the cells of fruit. Materials (1) 10
mL Graduated Cylinder(2) 100 mL Beakers15 cm Cheesecloth1 Resealable Bag1 Rubber Band
(Large. Contains latex pleasewear gloves when handling if you have a latex allergy).Standing Test
TubeWooden Stir StickFresh, Soft Fruit (e.g., Grapes, Strawberries, Banana, etc.) ScissorsDNA
Extraction SolutionIce Cold EthanolYou Must ProvideContains sodium chloride, detergent and
waterFor ice cold ethanol, store in the freezer 60 minutes before use. Procedure If you have not
done so, prepare the ethanol by placing it in a freezer for approximately 60 minutes....show more
content...
Let the test tube sit undisturbed for 2 – 5 minutes. You should begin to see air bubbles form at the
boundary line between the ethanol and the filtered fruit solution. Bubbles will form near the top, and
you will eventually see the DNA float to the top of the ethanol. Gently insert the stir stick into the
test tube. Slowly raise and lower the tip several times to spool and collect the DNA. If there is an
insufficient amount of DNA available, it may not float to the top of the solution in a form that can
be easily spooled or removed from the tube. However, the DNA will still be visible as white/clear
clusters by gently stirring the solution and pushing the clusters around the top. Post–Lab Questions
What is the texture and consistency of the DNA DNA is viscous and greasy. Why did we use a
salt in the extraction solution High salt makes DNA less soluble in water. In order to dissolve, the
water needs to interact with the DNA. Since DNA is quite large, it needs to interact with lots of
water for this purpose. When you add salt, the water preferentially interacts with the salt (its small,
and can move around in solution easier than the DNA can). This makes it so there is less water
available to interact with the DNA and it becomes less soluble. Is the DNA soluble in the aqueous
solution or alcohol DNA is less soluble in an alcohol such as isopropanol than it is in water. This is
because alcohols are non–polar, whereas water is polar. The polar

DNA Essay
DNA
After staying on the plant Earth reaching the human genetic technology, I have come up with this
report the four things I am going to talk about in this report are: 1) What is the chemical basis of the
plant Earth 2) What do human mean by
"genetic technology" and how is it possible 3) How have human used this technology 4)
Are humans concerned about this technology
1)The chemical basis of the plant earth is deoxyribonucleic acid (generally shortened to DNA), it
has the shape of a long twisted ladder each rung of this ladder is made up of a pair of chemical bases,
the information that human body need to make proteins is coded and contained in the order of these
bases along the length of the DNA ladder. All DNAmolecules...show more content...
By using this technology it is possible to alert characteristics of living organisms in specific ways.
The chemical languages of DNA in all living thing are the same so it is possible to take one gene
from one living thing and transfer into another living thing. To give an animal permanent genetic
change the new gene must be inserted into the single cell embryo from which all the cell's will
develop in the adult animal's body. It is much difficult to introduce DNA into plant cells. So humans
take one microbe that infects the plant normally and puts it in a virus or bacterium and make the it
carries the
DNA into the plant cell.
3)Humans has already used 'genetic technology' and here are the three examples of the living thing's
human have used 'genetic technology' on. First example is the environmentally friendly cotton
(cotton is any of various shrubby plants grown for the soft, white, downy fibers surrounding oil–rich
seeds' humans use the fibers to make cloth). On the cotton there is a kind of pest called cotton
bollworm, it ate the fiber to live. Each year humans have to spend a lot of money on pesticides to
kill those worms. Now with 'genetic technology' humans are trying to make bollworm resistant
cotton. Humans have found a bacterium that kills the bollworm, they are going to put this new gene
into the cotton so it will produce a protein that kills the bollworm, but the protein is harmless to all
the other living things.

