The digestive system digests and absorbs food through a series of organs including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Accessory organs that aid in digestion include the teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. The digestive process involves ingestion, propulsion, mechanical and chemical breakdown of food, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of waste.
The human digestive system breaks down food into smaller molecules that the body can use. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Food is ingested, broken down mechanically and chemically, absorbed in the small intestine and excreted as waste from the large intestine. Digestive organs secrete enzymes and acids to break down food into nutrients that can pass into the bloodstream.
The digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs. The gastrointestinal tract includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Food moves through the tract where it is broken down mechanically and chemically. Digestive juices and enzymes from the accessory organs like the liver, pancreas and salivary glands aid in digestion. The small intestine completes digestion and absorbs nutrients into the bloodstream while the large intestine processes waste for excretion.
The urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder, and a urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood to produce urine. The ureters carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The bladder stores urine until urination, at which point urine passes through the urethra and out of the body. Together these structures work to regulate fluid balance and remove waste via urine production and storage.
This document provides objectives and materials for an activity on the nervous system histology, brain, and cranial nerves. The activity involves identifying structures from slides and illustrations of nervous system tissue, as well as identifying brain structures and cranial nerves from models of human and sheep brains. The document includes numerous slides and illustrations of nervous system tissues, brain structures such as lobes, ventricles, and nuclei, as well as images of cranial nerves. It also provides information on the functions of various brain structures.
The document is a chapter from a textbook on anatomy and physiology that describes the respiratory system. It discusses the anatomy and physiology of breathing, including the structures of the upper and lower respiratory tract. It describes how oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the lungs and transported in the blood, facilitated by hemoglobin. It also outlines factors that influence hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen.
This document provides an overview of the structure and function of the human digestive system. It describes the organs that make up the digestive tract, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and associated organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas. It explains the roles of these organs in ingestion, digestion, absorption and elimination and how they work together to break down food and extract nutrients for the body.
The urinary system has several important functions:
1. It filters waste and excess water from the blood and removes it from the body through urine.
2. It maintains the chemical consistency of the blood.
3. Its main organs - the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra - work together to produce, transport, store, and eliminate urine from the body.
The document provides information on human anatomy and physiology, with a focus on the digestive system. It describes the structure and functions of the cells, tissues, organs and body systems. It then discusses the layers, organs and functions of the digestive system in detail. This includes the mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver and pancreas. It also covers the mechanisms of acid secretion in the stomach and factors that regulate gastric juice production. Finally, it provides an overview of acid peptic disorders like gastritis, GERD, peptic ulcers, and their causes and treatments.
The human digestive system breaks down food into smaller molecules that the body can use. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Food is ingested, broken down mechanically and chemically, absorbed in the small intestine and excreted as waste from the large intestine. Digestive organs secrete enzymes and acids to break down food into nutrients that can pass into the bloodstream.
The digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs. The gastrointestinal tract includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Food moves through the tract where it is broken down mechanically and chemically. Digestive juices and enzymes from the accessory organs like the liver, pancreas and salivary glands aid in digestion. The small intestine completes digestion and absorbs nutrients into the bloodstream while the large intestine processes waste for excretion.
The urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder, and a urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood to produce urine. The ureters carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The bladder stores urine until urination, at which point urine passes through the urethra and out of the body. Together these structures work to regulate fluid balance and remove waste via urine production and storage.
This document provides objectives and materials for an activity on the nervous system histology, brain, and cranial nerves. The activity involves identifying structures from slides and illustrations of nervous system tissue, as well as identifying brain structures and cranial nerves from models of human and sheep brains. The document includes numerous slides and illustrations of nervous system tissues, brain structures such as lobes, ventricles, and nuclei, as well as images of cranial nerves. It also provides information on the functions of various brain structures.
The document is a chapter from a textbook on anatomy and physiology that describes the respiratory system. It discusses the anatomy and physiology of breathing, including the structures of the upper and lower respiratory tract. It describes how oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the lungs and transported in the blood, facilitated by hemoglobin. It also outlines factors that influence hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen.
This document provides an overview of the structure and function of the human digestive system. It describes the organs that make up the digestive tract, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and associated organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas. It explains the roles of these organs in ingestion, digestion, absorption and elimination and how they work together to break down food and extract nutrients for the body.
The urinary system has several important functions:
1. It filters waste and excess water from the blood and removes it from the body through urine.
2. It maintains the chemical consistency of the blood.
3. Its main organs - the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra - work together to produce, transport, store, and eliminate urine from the body.
The document provides information on human anatomy and physiology, with a focus on the digestive system. It describes the structure and functions of the cells, tissues, organs and body systems. It then discusses the layers, organs and functions of the digestive system in detail. This includes the mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver and pancreas. It also covers the mechanisms of acid secretion in the stomach and factors that regulate gastric juice production. Finally, it provides an overview of acid peptic disorders like gastritis, GERD, peptic ulcers, and their causes and treatments.
The document summarizes the digestive system, including its organs and their functions. It describes how food travels through the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines. Key digestive organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas produce enzymes and bile to break down food into nutrients that can be absorbed. The digestive tract is approximately 30 feet long and works through mechanical and chemical breakdown of food, as well as absorption and elimination of waste.
The document provides an overview of the digestive system, including the organs and their functions. It discusses the alimentary canal and accessory organs. The alimentary canal extends from the mouth to the anus and includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. Accessory organs that empty into the alimentary canal include the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. It then provides more detailed descriptions of the mouth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus and stomach.
This document provides an overview of the human senses and visual system. It discusses the general senses of touch, temperature, pressure and pain. The special senses of smell, taste, sight, hearing and balance are also covered. Most of the document focuses on the structures and functions of the eye, including the accessory structures, layers of the eye, neurons in the retina, lens accommodation, common vision conditions, and the visual pathway in the brain. Key eye structures like the cornea, iris, pupil, lens, vitreous humor and optic nerve are described.
Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Anatomy and physiologysgossett5757
The document provides an overview of chapter 1 from Hole's Human Anatomy and Physiology textbook. It introduces the topics of anatomy and physiology, discusses the levels of organization in the human body from subcellular to organism, describes the characteristics of life, and explains homeostasis and how the body maintains stable internal conditions through feedback mechanisms. Key concepts covered include the definitions of anatomy and physiology, the 11 organ systems, and anatomical terminology.
The document provides information about the digestive system, including both the gastrointestinal tract and accessory digestive organs. It discusses the organs that make up the GI tract, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines. It also covers the accessory organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The document describes the processes of ingestion, digestion, absorption, and defecation. It provides histological details of the layers of the alimentary tract and details of individual digestive organs and their functions.
