The document discusses the objectives of a course on environmental history of natural disasters. The course aims to problematize the idea of a natural disaster by reframing the relationship between humans and nature. It also seeks to analyze popular culture's presentation of disasters and examine how factors like race, class and gender influence vulnerability. The document provides context on these objectives and the multidimensional nature of studying disasters. It summarizes the arguments of Smith and Hoffman that disasters are processual phenomena linked more to societal factors than nature alone. Key concepts discussed include hazards, vulnerability and the need to study disasters to understand their true causes and prevent future harm.

1. Acts of God: An
Environmental History of
Natural Disasters
Disaster Portfolio
June 2013
By: Taylor M. Huffman
(all digital photos taken by author)

2. Introduction
Disaster is defined in a list of different ways. Most often, it is seen as an
uncontrollable natural occurring event which wreaks havoc on a helpless
population. This simple explanation for disaster is a disaster in itself. These
events are moments in time which can always be more understood and prepared
for. The goal of this portfolio is to redefine how disasters are interpreted.
Disasters are a not so much just an event, but rather a process that includes many
causes and consequences.
Objectives for the course “Acts of God: An Environmental History of
Natural Disasters” are summarized as follows. First, is to problematize the idea
of a natural disaster through reframing the societally constructed relationship
between humans and nature. Second, analyze and broaden popular culture’s
presentation of disasters. Third, access an understanding of vulnerability to
disasters because of race, class, and gender. And lastly, to examine relationships
between disasters, their framing, and disaster response, along with the ways
misunderstanding disaster promotes the probability of future disasters. To
accomplish these objectives it is crucial to consider the study of disaster through
a post-modern lens. That is to realize the study of disasters is a
multidimensional, non-linear, and never-ending debate. An ethno-historical
approach suits this study for it involves aspects of multiple disciplines in order
to develop a most accurate and complicated understanding. Anthony Oliver-
Smith and Susanna M. Hoffman address these issues in their article,
“Catastrophe and Culture, An Anthropology of Disaster”.

3. Smith and Hoffman argue that disasters are processual
phenomena rather than events of clearly defined time frames, and that
they are a consequence of our social and environmental relationship.
They define disaster as “all-encompassing occurrences sweeping across
every aspect of human life, impacting environmental, social, economic,
political, and biological conditions”. Disasters are multidimensional and
“occur at the intersection of nature and culture and illustrate, often
dramatically, the mutuality of each in the constitution of the other”
(Hoffman 24). A disaster is nature and culture simultaneously colliding.
Society constructs “patterns of vulnerability” to disasters, and these
patterns are more harmful to a population than the actual event (Hoffman
3). Humans structure the disaster experience, and when disasters develop
they expose how we perceive the environment and the ways we
constitute morality. Smith and Hoffman write, “Disaster exposes the way
in which people construct or “frame” their peril, the way they perceive
their environment and their subsistence, and the ways they invent
explanation, constitute their morality, and project their continuity and
promise into the future” (Hoffman 6).

4. The causes of disaster are therefore linked more to society than
to nature. An array of causes unfold over time leading to a climactic
event and those causes are then more visible, but it takes technical and
complicated investigation to conceive of what all those causes were.
This is why the study of disaster is vital. The more that is known about
causes will lead to less negative consequences. To help articulate the
interrogation of disaster, some terms besides disaster should be
defined. First, what is a hazard? According to Smith and Hoffman,
“the forces, conditions, or technologies that carry a potential for social,
infrastructural, or environmental damage. A hazard can be a
hurricane, earthquake, or avalanche; it can also be a nuclear facility or
a socioeconomic practice, such as using pesticides” (Hoffman 3). The
way a society views hazards is important because it represents how
much risk or danger is present. Most societies are ignorant or
complacent about many of the risks they are facing each day, and this
has been shown to not only damage parts of the population, but be the
full demise of entire societies throughout history. And these hazards
are more often than not more present in areas with poverty and racial
minorities.

5. The concept of “vulnerability” is crucial to comprehending disaster.
It can worsen or reduce the impacts of a disaster. Vulernability is defined
as “characterisitcs of a person or group in terms of their capacity to
anticipate, cope with, resist, and recover from the impact of a natural
hazard. It involves a combination of factors that determine the degree to
which someone’s life and livelihood is put at risk by a discrete and
identifiable event in nature or society” (lecture). Vulnerability is created
through the causes of the disaster, or the societal structures, that then
combine with the actual event. People who are most vulnerable are those
who are less fortunate in society, or societies who are ignorant to their
hazards. There is evidence of a high correlation between disaster
proneness, chronic malnutrition, low income, and famine potential
(Hoffman 27).
It is critical to study disaster in order to make visible and prevent
“hazards of domination”. These are “long term patterns of human
exploitation and misuse of the environment resulting in agricultural and
societal collapse” (lecture). Understanding the true causes of disasters is
important in order to prevent hazards of domination from taking over
societies. Examples of this recur throughout history, and it seems humans
still resist fully comprehending the causes of these collapses. This is
possibly due to the issue of the human/nature divide.

