A detailed presentation on fraunhofer diffraction and also an introduction to the concept of diffraction.There is also a brief discussion on fresnel diffraction and the difference between former and the latter.
- Diffraction occurs when waves pass through small openings, around obstacles, or by sharp edges. This causes the waves to spread out after passing through the openings.
- A single slit placed between a light source and screen produces a diffraction pattern of alternating bright and dark bands called interference fringes. The spacing and intensity of the fringes depends on the wavelength of light and the width of the slit.
- In single-slit diffraction, each part of the slit acts as a secondary source, and the light interferes depending on the path differences between waves, causing constructive and destructive interference at different angles.
When light passes through a single slit, it spreads out and produces a diffraction pattern with a bright central maximum and dimmer surrounding maxima and minima. The positions of these maxima and minima can be calculated based on the wavelength of light and width of the slit. Huygens' principle of wavelets constructed from each part of the slit opening can be used to explain the interference causing some wavelets to cancel out, creating the dimmer minima in the diffraction pattern.
This document discusses the principles and phenomena of diffraction. It begins by defining diffraction as the deviation of light from rectilinear propagation that occurs when a portion of a wavefront is obstructed. The Huygens-Fresnel principle is introduced, which states that every point on a wavefront acts as a secondary source of spherical wavelets. Diffraction patterns can be classified as either Fraunhofer or Fresnel diffraction depending on the separation between the aperture and viewing screen. Examples of diffraction from single slits, circular apertures, and double slits are analyzed. Rayleigh's criterion for resolving power with rectangular apertures is also described.
This document discusses the principles and types of diffraction, including Fraunhofer and Fresnel diffraction. It explains diffraction at a single slit and double slit, describing how the diffraction patterns are formed and the conditions for maxima and minima. It also discusses the differences between interference and diffraction. Finally, it discusses diffraction gratings and their uses in spectroscopy.
Light waves superimpose each other and the redistribution of energy due to this can be observed in terms of well defined patterns of maxima and minima. Wherein, maxima refers to more energy and minima refers to less energy. Diffraction can also be called as interference in secondary wavelets.
When waves encounter obstacles like slits, they diffract or bend around the edges. Diffraction can be explained by Huygens' principle, which says each point on a wavefront acts as a new source. For a single slit, the new wavefront shape is determined by combining spherical wavelets from points across the slit. There are two types of diffraction: Fresnel, where distances are finite, and Fraunhofer, where incident waves are plane waves. X-ray diffraction uses wavelengths comparable to atomic sizes to determine crystal and molecular structures.
Coherent light refers to light rays that travel closely packed in straight parallel lines, like in a sunbeam. Examples of coherent light include lasers, which emit visible light beams that diverge very little over long distances. Automobile headlights and spotlights also emit coherent light by directing rays into a narrow, well-defined beam. Intense direct sunlight passing through a small opening also forms a coherent light beam. Coherent light waves are "in phase" with one another, meaning the crests and troughs of each wave are aligned.
- Diffraction occurs when waves pass through small openings, around obstacles, or by sharp edges. This causes the waves to spread out after passing through the openings.
- A single slit placed between a light source and screen produces a diffraction pattern of alternating bright and dark bands called interference fringes. The spacing and intensity of the fringes depends on the wavelength of light and the width of the slit.
- In single-slit diffraction, each part of the slit acts as a secondary source, and the light interferes depending on the path differences between waves, causing constructive and destructive interference at different angles.
When light passes through a single slit, it spreads out and produces a diffraction pattern with a bright central maximum and dimmer surrounding maxima and minima. The positions of these maxima and minima can be calculated based on the wavelength of light and width of the slit. Huygens' principle of wavelets constructed from each part of the slit opening can be used to explain the interference causing some wavelets to cancel out, creating the dimmer minima in the diffraction pattern.
This document discusses the principles and phenomena of diffraction. It begins by defining diffraction as the deviation of light from rectilinear propagation that occurs when a portion of a wavefront is obstructed. The Huygens-Fresnel principle is introduced, which states that every point on a wavefront acts as a secondary source of spherical wavelets. Diffraction patterns can be classified as either Fraunhofer or Fresnel diffraction depending on the separation between the aperture and viewing screen. Examples of diffraction from single slits, circular apertures, and double slits are analyzed. Rayleigh's criterion for resolving power with rectangular apertures is also described.