The document summarizes the key components and functions of the human digestive system. It describes the digestive system as composed of the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs that break down food into smaller molecules for absorption. The major sections include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver, pancreas and large intestine. Each organ contributes to digestion through both mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.
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Human anatomy and physiology parts 2
1. Anatomy and Physiology by: MARNIE G. SARONO (a)
2. OBJECTIVES: General Objective: Within 3 successive periods, the second year students will be able to gain knowledge about human anatomy and physiology as well as identify the body parts and its functions at 70% level of accuracy.
3. Specific Objectives: Cognitive: The second year students will be able to: c. Differentiate anatomy and physiology of the human body d. List the different systems in the human body e. Describe the functions of the different systems of the body f. Illustrate the anatomy of each body system
4. Affective: The second year students will be able to: c. Share the importance of human anatomy and physiology d. Synthesize the connection of one body system
The document discusses the major body cavities in humans. There are two main cavities - the dorsal cavity which protects the nervous system and is divided into the cranial cavity housing the brain and vertebral cavity housing the spinal cord, and the ventral cavity which houses the internal organs. The ventral cavity is further divided into the thoracic cavity containing the lungs, heart and other thoracic organs, and the abdominopelvic cavity containing the stomach, intestines, and other abdominal and pelvic organs. The document also briefly mentions other body cavities like the oral, nasal, orbital, middle ear and synovial cavities.
The document provides information on the gastrointestinal tract and digestive system. It describes the organs that make up the digestive system, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. It explains the functions of these organs, such as ingestion, secretion, digestion and absorption of nutrients. The mouth is where digestion begins, with teeth breaking down food and saliva from salivary glands aiding in digestion. The liver and gallbladder produce bile which aids in breaking down fats.
The respiratory system consists of an upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract. The upper tract includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx. The lower tract includes the trachea, bronchi and lungs. The conducting portion transports air through the nose, pharynx and into the lungs. The respiratory portion, including alveoli in the lungs, performs gas exchange between the air and blood. Breathing involves inhalation that draws air into the lungs and exhalation that forces air out. The document describes the anatomy and functions of the different parts of the respiratory system.
The ear is the organ of hearing and, in mammals, balance. In mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal.
The digestive system includes the organs of the alimentary canal and accessory structures. The alimentary canal forms a continuous tube that is open to the outside environment at both ends. The organs of the alimentary canal are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
The document provides information on the cardiovascular system and heart anatomy. It discusses the heart chambers, which include the right and left atria and ventricles. It also describes the major blood vessels associated with the heart and the pathway of blood flow from the heart to the lungs and throughout the body. Additionally, it covers the layers of the heart wall, heart valves that prevent backflow of blood, and the conducting system which coordinates heart contractions.
This chapter covered the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system, including the organs and their functions. It discussed medical terminology related to the respiratory system and provided examples of pathological terms, diagnostic tests, and abbreviations. The objectives were to describe the respiratory system and analyze medical word parts and terms as well as identify abbreviations pertaining to respiration.
This PowerPoint presentation details out the anatomy of the human digestive system. Their are general terminologies that involves the topic but over-all this work focuses on how digestion takes place in the human body. The details coming from this presentation are combined from four different and liable sources/references including Biology (Thomson Asian Edition). I can say that this presentation is brief and well-organized so I hope this could help you in your class or seminars. Thanks.
This document summarizes the key functions and components of blood. It discusses how blood carries oxygen, nutrients, waste, hormones, and buffers throughout the body. Blood also helps regulate temperature, volume, and prevents infection through white blood cells and antibodies. The three main components of blood are plasma, red blood cells, and white blood cells, which are all produced through hematopoiesis in the bone marrow. The document then provides details on specific blood cells like erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets, as well as blood disorders, blood typing, and the clotting process.
The document discusses the human sensory systems. It describes the different sensory systems including vision, hearing, taste, smell, and somatic senses. It provides classifications of sensory receptors by function, location, and structure. It also provides details on specific sensory systems such as the eye, ear, and skin receptors. The eye is described in terms of its layers, internal structures, visual pathway, and role in vision. The ear is described as having three main regions for hearing and balance.
The skeletal system consists of bones, joints, and cartilage that provide structure, protection, movement, and support. There are two main divisions - the axial skeleton which includes the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage, and the appendicular skeleton which includes the limbs and girdles. Bones can be classified by their shape as long, short, flat, or irregular. The skeletal system allows movement through articulations between bones at joints like the ball and socket hip joint. Common diseases include arthritis, fractures, osteoporosis, and various cancers that affect the bones and bone marrow.
The document discusses the nine regions of the abdomen and the organs located within each region. It begins by describing the three layers of the abdomen (skin, fascia, muscle) and how it is divided into nine regions by three horizontal and two vertical lines. These nine regions are: epigastric, right and left hypochondrium, umbilical, right and left lumbar, hypogastric, right and left iliac fossa. Each region is then associated with the organs typically found within it. The document then discusses dividing the abdomen into four quadrants and lists the organs located in the right upper, right lower, left upper, and left lower quadrants.
This document discusses sleep disturbances and patterns. It begins with objectives of gaining knowledge about sleep disturbances, patterns, and their application in patient care. It then covers definitions of sleep, sleep facts, sleep patterns in different age groups, sleep physiology including stages of sleep and sleep regulation. Factors affecting sleep and consequences of sleep deprivation are explained. Common sleep disorders like insomnia are described along with international classification of sleep disorders and their management.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in nursing, including:
1) Data collection and the nursing process involve gathering subjective and objective client data from various sources to understand a client's health status and develop a care plan.
2) Theoretical nursing frameworks guide the nursing process and focus on meeting client needs, promoting independence, and adapting to changes in health.
3) Nurses fulfill many roles including caregiver, communicator, teacher, advocate, counselor, leader, and manager to assist clients in achieving optimal health and adapting to illness.
The document summarizes the digestive system, including its organs and their functions. It describes how food travels through the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines. Key digestive organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas produce enzymes and bile to break down food into nutrients that can be absorbed. The digestive tract is approximately 30 feet long and works through mechanical and chemical breakdown of food, as well as absorption and elimination of waste.
The document provides an overview of the digestive system, including the organs and their functions. It discusses the alimentary canal and accessory organs. The alimentary canal extends from the mouth to the anus and includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. Accessory organs that empty into the alimentary canal include the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. It then provides more detailed descriptions of the mouth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus and stomach.