DNA Essay example
DNA is a term that has been used in science as well as in many parts of daily life. The general
public knows that DNA is a part of our bodies but they may wonder what exactly is DNA? DNA
is a term used for deoxyribonucleic acid and it is the genetic material of all organisms, it is the
molecule of life and it determines all of our physical characteristics. DNA is present in every
single form of life. More than 50 years after the science of genetics was established and the patterns
of inheritance were clarified, the largest questions remained unanswered: How are the chromosomes
and their genes copied exactly from cell to cell, and how do they direct the structure and behavior of
living things?
Two American geneticists, George...show more content...
"To make a new, identical copy of the DNAmolecule, the two strands unwind and separate at the
bases which are weakly bound; with more nucleotides available in the cell, new complementary
bases can link with each separated strand, and two double helixes result." (Caldwell) Since the
"backbone" of every chromosome is a single long, double–stranded molecule of DNA, the
production of two identical double helixes will result in the production of two identical
chromosomes.
The DNA backbone is actually longer than the chromosome but is tightly coiled up within it. This
packing is now known to be based on minute particles of protein known as nucleosomes, that can
only be seen under the most powerful electron microscope. The DNA is wound around each
nucleosome to form a beaded structure.
The structure is then further folded so that the beads associate in regular coils. Thus, the DNA has a
"coiled–coil" configuration.
After the discoveries of Watson andCrick, the question that remained was how the DNA directs the
formation of proteins, compounds central to all the processes of life. Proteins are not only the major
components of most cell structures, they also control virtually all the chemical reactions that occur
in living matter. The ability of a protein to act as part of a structure, or as an enzyme affecting the
rate of a particular chemical reaction, depends on its molecular shape. This shape, in turn,

DNA Essay
To understand how genetic characteristics and DNA work together, we must look at DNA and
understand how it is structured. The sugars adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G)
are nucleotide bases, the building blocks of DNA. These sugars interact with each other, forming
DNA strings/chains. An example is GATCATCCG, this string serves as a manual for building a
protein. The DNA contains the entire building instruction, the blueprint to construct an organism
(animals, humans, plants or microorganisms). However, this is a very simple overview and to do
DNA truly justice, we need to get into more detail.
Organisms make protein after reading the manual of making RNA which is an authentic copy of
DNA. The body translates the...show more content...
According to the report, the classification of erroneous synthesis is, any disturbance in the
translation of the coding sequence into functioning protein. Amino–acids can become compromised
when built, resulting from transcription errors when DNA reads the manual to make RNA. Aberrant
splicing may occur, faulty modifications and folding errors are possible too. On the other hand,
correctly synthesized polypeptides that fail to fold correctly are also included.
Although these errors may take place in all steps of the protein synthesis, from the copying to the
folding process; the consequences are widespread. There is not much knowledge about this yet.
Although, there is enough evidence that faulty protein synthesis results in lesser fit organisms. The
consequences of erroneous protein synthesis can be minor, which might only affect the cellular
material that is responsible for the rejuvenation of cells, causing deformed cells, or excessive cell
growth. These irregularities might affect the organism itself, but might not transfer into the genetic
material used for reproduction. With other words, when faulty protein is built, or folded wrong, it
results in deformation of cells/organs and/or affects the quality of the genetic material of the
organism. Very little was known, only 5%, the research started 45 years ago. However, the
publication only elaborates that errors can be divided into two categories. Category