6. The tendency for civilization to separate itself from the
natural world is an ongoing issue. The concept and ideology of
capitalism has formed a world where every bit of land is seen as
something to be utilized, and it has made profit the goal for any
nation that wants to compete in the global economy. The
ecological values of capitalism are: nature as a commodity, self-
advancement to the maximum advantage is an obligation, and
social order should maintain this. If this is the ideology of our
society, then clearly only the profiting will survive a collapse, if
anyone. All over the world, humans try to capture “mother
nature”. The idea that nature is something to be accessed
misconstrues the reality that humans are a part of nature. We
need her for food, water, and shelter, but we have chosen to also
use her for money which can lead to the disruption of her
providing all these necessities.

7. This portfolio serves to open-up discussion on the
multidimensional realities of disasters and how society can better
understand them as processes rather than acute events or “acts of
God”. Normal life subtly presents disaster to us every day, and we
often nonchalantly pass it by. Because of this, when disaster strikes,
change and disruption constitute our view that the event itself is the
disaster. But if we simply look around us and come to terms with our
environment and the hazards present, it may be possible to avoid
disaster and hazards of domination. The photo referencing in this
portfolio aims to illuminate the conscious truth of disaster that has
come to seem normal as we walk past it each day. The four objectives
are to see humans as a part of nature, realize the importance of
scrutiny towards the way media represents disaster, understand that
race, class, and gender determine susceptibility to disaster, and accept
that framing affects how response and prevention is managed.

8. Method and Organization
To get a concept of how disaster is visible everywhere
the portfolio will move through space from the most local
region, The University of Missouri campus, to a global
perspective.
There are literally millions of aspects to the study of
disaster that could be considered. This portfolio strives to
present just a small portion of the many causes and
consequences of disaster, while focusing on the objectives
listed using themes, ideas, and facts from lectures, films,
readings, and guest speakers.
Structure:
University of Missouri Campus
City of Columbia
State of Missouri
The United States of America
Global

9. University of Missouri Campus Disaster
Over centuries, humans have developed mechanisms to
aid in preventing disasters like famine or disease. We have
been quite successful at inventing ideas which have brought
us to where we are today.
Things like trash cans are simple disaster prevention
mechanisms we pass by constantly. On the University of
Missouri campus one can find a trash can within sight at any
location. Over the last decade, recycling bins have even
become a standard.
Without these bins, where would all of campuses waste
go? That questions leads to another one; where does the
waste from the trash cans go? The plethora of trash that is
created each day has to be put somewhere, and these
numerous bins are symbols for the mountains of waste piling
up on our Earth. Walking by trash bins constantly
throughout our lives we neglect to think about what their
meaning truly is.
Sanitation is another large part of campus disaster
prevention. Without bathrooms, soap, and paper towels
disease and illness would be much more prevalent.
These anti-bacterial dispensers are seen in almost every
hallway of the campus. At first thought, it seems to be an
efficient solution to campus cleanliness, but anti-bacterial
solutions like this have actually been creating a hazard.
Research across the board has been proving that anti-
bacterial agents are creating antibiotic immunity which
means bacteria is becoming immune to antibiotics. This puts
humans at risk for deadly illnesses.
Trash cans eliminate spread of disease and
compact waste in order to leave space for living.
Recycling bins save materials and possibly
energy, while creating less waste for landfills.
Is there such thing as too clean?

10. Fire
Fire and water are two important
elements institutions like the University
must take seriously, and this results in
intricate management.
When strolling through campus, one may
not recognize the list of measures taken in
fire prevention. Standing in one spot alone,
one can view a handful of “red” fire safety
measures: no smoking signs, cigarette butt
receptacles, pull alarms, bells, and fire
extinguishers.
Fateful events like the 1906 fires in San
Francisco and the Triangle factory fire of
1911 in New york have taught Americans to
put fire safety into the law books. Why
weren’t they before these events?
American morals have always been
defined by people like John Locke , Thomas
Paine, and the Bible. Life, liberty, and
property are core values here, but they are
not always protected until a disastrous event
presents vulnerability.
Protecting lives and property.
The Triangle
factory fire
was most
likely
started by a
cigarette.