This document provides an overview of the human senses and visual system. It discusses the general senses of touch, temperature, pressure and pain. The special senses of smell, taste, sight, hearing and balance are also covered. Most of the document focuses on the structures and functions of the eye, including the accessory structures, layers of the eye, neurons in the retina, lens accommodation, common vision conditions, and the visual pathway in the brain. Key eye structures like the cornea, iris, pupil, lens, vitreous humor and optic nerve are described.
Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Anatomy and physiologysgossett5757
The document provides an overview of chapter 1 from Hole's Human Anatomy and Physiology textbook. It introduces the topics of anatomy and physiology, discusses the levels of organization in the human body from subcellular to organism, describes the characteristics of life, and explains homeostasis and how the body maintains stable internal conditions through feedback mechanisms. Key concepts covered include the definitions of anatomy and physiology, the 11 organ systems, and anatomical terminology.
The document provides information about the digestive system, including both the gastrointestinal tract and accessory digestive organs. It discusses the organs that make up the GI tract, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines. It also covers the accessory organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The document describes the processes of ingestion, digestion, absorption, and defecation. It provides histological details of the layers of the alimentary tract and details of individual digestive organs and their functions.
The document summarizes the key components and functions of the human digestive system. It describes the digestive system as composed of the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs that break down food into smaller molecules for absorption. The major sections include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver, pancreas and large intestine. Each organ contributes to digestion through both mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.
Published in: Health & Medicine
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zeeshanazmi069
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Human anatomy and physiology parts 2
1. Anatomy and Physiology by: MARNIE G. SARONO (a)
2. OBJECTIVES: General Objective: Within 3 successive periods, the second year students will be able to gain knowledge about human anatomy and physiology as well as identify the body parts and its functions at 70% level of accuracy.
3. Specific Objectives: Cognitive: The second year students will be able to: c. Differentiate anatomy and physiology of the human body d. List the different systems in the human body e. Describe the functions of the different systems of the body f. Illustrate the anatomy of each body system
4. Affective: The second year students will be able to: c. Share the importance of human anatomy and physiology d. Synthesize the connection of one body system
The document discusses the major body cavities in humans. There are two main cavities - the dorsal cavity which protects the nervous system and is divided into the cranial cavity housing the brain and vertebral cavity housing the spinal cord, and the ventral cavity which houses the internal organs. The ventral cavity is further divided into the thoracic cavity containing the lungs, heart and other thoracic organs, and the abdominopelvic cavity containing the stomach, intestines, and other abdominal and pelvic organs. The document also briefly mentions other body cavities like the oral, nasal, orbital, middle ear and synovial cavities.
The document provides information on the gastrointestinal tract and digestive system. It describes the organs that make up the digestive system, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. It explains the functions of these organs, such as ingestion, secretion, digestion and absorption of nutrients. The mouth is where digestion begins, with teeth breaking down food and saliva from salivary glands aiding in digestion. The liver and gallbladder produce bile which aids in breaking down fats.
The respiratory system consists of an upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract. The upper tract includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx. The lower tract includes the trachea, bronchi and lungs. The conducting portion transports air through the nose, pharynx and into the lungs. The respiratory portion, including alveoli in the lungs, performs gas exchange between the air and blood. Breathing involves inhalation that draws air into the lungs and exhalation that forces air out. The document describes the anatomy and functions of the different parts of the respiratory system.
The ear is the organ of hearing and, in mammals, balance. In mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal.
The digestive system includes the organs of the alimentary canal and accessory structures. The alimentary canal forms a continuous tube that is open to the outside environment at both ends. The organs of the alimentary canal are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
The document provides information on the cardiovascular system and heart anatomy. It discusses the heart chambers, which include the right and left atria and ventricles. It also describes the major blood vessels associated with the heart and the pathway of blood flow from the heart to the lungs and throughout the body. Additionally, it covers the layers of the heart wall, heart valves that prevent backflow of blood, and the conducting system which coordinates heart contractions.
This chapter covered the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system, including the organs and their functions. It discussed medical terminology related to the respiratory system and provided examples of pathological terms, diagnostic tests, and abbreviations. The objectives were to describe the respiratory system and analyze medical word parts and terms as well as identify abbreviations pertaining to respiration.
This PowerPoint presentation details out the anatomy of the human digestive system. Their are general terminologies that involves the topic but over-all this work focuses on how digestion takes place in the human body. The details coming from this presentation are combined from four different and liable sources/references including Biology (Thomson Asian Edition). I can say that this presentation is brief and well-organized so I hope this could help you in your class or seminars. Thanks.
This document summarizes the key functions and components of blood. It discusses how blood carries oxygen, nutrients, waste, hormones, and buffers throughout the body. Blood also helps regulate temperature, volume, and prevents infection through white blood cells and antibodies. The three main components of blood are plasma, red blood cells, and white blood cells, which are all produced through hematopoiesis in the bone marrow. The document then provides details on specific blood cells like erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets, as well as blood disorders, blood typing, and the clotting process.
The document discusses the human sensory systems. It describes the different sensory systems including vision, hearing, taste, smell, and somatic senses. It provides classifications of sensory receptors by function, location, and structure. It also provides details on specific sensory systems such as the eye, ear, and skin receptors. The eye is described in terms of its layers, internal structures, visual pathway, and role in vision. The ear is described as having three main regions for hearing and balance.
The skeletal system consists of bones, joints, and cartilage that provide structure, protection, movement, and support. There are two main divisions - the axial skeleton which includes the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage, and the appendicular skeleton which includes the limbs and girdles. Bones can be classified by their shape as long, short, flat, or irregular. The skeletal system allows movement through articulations between bones at joints like the ball and socket hip joint. Common diseases include arthritis, fractures, osteoporosis, and various cancers that affect the bones and bone marrow.
The document discusses the nine regions of the abdomen and the organs located within each region. It begins by describing the three layers of the abdomen (skin, fascia, muscle) and how it is divided into nine regions by three horizontal and two vertical lines. These nine regions are: epigastric, right and left hypochondrium, umbilical, right and left lumbar, hypogastric, right and left iliac fossa. Each region is then associated with the organs typically found within it. The document then discusses dividing the abdomen into four quadrants and lists the organs located in the right upper, right lower, left upper, and left lower quadrants.
This document discusses sleep disturbances and patterns. It begins with objectives of gaining knowledge about sleep disturbances, patterns, and their application in patient care. It then covers definitions of sleep, sleep facts, sleep patterns in different age groups, sleep physiology including stages of sleep and sleep regulation. Factors affecting sleep and consequences of sleep deprivation are explained. Common sleep disorders like insomnia are described along with international classification of sleep disorders and their management.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in nursing, including:
1) Data collection and the nursing process involve gathering subjective and objective client data from various sources to understand a client's health status and develop a care plan.