Dna Replication Essay
Since we discovered that DNA is in the nucleus in every single cell, we're curious about how
exactly DNA can be replicated in a way that can keep our identity, including our characteristics. This
could be described after learning about DNA and its very individual characteristics, along with
transcription and translation, which are the two steps of DNA replication. These steps can determine
our characteristics, as well as our personalities. DNA is mostly made of adenine, thymine, guanine
and cytosine. These all make hydrogen bonds, and that's only if it's connected to the correct base. An
example of this would be when thymine connects to adenine and guanine connects to cytosine.
Though, since this is mRNA being created, adenine would connect...show more content...
The DNA helicase latches on to the DNA molecule, unzipping the double helix, letting enzymes
break the hydrogen bonds that connect the base pairs. Also, complementary nucleotides that are
floating around and about in the nucleus form hydrogen bonds according to their pairs: thymine to
adenine and guanine to cytosine. Due to the hydrogen bonds being more breakable, the DNA is
much easier to "unzip" for replication. In the cytoplasm you can also find tRNA. tRNA contains a 3
nucleic code on one side and on the other side, there's a special protein on the other. In the cytoplasm,
mRNA attracts ribosomes that have a similar 3 letter code of tRNA. The amino acids from tRNA
then bond with the mRNA, which then creates a protein chain when a start codon or Methionine is
reached. This chain will eventually stop once the stop codon is reached. This will then create a
completed protein. In conclusion, even through replication, we are still able to keep our
characteristics due to the stationary and unchanging method of replication, which is where we keep
the same genetic coding. With the steps of DNA replication, this determines our characteristics,
along with our personalities. The more we continue the studying of genetics, we may one day be able
to cure disorders before the person is even born or

Dna Replication Essay examples
DNA REPLICATION
WHAT IS DNA?
DNA is a molecule that has a repeating chain of identical five–carbon sugars (polymers) linked
together from head to tail. It is composed of four ring shaped organic bases (nucleotides) which are
Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T). It has a double helix shape and contains
the sugar component deoxyribose.
THE PROCESS OF DNA REPLICATION
How DNA replicates is quite a simple process. First, a DNAmolecule is "unzipped". In other words,
it splits into two strands of DNA at one end of the DNA molecule. This separation will cause a
formation of a replication fork.
After the replication fork has been established the strands of DNA are ready for the next stage. On
each strand is a sequence...show more content...
&#61623; The first discovery Chagraff made was that the amount of adenine present in all
DNA molecules is equal to the amount of thymine.
&#61623; The second discovery Chagraff made was that the amount of guanine was equal to
the amount of cytosine.
&#61623; The third discovery Chagraff made was that the amount of adenine plus thymine
often differs greatly from the amount of guanine plus cytosine.
HOW THE IMAGE OF DNA WAS FIRST DISCOVERED
After Chagraff's discoveries, two British scientists by the name Rosalind Franklin and Maurice
Wilkens were able to apply his observations. Thus, these two scientists were the first ones to
discover the image of what a DNA molecule actually looked like in three–dimension.
How these scientists manage to obtain the image of a DNA molecule was by the use of "x–ray
crystallographic analysis". In this process, DNA molecules are bombarded with a x–ray beam.
These x–rays encounter atoms, which in turn causes their paths to bent or diffract. The pattern
created by the sum of total of these diffractions are then captured on a photographic film. The pattern
is then interpreted into the image of the molecule through careful analysis. Thus, because of this
research it led to the first theory and model structure of DNA.
MAURICE WILKENS
Maurice Wilkens was born in the year 1916 and is a British

Dna Essay
Abstract
This paper explores the history and some interesting facts about DNA. The last couple centuries
have seen an exponential growth in our knowledge of DNA. The history of the DNA can be traced
back to multiple devoted scientist. This article attempts to summarize, and review the basic history of
DNA while providing some fascinating information about it.
A Brief Historic Review Throughout the early 19th and 20th century, many scientists have studied
deoxyribonucleic acids in order to attain higher understanding over the matter. Johann G. Mendel had
figured out and understood the laws of heredity. Friedrich Miescher amazingly discovered DNA in
1869, even though scientists did not understand DNA was the genetic material...show more content...
The pictures were shown to James Watson andFrancis Crick by Maurice Wilkins. They were then
able to confirm their theory about the 3D structure of DNA. In 1962, they were awarded the
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for solving the structure of DNA. The Nobel committee could
not award it to Franklin because the Nobel prize could only be shared by three people and also
because she was already dead (DNA from the Beginning, 2011)
Origin of the Four Bases' Names The four names of the nitrogenous bases of the DNA are adenine,
thymine, guanine, and cytosine. The word "adenine" was created in the 19th century in German
from the Greek words "adД“n" "gland" and "in". The word "cytosine" was coined in the 19th
century from the German word "cytosin" from cyto– "cell", –ose and the chemical suffix –ine. The
word "guanine" comes from the English words "guano" and "ine" and was also created in the 19th
century. The word "thymine" comes from words "thymus" and the suffix–ine.
Interesting Facts Although DNA molecules seem minuscule, if all the DNA in a human body was
unwound and placed from end to end, it would cover about 10 billion miles. That's approximately
the same distance as traveling from the Earth to Pluto and back. (Helmenstine, 2017). "If a person
typed 60 words per minute, eight hours a day, it would take approximately 50 years for them to type
the human genome" (Kawasaki, 2010). Scientist have calculated that DNA has a 521–year half–life,
which