This document discusses the principles and types of diffraction, including Fraunhofer and Fresnel diffraction. It explains diffraction at a single slit and double slit, describing how the diffraction patterns are formed and the conditions for maxima and minima. It also discusses the differences between interference and diffraction. Finally, it discusses diffraction gratings and their uses in spectroscopy.
Light waves superimpose each other and the redistribution of energy due to this can be observed in terms of well defined patterns of maxima and minima. Wherein, maxima refers to more energy and minima refers to less energy. Diffraction can also be called as interference in secondary wavelets.
When waves encounter obstacles like slits, they diffract or bend around the edges. Diffraction can be explained by Huygens' principle, which says each point on a wavefront acts as a new source. For a single slit, the new wavefront shape is determined by combining spherical wavelets from points across the slit. There are two types of diffraction: Fresnel, where distances are finite, and Fraunhofer, where incident waves are plane waves. X-ray diffraction uses wavelengths comparable to atomic sizes to determine crystal and molecular structures.
Coherent light refers to light rays that travel closely packed in straight parallel lines, like in a sunbeam. Examples of coherent light include lasers, which emit visible light beams that diverge very little over long distances. Automobile headlights and spotlights also emit coherent light by directing rays into a narrow, well-defined beam. Intense direct sunlight passing through a small opening also forms a coherent light beam. Coherent light waves are "in phase" with one another, meaning the crests and troughs of each wave are aligned.
1) Fresnel's theory of diffraction explains that diffraction occurs due to the interference of secondary wavelets produced by unobstructed portions of the wavefront.
2) When considering the diffraction pattern at a point P, Fresnel divided the wavefront into concentric half-period zones centered on the point's pole O. The contribution of each zone to the intensity at P depends on the zone's area and distance from P.
3) For a large number of zones, the total intensity at P is approximately one fourth of that due to the first zone alone, explaining the dimming of light in diffraction patterns.
This document provides information about a physics course titled "WAVE OPTICS/MODERN PHYSICS" taught by S.N. Dash at NIT Rourkela. The 4 credit course covers topics like interference, diffraction, electromagnetic waves, polarization, and quantum mechanics. Exams and assignments make up the evaluation, with the midterm worth 30%, end term 50%, and assignments 20%. Letter grades are assigned based on percentage scores. The document also provides the instructor's contact information and outlines course topics, textbooks, and assignments.
Geometrical optics is the study of how light interacts with materials and their shapes. Light rays reflect off surfaces according to the law of reflection, where the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Refraction occurs when light travels from one medium to another and its speed changes, causing it to change direction. Snell's law describes the relationship between the refractive indices and angles of incidence and refraction between two media. Total internal reflection occurs when light travels from an optically dense to a less dense medium at an angle greater than the critical angle, and the light is fully reflected back into the first medium.
1. Diffraction refers to the bending of light around obstacles or through openings, and results in interference patterns.
2. There are two main types of diffraction: Fresnel diffraction occurs when light passes near an obstacle, while Fraunhofer diffraction occurs when light passes through or around objects and the observation is made far from the obstacle.
3. Diffraction gratings consist of many parallel slits and cause light to diffract into several beams. The angles and intensities of these beams can be determined through analysis of interference from the multiple slits.
The slide is about single slit diffraction. this slide gives a complete presentataion on the same. it also contains interesting pictures to get a better idea of the topic.
This article discusses the basics of Interference phenomenon of light. Young's Double Slit Experiment is discussed to understand the phenomenon of Interference and also to understand the wave behaviour of light. Newton's Ring experiment, Lloyd's Mirror experiment, Fresnel's Biprism experiment are studued here to establish the wave nature of light. Also the bright and the dark fringes and there mathematical expressions are elaborated here in this article.
This document summarizes key concepts about laser beams and optical resonators:
1) Laser beam propagation can be described by the Helmholtz equation, with one solution being a Gaussian beam profile. The beam waist radius varies along the beam axis according to the Rayleigh range.
2) Optical resonators provide feedback to turn an amplifier into an oscillator. They contain mirrors between which light bounces and is amplified on each pass through the gain medium.
3) Resonator stability depends on the curvature and separation of the mirrors. Different resonator types support distinct transverse mode patterns within the beam.