2) Theoretical nursing frameworks guide the nursing process and focus on meeting client needs, promoting independence, and adapting to changes in health.
3) Nurses fulfill many roles including caregiver, communicator, teacher, advocate, counselor, leader, and manager to assist clients in achieving optimal health and adapting to illness.
1) The document discusses the roles and responsibilities of nurses according to various nursing theorists from Nightingale to Benner. It also discusses ethics, principles, and guidelines for nursing documentation.
2) Nursing theories discussed include Nightingale's environmental manipulation theory, Peplau's interpersonal processes theory, Henderson's 14 basic needs theory, and Orlando's nursing as interacting to meet needs theory.
3) The document provides an overview of nursing ethics, principles of documentation, and guidelines for accurate and thorough documentation.
This document provides information about IV therapy including IV administration, solutions, equipment, sites, procedures, documentation, complications, and calculations. It discusses administering IVs into the circulatory system using various methods. It also covers hanging IV bags, priming tubing, inserting catheters, documenting the process, maintaining flow rates, converting to intermittent therapy, and addressing potential complications.
The document discusses the effects of bullying. It defines bullying and describes the different types, including emotional, verbal, and physical abuse. It also outlines some of the negative consequences of bullying for both the bully and the victim. Bullies are more likely to engage in criminal behavior later in life, while victims may experience depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem that impacts their school performance. The causes of bullying behavior are complex, but some characteristics of children who bully include a lack of empathy, pushing limits, and an ability to justify their actions.
This study examined the effect of complementary music therapy on postoperative patients' anxiety, pain, and noise satisfaction. Researchers recruited 41 postoperative patients from a hospital and assigned them to music therapy or control groups. Patients in the music therapy group listened to 30 minutes of non-lyrical music after analgesia, while controls received usual care. Patients completed questionnaires measuring anxiety, pain, and noise satisfaction at various times. Results showed music therapy increased pain and noise satisfaction but not anxiety. Researchers concluded music therapy may improve some postoperative outcomes but limitations included the small sample size. They recommended replicating the study with a larger, more diverse sample.
The document discusses stress experienced by nursing students. It notes that nursing students experience higher levels of stress than students in other programs like medicine, social work, and pharmacy. Sources of stress for nursing students include their learning experiences, which involve 24 hours per week spent in clinical duties like patient interaction and procedures. Stress can negatively impact students' performance and mental health, causing issues like burnout, illness, and even suicidal thoughts in some cases. While many students experience stress, most are able to graduate on time, suggesting they utilize effective stress management techniques. The study aims to understand the relationship between stress levels and stress management techniques used by nursing students during their clinical learning experiences.
The digestive system breaks down food into molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. It has two main divisions - the alimentary canal and accessory organs. The alimentary canal includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and intestines. Accessory organs include the teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The mouth begins breaking down food using teeth and saliva. Chewed food then passes through the pharynx and esophagus to the stomach using peristalsis.
This document summarizes the anatomy and functions of salivary glands. It describes the major salivary glands - parotid, submandibular and sublingual glands - as well as minor salivary glands. The functions of saliva include protection, buffering, tooth integrity, antimicrobial activity, tissue repair, digestion and taste. Saliva production is nerve-mediated and its composition includes water, electrolytes, proteins, immunoglobulins and other components. The document also discusses salivary gland development, histology and clinical considerations.
1st Semester Anatomy - Digestive System - GIT - By thirumurugan.pptxthiru murugan
Digestive System:
Also known as gastrointestinal tract, digestive tract, digestional tract, GI tract, GIT, gut, or alimentary canal.
Consist of alimentary tract and Accessory organs
It involve in Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption and Excretion
It is started from mouth and ended at anal canal, that is assisted and supported by many parts.
Parts of Digestive System: Primary digestive organs & Accessory organs
Primary digestive organs: Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Intestine, Rectum, Anal canal
Accessory organs: Teeth, Tongue, Salivary glands, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas.
Mouth
First part of GIT, Also known as oral or buccal cavity, It consist of muscles & bones
Tongue or Lingua:Voluntary muscular structure, Occupies floor of mouth
Superior surface consist of numerous papillae contains taste bud for the sense of taste. Attached inferiorly with hyoid bone, Highly mobile muscular part of GIT.
Teeth: Teeth are the hard and whitish substances present in the mouth Which is essential for chewing & speech. They fixed in socket of alveolar ridge in mandible & maxilla (Jaw). Diphyodont is a type of dentition in which two successive sets of teeth are developed during the lifetime. The first set of teeth is temporary or deciduous or milk and the other set is permanent teeth
Salivary glands: These are exocrine glands found in oral cavity that secrete complex fluid known as saliva
Types: Major & Minor salivary glands
Major salivary gland: Parotid, Submandibular & Sublingual
Minor salivary glands: There are 450 minor salivary glands present in oral cavity, lips, cheeks, palate and floor of the mouth
Pharynx: Wide, muscular tube situated behind the nose, mouth & larynx
Cavity of pharynx divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx.
Esophagus: The esophagus is a fibromuscular tube, approximately 25cm in length,
It transports food from the pharynx to the stomach.
Stomach: The stomach is a hollow organ in the GIT.
It is the “J” shaped dilated part, situated in the upper part of the abdomen.
Gross Anatomy of stomach: The stomach has four main anatomical divisions; the cardia, fundus, body and pylorus:
Cardia: surrounds the superior opening of the stomach. it consist cardiac sphincter
Fundus: the rounded, often gas filled portion superior to and left of the cardia.
Body: the large central portion inferior to the fundus.
Pylorus: This area connects the stomach to the duodenum. It is divided into the pyloric antrum, pyloric canal and pyloric sphincter.
Pancreas: The pancreas is a soft, finely lobulated, elongated dual (Exo Endocrine) gland.
Liver: It is the largest gland of the body. It involve metabolic activities
The liver is one of the vital organs of the body, responsible for chemical actions that the body needs to survive.
Small intestine: The intestine which is the longest part of the digestive tube is divided into small intestine and large intestine.
Large Intestine or Colon: It is a last part of the GIT
The document provides information about salivary glands and saliva. It discusses the composition and functions of saliva, including lubrication, protection from chemicals/heat, buffering pH levels, and digestion. It describes the three major salivary glands - parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands - as well as numerous minor salivary glands located throughout the oral cavity. The development of salivary glands from ectoderm is summarized in five stages: bud formation, epithelial cord formation and growth, branching morphogenesis, canalization, and cytodifferentiation.