DNA Profiling Essay example
From cases such as OJ Simpson to Chandra Levy, DNA profiling also called DNA fingerprinting or
DNA typing has played a major role in the criminal justice system. The law enforcement community
uses DNA profiling to rule out or identify suspects. Unlike hair microscopy, bite mark comparisons,
shoe print comparisons, and firearm tool mark analysis, DNA typing has been developed through
massive scientific research and has undergone meticulous scientific evaluation (Innocence Project).
DNA is a foolproof method of identifying a perpetrator of a crime.
Like fingerprints, DNA is unique, with the exception of identical twins; no two people have the
same DNA. DNA profiling is a technique that can identify the person responsible of a violent...show
more content...
With over three million base pairs in the human gene, forensic scientists are able to distinguish a
person's genetic makeup.
. DNA profiling was first introduced to the criminal justice field in the mid–1980's (DNA Initiative).
DNA profiling was first described in 1984 by Alec Jeffreys, a geneticist at the University of
Leicester in Britain (Aronson, 7). Dr. Jeffreys found that the genes that have no function, called
"junk DNA" is where most of the variation is used for DNA profiling (Aronson 9). This region
contains DNA sequences that repeat over and over again. Alec Jeffreys determined that the number
of repeated sections at different locations vary from individual to individual (DNA Initiative).
Consequently these repetitive regions became known as "variable number of tandem repeats" or
VNTR's.
RFLP or restriction fragment length polymorphisms became the first scientifically accepted DNA
analysis method in the United States (Jones). The repeat segments are cut out of the DNA strand by
a restrictive enzyme that acts like scissors and the resulting fragments are sorted out by
electrophoresis (Saferstein 391). However, there are some drawbacks using the RFLP method in the
forensic science community. The RFLP technique requires a large amount of DNA and must be of
high quality and cannot be degraded (Jones). Forensic scientists and the law enforcement community

Dna And Sequence Of Dna Essay
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a self–replicating nucleic acid that carries the genetic information in
cells in a double helix structure. The 2 stranded helix is composed of 4 nucleotides, Adenine (A),
Thymine (T), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C). The base pairs only form between A and T
connected by 2 Hydrogen bonds and G and C connected by 3 hydrogen bonds. Foremost DNA
wrapping comes about as DNA wraps around protein called histones. These combined loops of
DNA and protein are called nucleosomes and the nucleosomes are packaged into a thread called
chromatin. Chromosomes are made up of packaged chromatin and can be seen in the nucleus of
dividing cells and form around DNA replication. Furthermore, DNA replication begins with 2 DNA
strands being separated by the helicase enzyme. Single stranded DNA binding proteins attach to
these strands to keep them from re–connecting. 1 DNA strand begins to encode called the leading
strand, which Forms from 5' to 3' end using DNA polymerase 3 the primary polymerase. The
other strand is referred to as the lagging strand, which presents problems because it has to form
from the 5' to 3'end as well. As continuous replication of the leading strand continues the lagging
strand forms in pieces called Okazaki fragments. RNA primase forms as RNA primer and
polymerase III lay down new DNA. This process repeats again and again. DNA polymerase I
replaces RNA primers with DNA and DNA ligase links the Okazaki fragments. Along with the
process of DNA