11. These three images were captured in Middlebush
Hall on the University campus. Each photo was
shot without taking one step, suggesting the
serious attitude we take towards fire prevention.
There are even more extinguishers and alarms
within eyesight. Evacuation is also important as
maps of buildings are posted near every
staircase.
It is the framing of fire disaster because of the
history of fire damage that put these here. If the
people in the Triangle factory had the same
systems available, the fatality loss of that fire
would have been less and maybe not even
occurred.

12. Water
Management of water is a necessity at this point
on Earth. Only about 90,000 cubic kilometers of
water are available for human use, creating
water conflicts over necessity, scarcity,
distribution and control.
Water is managed everywhere, even down to the
non-manmade sources like rivers, lakes and
streams. On Missouri’s campus, every place one
looks water management mechanisms are
visible.
Drains and gutters help
protect the buildings that
house learning throughout
the campus. Technological
advancement has allowed us
to build complicated
institutions that can
withstand heavy rains and
heavy populations.

13. “Manscaping?”
The issues surrounding the water
conflict can be seen right at the
University. Water management
systems run through every space on
the campus. Marveling at the
exquisite landscaping campus has to
offer, one ponders how a place as this
can exist while others are barely able
to find a drop of water to drink.
In the documentary, Darwin’s
Nightmare, Lake Victoria is
highlighted as a place taken over by
commercial fishing and losing the
natural resources the population
needs to survive. Clean water is
scarce. Business may be thriving there
for a time, but the locals are hardly
able to sustain life. Similar to Lake
Victoria, the University of Missouri
manages its water in order to foster
profits, while others nearby may not
have enough to sustain life.

14. Local Columbia Area Disaster
Just recently, flash flooding has devastated some parts
of Missouri. When heavy rains pour over Columbia, the
Missouri river and its tributaries often flood surrounding
lands.
The following four photos were taken on June 1, 2013 of
locations near Sapp, Missouri where roads and homes
have been damaged or covered by the flood waters.
Local weather stations had been reporting flood warnings
for these areas for about one week, but local media took a
different approach to informing the public of the flooding.
Link:
http://www.komu.com/news/missouri-
river-hits-flood-stage/
In a KOMU news article on May 30,
2013, it was reported that “Tim Patronski
who works with the Midwestern region of
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service said his
agency had yet to become involved in
combating flooding along the Missouri
River.” Patronski says the flooding falls
under the responsibility of the Army
Corps of Civil Engineers.
Jody Farhart, chief of the Missouri
River division of the Corps says they had
begun reducing water levels.
So why is this important?
Permanent signs warn of flooding, while a local man
sits, fishing, gazing onto the rushing waters of the
Missouri River.

15. Authorities do not seem too worried or
impatient about relief or assistance to
these areas of flooding, but as we can
see, there are plenty of damages done
just along one small portion of the river.
Within 200 feet on the roadside near the
river in Sapp, two homes have been
taken over by the floods.
Residents of the area set up RVs and
campers along the uncovered roads near
their water-logged homes.
The vulnerability of this area to the
hazard of flooding is exacerbated by local
media. Taking a visit out to this area, one
can feel the devastation, while reports by
the media ignore the victims.
This is an example of disaster effecting a
demographic of people who seem to be
living below the poverty level. If they had
more money, maybe they would not be
stuck in campers while their homes drift
away.

16. Missouri Disaster
Places where “mother nature wins”…
Video of Governor Jay Nixon in Clarksville, MO
on the flooding occurring there in May 2013:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KmIZ-
QLm9JM
Politics and Publicity
Governor Jay Nixon is interviewed in this video as he stands in the flood
damaged city of Clarksville, Missouri. He begins by thanking everyone involved
in the relief effort, makes a comment about marshmallows, and then points out
the rising waters. His sense of urgency seems to be lost in the goals of keeping
people calm and recruiting volunteers. The governor repeatedly mentions the
efforts of volunteers and local management. He insists on the importance of
volunteering and local resources. Does the local economy have what it takes to
relieve the damages done here? They are in crisis mode, and it seems
inconsiderate to so strongly suggest locals and volunteers as the main source of
aid here. Nixon lists the three needs to recovery, in order: locals, volunteers, law
enforcement and emergency relief agencies. He wants the locals to manage the
situation so “the city of Clarksville will be open for business once the water
recedes”. “Open for business” is a common theme and goal for areas where
disaster strikes.