This document provides an overview of saliva presented by Dr. Amrita Rastogi. It discusses the development, structure and classification of salivary glands. The major salivary glands are the parotid, submandibular and sublingual glands. Minor salivary glands are located throughout the oral cavity. Saliva is composed of water and organic and inorganic components. It is produced in a two-stage process of secretion and modification. Saliva aids in digestion and protects the oral cavity.
This document provides an overview of the anatomy of the mouth, palate, lips, and cheek. It describes the external structures like the lips, oral fissure, and muscles that support the mouth. Internally, it details the oral vestibule, oral cavity proper, hard and soft palates, floor of the mouth, and tongue. It discusses the muscles, blood supply, nerves and functions of these structures. The document also provides descriptions of the papillae and taste buds on the tongue.
This document discusses the anatomy and embryology of the major and minor salivary glands. It describes the three pairs of major salivary glands - the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands. It details their development during embryogenesis, classification based on size and secretory cell type, structure, blood supply, innervation and relations to surrounding tissues. The document also briefly discusses the numerous minor salivary glands found in the oral cavity.
The document describes the anatomy of the lips, oral cavity, tongue, and associated structures. It discusses the layers of the lips, boundaries and divisions of the oral cavity, glands and ducts associated with the mouth, muscles of the oral region, and papillae and taste buds of the tongue.
This document provides an overview of the anatomy and diseases of the tongue. It begins with the introduction, development, anatomy and examination of the tongue. It describes the parts of the tongue including the body, tip and root. It details the muscles, blood supply, lymphatic and nerve supply of the tongue. It discusses the various types of papillae found on the tongue including filiform, fungiform, circumvallate and foliate papillae. It also provides an overview of the taste buds and taste pathways. In closing, it mentions that the document will cover the classification and diseases of the tongue in subsequent sections.
SALIVA AND ITS ROLE IN DENTAL CARIES 1st 3rd march.pptxSnehal shelke
This document discusses the role of saliva in dental caries. It notes that saliva helps prevent dental caries through several properties: dilution and clearance of sugars, neutralization and buffering of acids in plaque, and supply of ions for remineralization. Adequate salivary flow is important for rapid clearance of sugars and bacteria from the mouth. Components of saliva like mucins, agglutinins, and sIgA help clear bacteria and aggregate them for easier removal. Higher levels of sIgA in saliva are associated with lower rates of dental caries in children.
Saliva is a vital fluid that sustains life within the oral cavity. It is produced by the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual salivary glands as well as numerous minor salivary glands. Saliva contains water and electrolytes that are modified by the salivary ducts to produce a hypotonic fluid. Salivary secretion is regulated by the autonomic nervous system, with parasympathetic stimulation producing a copious watery secretion and sympathetic stimulation producing a less voluminous, thicker mucous saliva. The normal daily salivary flow is 1-1.5 liters, with unstimulated and stimulated flow rates being approximately 0.3 ml/
The document describes the anatomy and histology of the digestive system. It discusses the major organs of the digestive system including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. It also describes the accessory organs like the liver, gallbladder, and salivary glands. Additionally, it discusses the layers of the gastrointestinal tract wall and the movements that propel food through the digestive system.
The major salivary glands are the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands. The parotid gland is the largest salivary gland located near the ear. The submandibular gland is paired and located beneath the mandible. The sublingual gland is the smallest salivary gland located under the tongue. Minor salivary glands are found throughout the oral cavity and produce saliva continuously to moisturize the mouth. Saliva contains water, enzymes like amylase to break down starch, mucus, and immunoglobulins for protection against pathogens. Saliva production is stimulated by eating and helps lubricate and protect tissues in the oral cavity.
The document discusses the anatomy and function of the palate and salivary glands. The palate forms the roof of the mouth and floor of the nasal cavity. It is divided into the hard and soft palate. The soft palate contains muscles that allow it to lift and close the throat during speech and swallowing. The salivary glands produce saliva and include the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands. Each gland has a specific location, duct system, and nerve supply involved in stimulation of saliva secretion.
These document describes the anatomy of the oral cavity and its structures. It discusses the lips, oral vestibule, oral cavity proper, palate, floor of the mouth, salivary glands including the submandibular and sublingual glands, and the tongue. It provides details on the layers of the lips, boundaries of the oral vestibule and oral cavity proper, muscles of the palate and tongue, as well as the papillae and taste buds of the tongue.
Saliva is a complex fluid secreted by the salivary glands that lubricates the oral cavity. There are three major salivary glands - the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands. The parotid gland secretes serous saliva rich in amylase. The submandibular gland secretes mixed saliva containing both serous and mucous components. The sublingual gland secretes primarily mucous saliva. In addition, there are over 600 minor salivary glands throughout the oral mucosa that secrete serous or mucous saliva. The salivary glands develop from ectodermal and endodermal tissues during embryonic development
The document discusses the salivary glands and their functions. It states that saliva is produced by three pairs of major salivary glands - the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands. It also mentions numerous minor salivary glands located in different parts of the oral cavity. The functions of saliva include defense against bacteria and fungi, digestion, protection of tissues, lubrication to keep the mouth moist, and buffering to maintain pH levels. The parotid gland is the largest and located in front of the ear. The submandibular and sublingual glands are smaller and located beneath the tongue.
The digestive system contains the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs. The GI tract includes the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Accessory organs are the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The digestive system functions include ingestion, digestion, absorption and defecation. The GI tract walls have four layers - mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. The mouth contains structures like teeth, tongue, hard and soft palate that aid in ingestion and digestion. Salivary glands like the parotid, submandibular and sublingual glands secrete saliva to initiate
The oral cavity is divided into the oral vestibule anteriorly and the oral cavity proper posteriorly by the arch formed by the teeth and gums. The document describes the boundaries and features of these regions as well as the tongue, palate, lips, cheeks, floor of the mouth, and salivary glands. It provides detailed information on the anatomy, muscles, blood supply, and innervation of structures within the oral cavity.
The tongue develops from the pharyngeal arches in the fourth week of gestation. The anterior two-thirds is derived from the mandibular arch while the posterior one-third develops from the third arch. It has intrinsic and extrinsic muscles that aid in functions like speech, swallowing, and taste sensation. Taste buds are located on papillae and perceive the primary tastes of sweet, salty, bitter and sour. The tongue has sensory innervation from cranial nerves and blood supply from the lingual artery.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold Method
Digestive system
1. Digestive system
• Note:
All the powerpoint presentations are
meant for better understanding of text.
These in no way replace the text books .All
chapters in the text books must be
thoroughly studied.