Essay On DNA Discoveries
Discoveries in DNA, cell biology, evolution, biotechnology have been among the major
achievements in biology over the past 200 years with accelerated discoveries and insights over the
last 50 years. Consider the progress we have made in these areas of human knowledge. Present at
least three of the discoveries you find to be most important and describe their significance to society,
health, and the culture of modern life.
DNA per medical dictionary is defined as A nucleic acid that carries the genetic information in cells
and some viruses, consisting of two long chains of nucleotides twisted into a double helix and joined
by hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases adenine and thymine or cytosine and guanine.
DNA sequences are...show more content...
Thus, proteins that are formed play certain roles as the body synthesizes those specific proteins for
the exact job at the exact time. Some of the diseases affected by this are sickle cell and malaria.
Sickle cell: One of the first inherited diseases to be unraveled at the level of DNA was sickle–cell
anemia which is defined as abnormal, crescent–shaped red blood cells that results from a single
change in the amino acid sequence of the cell's hemoglobin, which causes the cell to contort,
especially under low–oxygen conditions. (medical dictionary, 2017) Also, called drepanocyte,
meniscocyte. Also, this blood disorder mostly affects Africans and natives of the Mediterranean
region are those who are affected by malaria. A single mutation in thegene for the blood protein
hemoglobin can affect its ability to transport oxygen around the body. People who inherit two copies
of the same mutation, one from each parent, have severe symptoms.
Malaria: However, those who inherit just one copy of the mutation do not suffer too badly; in fact,
they are resistant to malaria which defined as an infective disease caused by sporozoan parasites that
are transmitted through the bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito; marked by paroxysms of chills
and fever. The discovery told geneticists much about evolution and how harmful mutations can
increase to relatively high levels within a population provided they confer some advantage. By
understanding how

DNA Forensic Essay
Setting aside the fact that DNA forensic technique is to a great degree helpful. This nonetheless, does
not take away from the fact that even it too has its limitation. In some multiplex situations such as
(such as with DNA mixtures). DNA call for and depend on analyst putting together a variation of
subjective judgements that are prone to bias. Furthermore, contrary to the perspective that DNA is
objective, some have suggested that DNA examination interpretations might be biased and could
even be impacted by various factors.
To illustrate the subjectivity of DNA forensic a study was carried out by Itiel E. Dror and Greg
Hampikian. The study entailed taking DNA from a real crime scene in Georgia that involved a Kerry
Robinson who was indicted and then sentenced to prison for rape. As a part of his trial process a
DNA test was carried out on him and it was found that he could not be excluded. Resuming to the
study, a mixed sample of DNA evidence was given to 17 expert analysts who were asked to interpret
the DNA sample. In the end their findings were inconsistence, with only one of them findings
matching the judgement that...show more content...
The Deficiencies in forensic science have acutely distressing results, and the quantity of exonerations
discussed earlier has highlighted the very real danger that innocent people can be convicted. The
reality of wrongful convictions has ascended to the forefront of public awareness on account of the
work of the Innocence Project and other organizations. The underlying factors that has contributed to
the deficiencies in forensic science are the following: unqualified analysts, contaminated evidence,
misrepresented or exaggerated results, misinterpretation of results, absence of research for basic
assumptions and not following scientific protocol. (RR