17. Doe Run Mines, A Recipe for Disaster?
Brushy Creek Mine and Mill in Reynolds, Missouri
Upon entering the offices area of the Brushy
Creek mine/mill, one would the word “safety”
plastered all over every wall. Safety awards,
posters like this one, and signs in bright colors
and encouraging tones make a person feel safe
before entering the mineral mine 1000ft below
ground.
Minerals are filtered out of ore and refined into
powder. This system pulls the mineral up onto
these spinning screams and a puff of air pushes
the mineral out and onto a conveyor belt. It is
hard to believe breathing in air contaminated by
these minerals is safe, considering their leakage
into the water supply is unsafe according to the
Environmental Protection Agency.

18. Minerals out of Missouri mines provide lead, zinc,
galena, and other minerals to many places of the world,
while providing life for people of the Ozark mining
region. The mines there provide community and
economic “stability” for the local communities. Stability is
questionable; as more mines are excavated and left, more
mining towns and communities lose their source of
income. If these families have to leave the mining areas for
work, they lose the sense of community that has been
tradition for so long. Schroeder states of Washington
county mining community, “The community has yet to
enter the mainstream of American economic prosperity”
(Schroeder 50). This is not only disaster for the people’s
economies and sense of place, but a disaster for the
environment and the peoples’ health.
Because of industry needs and local economy, the lands
continue to be mined simultaneously destructing the
landscape, contaminating water and vegetation,
threatening wildlife, and threatening humans.
Ore and mineral is moved
throughout the mine to get the pure
minerals prepared to be purchased
Drills for mining make holes to set
explosives off to help break ore to
find minerals.
Here mine workers can
control the levels and
types of chemicals used
to extract the minerals.
The room is full of
equipment and buttons
to ensure proper
extractions and
maximum profit.

19. State Emergency Management Agency
At SEMA, preparation and planning for disasters is top priority.
With increasing levels of vulnerability to disaster, SEMA has to
keep up with the ever-changing events that lead to disaster in
Missouri.
SEMA has to follow a strict regiment of rules and regulations in
order to enact their relief services. They must comply with
Missouri Statutes along with federal laws in the Stafford Act
which make their job even more complicated. But to provide relief,
the only way to attempt fairness is to have rules.
SEMA utilizes their resources to attempt proper relief and
prevention throughout the state. They are actually located
in the basement of the National Guard Headquarters who
works with them to serve in crisis situations.
Another disadvantage comes from the small amount of
employees who are full-time. These individuals must stop
their regular lives when a disaster hits and work often
twenty-four hours per day, which is hard to do, presenting
another negative aspect of the “once it happens” mentality.
The Missouri SEMA uses an exceptional amount of
volunteer efforts in their relief; volunteer expectations are
even written into their procedure documents. This is quite
an advantage to their efforts, but also a disadvantage
overall. These volunteer institutions are referenced by Tim
Diemler frequently, suggesting their critical importance. But
it is rather frightening to realize volunteer networks are one
of SEMAs top resources.
A safe-room for disaster management is
stocked with technology to help SEMA
get relief out as quick as possible

20. Is there a correlation between poverty and disaster?
On May 29, 2013 the Weather Channel put out an article reporting the top disastrous states in
the country. Here is a look at how that compares to poverty levels.
Poorest U.S. states by %below poverty level:
http://www.census.gov/statab/ranks/rank34.html
Weather Channel’s most disastrous states:
http://www.weather.com/news/most-disastrous-states-
us-20130528
States with highest percentages of people below
poverty level in order form the “poorest”(all
have 14% or more below poverty level):
Mississippi*
Louisiana*
New Mexico
Arkansas*
Kentucky*
West Virginia*
Alaska
Florida*
District of Columbia
Texas*
Tennessee*
Oklahoma*
South Carolina
North Carolina
Georgia
Arizona
Montana
Most disastrous states in order:
Texas*
California
Oklahoma*
New York
Florida*
Louisiana*
Alabama
Kentucky*
Arkansas*
Missouri
Mississippi*
Illinois
Tennessee*
West Virginia*
Minnesota
Kansas
Iowa
From just these two lists,
we can see a correlation.
There are 9 states which fit
into both lists. More than
half of the states are both
the most disastrous and
the most poor.