3. Digestive System: Overview
• The alimentary canal or gastrointestinal
(GI) tract digests and absorbs food
• Alimentary canal – mouth, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, and large
intestine
• Accessory digestive organs – teeth,
tongue, gallbladder, salivary glands, liver,
and pancreas
4. Digestive Process
• There are six essential activities:
–Ingestion
–propulsion
–mechanical digestion
–Chemical digestion
–Absorption
–defecation
5. Gastrointestinal Tract Activities
• Ingestion – taking food into the digestive tract
• Propulsion – swallowing and peristalsis
– Peristalsis – waves of contraction and relaxation
of muscles in the organ walls
• Mechanical digestion – chewing, mixing, and
churning food
• Chemical digestion – catabolic breakdown of food
• Absorption – movement of nutrients from the GI
tract to the blood or lymph
• Defecation – elimination of indigestible solid
wastes
6. Histology of the Alimentary Canal
• From esophagus to the anal canal the
walls of the GI tract have the same four
tunics
–From the lumen to outward they are
the:
– Mucosa
– Submucosa
– Muscularis externa
– Serosa
8. Regulation of Digestive Tract
• Motility and secretion of the digestive tract are controlled by
neural, hormonal, and paracrine mechanisms
• Neural control
– Short (myenteric) reflexes – stretch or chemical stimulation acts through
myenteric plexus
• Stimulates parastaltic contractions of swallowing
– Long (vagovagal) reflexes - parasympathetic stimulation of digestive
motility and secretion
• Hormones
– Chemical messengers secreted into bloodstream, and stimulate distant
parts of the digestive tract
• Paracrine secretions
– Chemical messengers that diffuse through the tissue fluids to stimulate
nearby target cells
25-8
9. Enteric Nervous System
• Enteric nervous system – a nervous network in the esophagus,
stomach, and intestines that regulated digestive tract motility,
secretion, and blood flow
– thought to have over 100 million neurons
– more than the spinal cord
– functions completely independently of the central nervous system
• CNS exerts a significant influence on its action
• composed of two networks of neurons
– Submucosal (Meissner) plexus – in submucosa
• controls glandular secretion of mucosa
• controls movements of muscularis mucosae
– Myenteric (Auerbach) plexus – parasympathetic ganglia and nerve fibers
between the two layers of the muscularis interna
• controls peristalsis and other contractions of muscularis externa
• enteric nervous system contains sensory neurons that monitor
25-9
tension in gut wall and conditions in lumen
10. Mouth
• Oral or buccal cavity:
–Is bounded by lips, cheeks, palate, and
tongue
–Has the following organs:
–Teeth
–Salivary glands
–tongue
12. Tongue
• Occupies the floor of the mouth and fills the oral cavity when
mouth is closed
• Functions include:
– Gripping and repositioning food during chewing
– Mixing food with saliva and forming the bolus
– Initiation of swallowing, and speech
Lingual Frenulum – median fold that attaches the
body to the floor of the mouth
• Sulcus terminalis – groove that separates the
tongue into two areas:
– Anterior 2/3 residing in the oral cavity
– Posterior third residing in the oropharynx
13. Tongue
• Superior surface bears four types of papillae
– Filiform – give the tongue roughness and provide
friction . Do not contain taste buds
– Fungiform – scattered widely over the tongue and
give it a reddish hue. Contains lots of taste buds.
– Circumvallate – V-shaped row in back of tongue
– Foliate –pleatlike shaped
#Study:- Ankyloglossia
15. Salivary Glands
• Three pairs of glands – parotid,
submandibular, and sublingual
– Parotid – lies anterior to the ear between the
masseter muscle and skin. Parotid duct opens into
the vestibule next to second upper molar
• Submandibular – lies along the medial aspect
of the mandibular body. Its ducts open at the base of the
lingual frenulum
• Sublingual – lies anterior to the submandibular
gland under the tongue
• # Study : Mumps
18. Saliva: Source and Composition
• Secreted from serous and mucous cells of
salivary glands
• 97-99.5% water, hypo-osmotic, slightly
acidic solution containing
– Electrolytes – Na+, K+, Cl–, PO42–, HCO3–
– Digestive enzyme – salivary amylase
– Proteins – mucin, lysozyme, defensins, and IgA
– Metabolic wastes – urea and uric acid
19. Teeth
• Primary and permanent dentitions have formed
by age 21
• Primary – 20 deciduous teeth that erupt at
intervals between 6 and 24 months
• Permanent – enlarge and develop causing the
root of deciduous teeth to be resorbed and fall
out between the ages of 6 and 12 years
– All but the third molars have erupted by the end of
adolescence
– Usually 32 permanent teeth
20. Classification of Teeth
• Teeth are classified according to their shape and
function
– Incisors – chisel-shaped teeth for cutting
or nipping
– Canines – fanglike teeth that tear or pierce
– Premolars (bicuspids) and molars – have
broad crowns with rounded tips; best
suited for grinding or crushing
• During chewing, upper and lower molars lock
together generating crushing force
23. Dental Formula: Permanent Teeth
• A shorthand way of indicating the number and
relative position of teeth
– Written as ratio of upper to lower teeth for the
mouth
– Primary: 2I (incisors), 1C (canine), 2M (molars)
– Permanent: 2I, 1C, 2PM (premolars), 3M
2I 1C 2PM 3M
X 2 (32 teeth)
2I 1C 2PM 3M
24. Tooth Structure
• Two main regions – crown and the root
• Crown – exposed part of the tooth above the
gingiva
• Enamel – acellular, brittle material composed
of calcium salts and hydroxyapatite crystals;
the hardest substance in the body
– Encapsules the crown of the tooth
• Root – portion of the tooth embedded in the
jawbone
26. Esophagus
• – a straight muscular tube 25-30 cm long
– begins at level between C6 and the cricoid cartilage
– extends from pharynx to cardiac orifice of stomach passing
through esophageal hiatus in diaphragm
– lower esophageal sphincter – food pauses at this point
because of this constriction
• prevents stomach contents from regurgitating into the
esophagus
• protects esophageal mucosa from erosive effect of the
stomach acid
• heartburn – burning sensation produced by acid reflux
into the esophagus
• #Study: Deglutition
28. Stomach
• Chemical breakdown of proteins begins and food is
converted to chyme.it has the following parts:-
• Cardiac region – surrounds the cardiac
orifice
• Fundus – dome-shaped region beneath
the diaphragm
• Body – midportion of the stomach
• Pyloric region – made up of the antrum
and canal which terminates at the pylorus
• The pylorus is continuous with the