DNA testing Essay
DNA testing has overthrown the way police collect evidence in a number of criminal cases,
especially rape and murder and consequently had a large impact on many past cases. However there
are many disadvantages to DNA testing, such as a challenge of accuracy, the costs of DNA testing
and the possible misuse of DNA. The prospect of a national DNA database in Australia has been
heavily criticised with complaints of invasion of privacy and stigma against those with terminal
diseases.
Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA as it is most commonly known, is a strand of molecules found within
the cell nucleus of all living things. It is called a "genetic fingerprint" because each is different to
the other and everyone, apart from identical twins, have...show more content...
Another downside to the use of DNA is the misuse of results. Victims with AIDS feel that they might
be stigmatised if their DNA is stored in a national database and it could be used against them.
The prospect of a genetic database in Australia has been raised recently. The federal police are
pushing for a national database to help solve crime and are asking for legislation to be allowed to
collect DNA samples from people accused, or suspected of committing an offence (the Australian,
06.12.1997 see appendix one)
The proposal has sparked a moral dilemma. Victoria has had a DNA database since 1992 with the
reasoning that, if a suspect is cleared, their DNA must be erased off the list. However, recently
Victorian government has allowed police to collect samples from more suspected criminals, not just
those accused of murder, serious assault or rape. Now they are allowed to collect from those
accused of drug trafficking, arson causing death and aggravated burglary.
Privacy is also another big issue surrounding the plans for a database. Chairman of the New South
Wales privacy council says that the prospect of a genetic database is a "cavalier disregard for
people's privacy"
Recently it was passed that all states, apart from Western Australia have the right to compose a
DNA database (The Sydney Telegraph, 22.04.2001 see appendix two) and already there had been a
few flaws found. With

Dna And Protein Synthesis Essay
DNA and Protein Synthesis
One of the most fundamental properties of any and all living organisms is that of reproduction. As
we all have learned, organisms inherit their genetic information defining their structure and functions
from their parents. Similarly, all cells come from preexisting cells, so the genetic information is
duplicated and pass from the parent to the new cell of each division.
DNA is the term that is used in biology, as well as several other parts of your everyday life. We all
know that DNA is a part of our bodies, but may wonder what exactly is DNA. DNA which is also
known as deoxyribonucleic acid, which is the genetic material of a cell. DNA is considered to be
the molecule of life, and aides in the determination of our physical characteristics. DNA is present in
all living organisms.
It is said that the process of protein synthesis is controlled by the DNA molecules. Proteins are
used for growth and repair, as well as enzymes. Thus, DNA is able to apply some controlling
influence over the cells as a whole, and ultimately the organism as well. In DNA, the segments
which hold the vital key to this process are referred to as the genes.
In the early 1940's, two American geneticists by the names of George Wells Beadle, and Edward
Lawrie Tatum provided one of the first vital clues. While they were working with fungi, more
specifically Nuerospora and Penicillium, they found information regarding genes and how they
direct the formation of enzymes through the

Dna Discovery Essay
As the instructions for all living cells, DNA is a complex molecule and the basis of biology. The
structure of DNA is the same for all organisms. (Fredholm, 2003) The journey to understanding
DNA began in 1866 when Augustinian monk Gregor Mendel discovered the basic principles of
genetics. Although the scientific community did not fully appreciate or credit his work in his
lifetime, Mendel is now considered the father of genetics. Mendel's advanced experiments with pea
plants between 1856 and 1863 identified the existence of dominant and recessive traits. He
unknowingly described genes as the 'invisible' factors for providing a predictable phenotype.
Although credited to American–English duo James Watson and Francis Crick, the next...show more
content...
Rosalind Franklin's work using X–ray diffraction also led to the discovery of the DNA structure for
which Watson, Crick and Maurice Wilkins shared Nobel Prize recognition in 1962. (Pray, 2008) Her
work included establishing the water content of DNA using X–ray crystallography and fuzzily
revealing the pattern of a helical structure with "Photography 51." (Fredholm, 2017) Franklin was
the first person to view DNA, but since she was a woman credit was not granted in her name. She
also did not qualify to receive the Nobel Prize as she died 4 years earlier, in April 1958. The
Hungarian–born American biochemist Erwin Chargaff contributed in solving the mystery regarding
the four nitrogenous bases of DNA. In 1949, he showed that amounts of these bases are always
balanced, even if different organisms had different amounts of DNA. This specified a 1:1 ratio of
purine to pyrimidine base in each nucleotide and creates a consistent width throughout the DNA
molecule. (Fredholm, 2003) Adenine and guanine are larger, double–ringed purines. Thymine and
cytosine are smaller pyrimidines. Adenine will only bond with a thymine in DNA; cytosine only to
guanine. The complementary bases are paired together with hydrogen bonds. (BiologyWise, 2017)
Chargaff's rules were solidifying insight for Watson to recognize a helix outside of smooth
sugar–phosphate backbone and congruent lengths of A–T and C–G bonds in February 1953.