21. Current Issues in the Politics of Disasters
Even in 2013, politicians, the leaders of change,
are avoiding the topic of disaster prevention.
This article suggests disaster relief and
prevention is still barely understood or taken
seriously.
“Late last year, Inhofe and Coburn both backed
a plan to slash disaster relief to victims of
Hurricane Sandy. In a December press release,
Coburn complained that the Sandy Relief bill
contained "wasteful spending," and identified a
series of items he objected to, including "$12.9
billion for future disaster mitigation activities
and studies.”
Links:
Article on Sandy Relief:
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2
013/05/20/oklahoma-senators-
disaster-
relief_n_3309234.html?icid=hp_fro
nt_top_art
Mitt Romney wants to cut FEMA.
Link:
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2
012/10/28/mitt-romney-
fema_n_2036198.html
Coburn also put out a message on Twitter, writing, "My
thoughts and prayers are with those in Oklahoma affected by
the tragic tornado outbreak.”
Coburn backs plan to cut disaster funds, but prays and thinks
of the victims.

22. Good morning --
On Sunday, I was in Moore, Oklahoma. Today, I'm headed to the
Jersey Shore. Those two communities are separated by half a continent
but united by a common sense of purpose. Like Joplin, Tuscaloosa, and
New Orleans, they are home to people who've seen nature at its worst
and humanity at its best. And they're filled with those who have made
the choice to rebuild after disaster, to come back stronger than ever.
The scene on the ground this weekend was one we all know too well:
homes wrecked and neighborhoods devastated. But the memories I'll
take away from Moore will be of people standing tall, of neighbor
helping neighbor, of survivors working to ensure that no one suffers
through tragedy alone. And that too, was strikingly familiar. I could
have been back in Brigantine Beach after Hurricane Sandy. I could
have been in Joplin in 2011.
It's because of those past experiences in places like New Jersey and
Missouri that I have faith that Moore will emerge from the wreckage of
this tornado stronger than ever. And that's in part because I know that
they won't undertake the road to recovery alone. This was a national
tragedy, and that demands a national response.
If you want to help, the best way to support those affected by this
storm is to make a financial contribution to the voluntary organization
of your choice. The best way to volunteer is to affiliate with an
organization that is already providing support to survivors.
We've set up a page to help steer you in the right direction. Check it
out to get started:
http://www.whitehouse.gov/oklahoma
Thank you,
President Barack Obama
National Disaster
Email letter from President.
Subject line: Faith
On May 28, President Obama sent out a
message to help rally support for communities
recently hit by disaster. His rhetoric is strikingly
in line with the disaster framing issue. By titling
his message “Faith”, the president is suggesting
that faith is the only answer to these devastating
issues. He is playing on the “act of God” idea that
these disasters were unstoppable. Maybe the
tornadoes were unstoppable, but could the
disaster have been stopped? Faith alone could
never answer that question; it takes real
investigation.
Other phrases like “nature at its worst and
humanity at its best” fuel the human/nature
divide that propagates disasters.
It’s excruciating to realize even the leader of
the entire country is not facing the truth about
the process of a disaster and treating it as an
acute event that only faith can get us through.
He is also adding to the continuous theme of
local and volunteer management that state and
federal governments promote.

23. Link:
http://www.motherjones.com/blue-
marble/2011/09/millions-are-starving-horn-
africa
Global Disaster and More Media Roles
“The United Nations has called the
ongoing drought and famine in
Somalia the "worst humanitarian
disaster" in the world.”
Just as we pass by other hazards each day, many
Americans and other people across the globe
probably do not realize the extent to which
disaster plagues us. In places like Somalia,
Kenya,and Ethiopia there are millions starving.
“The statistics are shocking: In Somalia, at least
29,000 children died of starvation in 90 days.
Some 2 million children are malnourished, and
another 500,000 children are at great risk of
starving to death. Some 12 million people in the
region need emergency assistance. The crisis has
been exacerbated by the al-Shabaab Islamist
insurgent group, which has played a hand in
causing the famine by forcing out aid groups and
preventing starving Somalis from fleeing the
country.” So why isn’t this a topic around the
water cooler? According to this Mother Jones
article, American media refuses to report on these
disasters. Perhaps this is an attempt to ignore the
suffering our capitalism could be influencing.
Perhaps it is simply too sad for Americans to
stand to watch. Either way, it is avoidance.
Avoidance of vulnerability and hazards has
consistently proven to foster hazards of
domination like famine.
Image taken from article

24. Final thoughts…
These last photos are to represent the
irony that exists in the discourse
humans have established for disasters.
We have ourselves fostered an
environment that ignores its habitat.
Humans ARE nature, just as much as
any animal or plant or microbe.
But we deny our impacts on the Earth.
We deny our apathy and we deny
truth. A complacent society only feeds
the oppressor.
Hey, it could happen…