duodenum through the pyloric sphincter
32. Glands of the Stomach Fundus and Body
• Gastric glands of the fundus and body have a
variety of secretory cells
– Mucous neck cells – secrete acid mucus
– Parietal cells – secrete HCl and intrinsic
factor
– Chief cells – produce pepsinogen and
prorenin
– Enteroendocrine cells – secrete gastrin,
histamine, endorphins, serotonin, cholecystokinin
(CCK), and somatostatin into the lamina propria
33. Functions of Hydrochloric Acid
• activates pepsin and lingual lipase
• breaks up connective tissues and plant cell walls
– helps liquefy food to form chyme
• converts ingested ferric ions (Fe3+) to ferrous ions
(Fe2+)
– Fe2+ absorbed and used for hemoglobin synthesis
• contributes to nonspecific disease resistance by
destroying most ingested pathogens
• #Study: Ulcer
25-33
34. Pepsin
• zymogens – digestive enzymes secreted as inactive
proteins
– converted to active enzymes by removing some of their
amino acids
• pepsinogen – zymogen secreted by the chief cells
– hydrochloric acid removes some of its amino acids and forms
pepsin that digests proteins
– autocatalytic effect – as some pepsin is formed, it converts
more pepsinogen into more pepsin
• pepsin digests dietary proteins into shorter peptide
chains
– protein digestion is completed in the small intestine
25-34
35. Intrinsic Factor
• intrinsic factor – a glycoprotein secreted by parietal
cells
• essential to absorption of vitamin B12 by the small
intestine
– binds vitamin B12 and intestinal cells absorb this complex by
receptor-mediated endocytosis
• vitamin B12 is needed to synthesize hemoglobin
– prevents pernicious anemia
• secretion of intrinsic factor is the only indispensable
function of the stomach
– digestion can continue if stomach is removed
25-35
(gastrectomy), but B12 supplements will be needed
36. Small Intestine
• Runs from pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
• Has three subdivisions:
• Duodenum, Jejunum, And Ileum
• Structural modifications of the small intestine wall
increase surface area
– Plicae circulares: deep circular folds of
the mucosa and submucosa
– Villi – fingerlike extensions of the mucosa
– Microvilli – tiny projections of absorptive
mucosal cells’ plasma membranes
39. Liver
• The largest gland in the body
• Superficially has four lobes – right, left,
caudate, and quadrate
• The gallbladder rests in a recess on the
inferior surface of the right lobe
40. Liver:functions
• Hepatocytes’ functions include:
– Production of bile
– Processing bloodborne nutrients
– Storage of fat-soluble vitamins
– Detoxification
– Deamination
– Gluconeogenesis, glucogenesis etc.
41. Liver: Associated Structures
• Bile produced by the liver leaves it via:
–Bile ducts, which is formed by fusion
of cystic duct of gall bladder and
hepatic duct of liver
–This bile duct then fuses with the
pancreatic duct to form
hepatopancreatic
duct/ampulla(sphincter of Oddi)
42. Liver: Microscopic Anatomy
• Hexagonal-shaped liver lobules are the
structural and functional units of the liver
– Composed of hepatocyte (liver cell) plates
radiating outward from a central vein
Figure 23.24c
47. Composition of Bile
• A yellow-green, alkaline solution containing bile
salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, neutral
fats, phospholipids, and electrolytes
• Bile salts are cholesterol derivatives that:
–Emulsify fat
–Facilitate fat and cholesterol
absorption
–Help solubilize cholesterol
• The chief bile pigment is bilirubin, a waste
product of heme
48. The Gallbladder
• Thin-walled, green muscular sac on the ventral
surface of the liver
• Stores and concentrates bile by absorbing its
water and ions
• Releases bile via the cystic duct, which flows
into the bile duct
• #Study: Gallstones and Lithotripsy
49. Pancreas
• Location
– Lies deep to the greater curvature of the stomach
– The head is encircled by the duodenum and the tail abuts
the spleen.
– Pancreas is a heterocrine gland that has
both endocrine and exocrine functions:-
• Exocrine function
– Secretes pancreatic juice which breaks down all
categories of foodstuff. This pancreatic juice is
secreted in acini.
– Acini (clusters of secretory cells) contain zymogen
granules with digestive enzymes
• Endocrine function – release of insulin and glucagon
51. Large Intestine
• Is subdivided into the
cecum, appendix, colon, rectum, and
anal canal
• The saclike cecum:
– Lies below the ileocecal valve in the right iliac
fossa
– Contains a wormlike vermiform appendix
54. Colon
• Has distinct regions:
• ascending colon, hepatic flexure,
transverse colon, splenic flexure,
descending colon, and sigmoid colon
• The sigmoid colon joins the rectum
• The anal canal, the last segment of the
large intestine, opens to the exterior at the
anus
55. Large intestine
• Has three unique features:
– Teniae coli – three bands of longitudinal smooth
muscle in its muscularis
– Haustra – pocketlike sacs caused by the tone of
the teniae coli
– Epiploic appendages – fat-filled pouches of
visceral peritoneum
56. Functions of the Large Intestine
• Other than digestion of enteric bacteria, no
further digestion takes place
• Vitamins, water, and electrolytes are reclaimed
• Its major function is propulsion of fecal
material toward the anus
• Though essential for comfort, the colon is not
essential for life
• #Study :- Diarrhea and Constipation.
57. Physiology of
digestion.
1.Digestion of carbohydrates.
2.Digestion of proteins.
3.Digestion of fats.
58. Digestion of carbohydrates
• Digestion of carbohydrates starts in the oral
cavity.
• Salivary amylase present in the saliva causes
the breakdown of complex carbohydrates into
smaller parts.
• Polysaccharides salivary amylase oligosaccharides,
disaccharides,
monosaccharides.
59. Carbohydrate digestion in stomach
• Stomach does not have any enzymes for
digestion of carbohydrates.
60. Carbohydrate digestion in small intestine
• Small intestine receives two juices:-
intestinal juice and the pancreatic juice
• Pancreatic juice have one enzymes for
carbohydrate digestion:- pancreatic
amylase
• Pancreatic amylase will act upon
complex carbohydrates and break them
into small carbohydrates Eg. Starch can
be broken down into
maltose, isomaltose, etc.
61. Carbohydrate digestion in small intestine
• Intestine contains many enzymes for
carbohydrate digestion:- intestinal
amylase, maltase, isomaltase, lactase, s
ucrase.
• Thus all these enzymes will ultimately
convert complex carbohydrates into
monosaccharide like glucose, fructose
and galactose
62. Digestion of proteins
• The final product of protein digestion are the
amino acids.