Dna Editing Research Paper
Body/Hypothesis
Where did DNA editing come from and how does it work?
DNA editing was discovered thanks to the clash between bacteria and viruses. Bacteria and viruses
have been fighting each other since life on Earth began. During an invasion of a cell, the virus
inserts its own genetic code(RNA) into the bacterium and takes it over to use as a factory to
replicate itself. The bacterium, meanwhile, tries to resist but ends up failing most of the time
because it has weak, and insufficient tools to protect itself. Some bacteria however, through natural
selection or chance, survive the attack and save part of the virus's genetic code(Kurzgesagt, 2016).
The RNA of the virus is then saved in the bacterium's own genetic code in a DNA archive...show
more content...
A scientist named Anthony James encountered this problem when he programmed mosquitoes to no
longer transmit malaria. Though years of hard work, James was able to create a mosquito resistant
to the parasite by adding genes that made it impossible for the malaria parasite to live inside of it.
After this success, Anthony James was met with the problem of how he was going to spread this new
gene(Kahn, 2016). Now that you've got a mosquito resistant to malaria, how is this gene going to
replace the malaria in mosquitoes carrying the parasite? At first there was the idea that ten times the
the amount of mosquitoes in the area should be released in the hopes that the gene would be passed
on. This idea, however, would not be beneficial to the people living in the area where the mosquitoes
were being released(Kahn, 2016). Months later, James received an email from a biologist named
Ethan Baer about a genetic tool that not only ensured that a genetic trait would be inherited, but that
it would spread exponentially quickly. To test the reliability of this tool, the scientists engineered two
mosquitoes to not only carry the anti–malaria gene, but also the new tool(Kahn, 2016). They set up
the test in such a way that any mosquitoes that inherited the anti–malaria gene would not have the
ordinary white eyes, but red eyes. This made it easier for scientists to distinguish between a mosquito
with the gene and without it(Kahn, 2016). After putting two of the red–eyed mosquitoes in a box
with 30 ordinary mosquitoes to breed, scientists found that after two generations, not only had
38,000 mosquitoes been born, but all of them had red eyes. According to mendelian genetics this is
not possible because only half of the DNA from each parent is inherited by the offspring(Kahn,
2016). This means that there should have been

Dna Essay
DNA in Forensic Science
DNA is the genetic blueprint for life because it contains the instructions that oversee the
development of an organism. Taking samples of DNA and analyzing them to determine if they
come from the same individual is known as DNA profiling. Investigators gather items such as hair,
saliva, semen and blood that could contain DNA from a crime scene. DNA profiling is also used in
paternity testing, victim identification and evolution research. First, the collected DNA samples are
isolated. Next, selected sequences from each DNA sample are replicated to produce a large sample
of DNA fragments. Finally, the enlarged DNA samples are compared to other samples to determine
whether the samples came from the same person or...show more content...
The mitochondria of our cells and those of every other eukaryote are descendants of those smaller
prokaryotes, so are the chloroplasts of plants and algae.
Biological Diversity Evolution Biological diversity evolution combines the millions of species that
live on our planet, and the genetic differences in those species. Biodiversity plays a key role in
maintaining healthy ecosystems and sustaining ecosystem services to the growing human
population. It also refers to the massive amount of diverse ecosystems in which species form
distinctive communities that interact with each other. One example of biological diversity
evolution is the North American Garter Snake. This snake lives primarily in the water but its
closely related species lives primarily on land. This shows the biological diversity evolution on
close related species that have evolved in different ways. (Campbell Essential Biology 2013)
Another example is the wheat plant which is the world most cultivated plant. Sexual selection in
which females choose mates to reproduce based on color has contributed to biological diversity
evolution as well. Another example is the procreation of the spotted skunks, the western spotted
skunks breed in the fall while their closest relative that lives in the east breeds late in the winter.
(Campbell Essential Biology 2013)
Plant and Animal Evolution According to the fossil record, there have been 4 periods of plant
evolution. (Campbell Essential