• There are no protein digesting enzymes in the
mouth and thus Protein digestion starts in the
stomach . Enzyme in stomach is pepsinogen
– Chief cells of stomach – produce pepsinogen
• Pepsinogen is activated to pepsin by:
– HCl in the stomach
– Pepsin itself via a positive feedback mechanism
–Pepsin will then act on large protein and
will break them into small peptides and
amino acids
63. Digestion of proteins in small intestine
• Enzymes acting in the small intestine
–Pancreatic enzymes – trypsinogen,
chymotrypsinogen, and
procarboxypeptidase
Pancreatic enzymes are in inactive form
and they need to be activated to
become functional
- Intestinal enzymes – aminopeptidases,
carboxypeptidases, and dipeptidases
66. Digestion of fats
• Fat (triglycerides) digestion starts in the stomach
and is completed in the intestine. Saliva do not
have any fat digesting enzyme.
• Enzymes for fat digestion are :-
• Lingual lipase
• Gastric lipase
• Pancreatic lipase
• Intestinal lipase
• Bile plays a very important role of emulsifying
the fats.
• All these enzymes will break fats into fatty
acids and glycerol.
68. Absorption
• Absorption refers to transport of digested
products of food from the intestinal lumen into
the blood circulation.
• Carbohydrate absorption: glucose and galactose
are carried by active transport from the intestinal
lumen into the epithelial cells of intestine. Then
they move out of these cells into the blood
capillaries by simple diffusion
• Protein absorption: it is very similar to
absorption of carbohydrates. amino acids are
carried from lumen to epithelial cells by active
transport and then they leave these cells by
diffusion.
70. Fatty Acid Absorption
• Fatty acids and monoglycerides combine with
bile salt and cholesterol to form micelles
• Micelles act as ‘ferry’ and help fatty acids to
enter the intestinal cells by diffusion
• Once inside the intestinal cells the free fatty
acids and glycerol are resynthesized into
trigylceride. Triglycerides combine with
protein to form chylomicron. Resulting
chylomicrons are extruded and they enter
lacteals and are transported to the circulation
via lymph
71. Fatty Acid Absorption Fatty acids and
Lumen of monoglycerides
intestine associated with
micelles in
lumen of intestine
1 Fatty acids and
monoglycerides
resulting from fat
Absorptive digestion leave
epithelial cell micelles and enter
cytoplasm epithelial cell by
diffusion.
2 Fatty acids are
ER used to synthesize
triglycerides in
smooth endo-
plasmic reticulum.
Golgi
apparatus 3 Fatty globules are
combined with
proteins to form
chylomicrons
(within Golgi
apparatus).
4 Vesicles containing
chylomicrons
migrate to the
basal membrane,
are extruded from
the epithelial cell,
and enter a lacteal
(lymphatic capillary).
5 Lymph in the
Chylomicron
lacteal transports
Lacteal
chylomicrons away
from intestine.
Figure 23.36
72. Fatty Acid Absorption Fatty acids and
Lumen of monoglycerides
intestine associated with
micelles in
lumen of intestine
Absorptive
epithelial cell
cytoplasm
ER
Golgi
apparatus
Lacteal
Figure 23.36
73. Fatty Acid Absorption Fatty acids and
Lumen of monoglycerides
intestine associated with
micelles in
lumen of intestine
1 Fatty acids and
monoglycerides
resulting from fat
Absorptive digestion leave
epithelial cell micelles and enter
cytoplasm epithelial cell by
diffusion.
ER
Golgi
apparatus
Lacteal
Figure 23.36
74. Fatty Acid Absorption Fatty acids and
Lumen of monoglycerides
intestine associated with
micelles in
lumen of intestine
1 Fatty acids and
monoglycerides
resulting from fat
Absorptive digestion leave
epithelial cell micelles and enter
cytoplasm epithelial cell by
diffusion.
2 Fatty acids are
ER used to synthesize
triglycerides in
smooth endo-
plasmic reticulum.
Golgi
apparatus
Lacteal
Figure 23.36
75. Fatty Acid Absorption Fatty acids and
Lumen of monoglycerides
intestine associated with
micelles in
lumen of intestine
1 Fatty acids and
monoglycerides
resulting from fat
Absorptive digestion leave
epithelial cell micelles and enter
cytoplasm epithelial cell by
diffusion.
2 Fatty acids are
ER used to synthesize
triglycerides in
smooth endo-
plasmic reticulum.
Golgi
apparatus 3 Fatty globules are
combined with
proteins to form
chylomicrons
(within Golgi
apparatus).
Lacteal
Figure 23.36
76. Fatty Acid Absorption Fatty acids and
Lumen of monoglycerides
intestine associated with
micelles in
lumen of intestine
1 Fatty acids and
monoglycerides
resulting from fat
Absorptive digestion leave
epithelial cell micelles and enter
cytoplasm epithelial cell by
diffusion.
2 Fatty acids are
ER used to synthesize
triglycerides in
smooth endo-
plasmic reticulum.
Golgi
apparatus 3 Fatty globules are
combined with
proteins to form
chylomicrons
(within Golgi
apparatus).
4 Vesicles containing
chylomicrons
migrate to the
basal membrane,
are extruded from
the epithelial cell,
and enter a lacteal
(lymphatic capillary).
Chylomicron
Lacteal
Figure 23.36
77. Fatty Acid Absorption Fatty acids and
Lumen of monoglycerides
intestine associated with
micelles in
lumen of intestine
1 Fatty acids and
monoglycerides
resulting from fat
Absorptive digestion leave
epithelial cell micelles and enter
cytoplasm epithelial cell by
diffusion.
2 Fatty acids are
ER used to synthesize
triglycerides in
smooth endo-
plasmic reticulum.
Golgi
apparatus 3 Fatty globules are
combined with
proteins to form
chylomicrons
(within Golgi
apparatus).
4 Vesicles containing
chylomicrons
migrate to the
basal membrane,
are extruded from
the epithelial cell,
and enter a lacteal
(lymphatic capillary).
5 Lymph in the
Chylomicron
lacteal transports
Lacteal
chylomicrons away
from intestine.
Figure 23.36
78. Hormonal regulation of digestion
• The release of digestive secretions is under control
of various hormones:-
• Gastrin: stimulate secretion of gastric
juice
• Enterogastrone:stops secretion of
gastric juice
• Cholecystokinin:release of bile from
gall bladder and release of enzymes of
pancreatic juice.
79. Hormonal regulation of digestion
• Secretin: speeds up release of bile and
cause release of sodium bicarbonate in
pancreatic juice
• Villikinin: accelerates the movement of
villi
• Duocrinin: release of mucus from
brunner’s glands
• Enterocrinin :release of enzymes from
crypts of leiberkuhn