DNA Essay
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid are two chemical substances involved in transmitting
genetic information from parent to offspring. It was known early into the 20th century that
chromosomes, the genetic material of cells, contained
DNA. In 1944, Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty concluded that DNA
was the basic genetic component of chromosomes. Later, RNA would be proven to regulate protein
synthesis. (Miller, 139)
DNA is the genetic material found in most viruses and in all cellular organisms.
Some viruses do not have DNA, but contain RNA instead. Depending on the organism, most DNA is
found within a single chromosome like bacteria, or in several chromosomes like most other living
things. (Heath, 110)...show more content...
(Grolier Encyclopedia, 1992)
DNA does not act directly in the process of protein synthesis because it does not leave the nucleus,
so a special ribonucleic acid is used as a messenger
(mRNA). The mRNA carries the genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus out to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm during transcription. (Miller, 76)
This leads to the topic of replication. When DNA replicates, the two strands of the double helix
separate from one another. While the strands separate, each nitrogenous base on each strand attracts
it's own complement, which as mentioned earlier, attaches with hydrogen bonds. As thebases are
bonded an enzyme called
DNA polymerase combines the phosphate of one nucleotide to the deoxyribose of the opposite
nucleotide.
This forms a new polynucleotide chain. The new DNA strand stays attached to the old one through
the hydrogen bonds, and together they form a new DNA double helix molecule. (Heath, 119)
(Miller, 144–145)
As mentioned before, DNA molecules are involved in a process called protein synthesis. Without
RNA, this process could not be completed. RNA is the genetic material of some viruses. RNA
molecules are like DNA. They have a long chain of macromolecules made up of nucleotides. Each
RNA nucleotide is also made up of three basic parts. There is a sugar called ribose, and at one end
of the sugar is the phosphate group, and at the other end is one of several nitrogenous bases.
There are four main nitrogenous bases found in

Dna Essay
The Interesting History and Facts of DNA
Kevin T. Hoang
James Martin High School
Abstract
This paper explores the history and some interesting facts about DNA. The last couple centuries
have seen an exponential growth in our knowledge of DNA. The history of the DNA can be traced
back to multiple devoted scientist. This article attempts to summarize, and review the basic history of
DNA while providing some fascinating information about it.
A Brief Historic Review Throughout the early 19th and 20th century, many scientists have studied
deoxyribonucleic acids in order to attain higher understanding over the matter. Johann G. Mendel had
figured out and understood the laws of heredity. Friedrich Miescher discovered DNA...show more
content...
The pictures were shown to James Watson andFrancis Crick by Maurice Wilkins. They were then
able to confirm their theory about the 3D structure of DNA. In 1962, they were awarded the
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for solving the structure of DNA. The Nobel committee could
not award it to Franklin because the Nobel prize could only be shared by three people and also
because she was already dead (DNA from the Beginning, 2011)
Origin of the Four Bases' Names The four names of the nitrogenous bases of the DNA are adenine,
thymine, guanine, and cytosine. The word "adenine" was created in the late 19th century in German
from the Greek words "adД“n" "gland" and "in". The word "cytosine" was coined in the late 19th
century from the German word "cytosin" from cyto– "cell", –ose and the chemical suffix –ine. The
word "guanine" comes from the English words "guano" and "ine" and was also created in the 19th
century. The word "thymine" comes from words "thymus" and the suffix–ine.
Interesting Facts Although DNA molecules seem minuscule, if all the DNA in a human body was
unwound and placed from end to end, it would cover about 10 billion miles. That's approximately
the same distance as traveling from the Earth to Pluto and back. (Helmenstine, 2017). If a person
typed 60 words per minute, eight hours a day, it would take approximately 50 years for them to type
the human

Dna Essay

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