This document describes how to determine the birefringence of mica using a Babinet compensator. A Babinet compensator contains two quartz wedges that allow plane polarized light to split into ordinary and extraordinary rays when passed through a birefringent material. By measuring the fringe shift caused when mica is placed between the polarizer and compensator, and using the fringe width and material thickness in an equation, the birefringence of the mica can be calculated. The experiment involves setting up the apparatus, measuring the fringe width without mica, measuring the fringe shift caused when mica is added, and using these values in the equation (no-ne) = λδβ/βt
There are three main types of polarization: plane, circular, and elliptical. Plane polarization occurs when light vibrates in a single plane, and can be produced through reflection, refraction, double refraction, scattering, or selective absorption. Circular polarization results from two plane waves that are 90 degrees out of phase. Elliptical polarization is when the electric field vector traces out an ellipse as the light propagates.
The document summarizes Young's double-slit experiment, which demonstrated the wave-like properties of light. In the experiment, monochromatic light passing through two slits results in a pattern of bright and dark fringes on a screen due to constructive and destructive interference. The document derives the equations that relate the spacing between the fringes to the wavelength of light and the geometry of the double-slit setup. Specifically, it shows that the spacing is directly proportional to the wavelength and distance between slits, and inversely proportional to the separation between the slits.
This document discusses the phenomenon of diffraction, specifically single slit diffraction. When light passes through a small aperture, the wavefronts spread out in a phenomenon called diffraction. With a single slit, this results in a diffraction pattern of bright and dark fringes on a distant screen. The width of the central bright fringe is determined by the slit width and wavelength of light. A mathematical relationship is derived that expresses the half-angle of the central fringe as being inversely proportional to the slit width and proportional to the wavelength. Examples are given to illustrate how this relationship can be used to determine unknown wavelengths from measured diffraction patterns.
What is Polarization?
Types of polarized light
Few related terms
Few laws related to polarization
Applications
FOR MORE VISIT: https://tariqalfayad.blogspot.com/
The document provides an overview of lasers, including their introduction, characteristics, population inversion, types of coherence, and applications. It discusses key laser concepts such as spontaneous emission, stimulated emission, optical pumping, threshold inversion density, and optical feedback. Examples of specific laser types are given, including ruby lasers, HeNe lasers, and semiconductor lasers. The document concludes with applications of lasers in areas like welding, medicine, data storage, printing, and military weapons.
This document discusses the diffraction of light. It begins by describing the objectives of understanding how light waves bend around obstacles, calculating the positions of fringes in a diffraction grating, and how diffraction determines an optical instrument's ability to resolve images. It then explains Huygens' principle that every point on a wavefront can be seen as a secondary source of waves. It discusses how diffraction causes light to bend when passing through an opening or slit and describes Thomas Young's double slit experiment that demonstrated the wave-like nature of light. It concludes by mentioning how a diffraction grating is used to show the colors of white light and that Young observed bright and dark fringes caused by the interference of light recombined from two slits.
Interference of light refers to the redistribution of light energy due to superposition of two light waves. This superposition leads to a pattern of alternate dark and bright fringes. These dark and bright fringes are called as minima and maxima respectively.
1) A lens is made of glass with two curved surfaces that refract light to form images. Optical instruments use combinations of lenses to form high-quality images free of aberrations.
2) Any optical system can be characterized by six cardinal points - two focal points, two principal points, and two nodal points. The focal points are where light rays converge or diverge after passing through the system. The principal points define planes where light rays are assumed to refract. The nodal points define planes where light rays pass through without refraction.
3) Cardinal points allow the image of any object to be determined without analyzing individual light rays. Distances between corresponding cardinal points characterize properties like focal length and angular
This document provides an introduction to the textbook "Introduction to Nonlinear Optics" by Geoffrey New. The textbook covers fundamental concepts in nonlinear optics such as harmonic generation, phase matching, and frequency mixing. It also discusses nonlinear optical effects in crystals including second- and third-order processes. The textbook is intended as a gentle introduction for graduate students beginning research in nonlinear optics.
This document provides an introduction to lasers and their applications. It begins with recommended textbooks on the subject, then provides a chart showing the laser spectrum and examples of different laser types and their wavelengths. The remainder of the document discusses the basic components and functioning of lasers, including the gain medium that provides stimulated emission, the pump source to create population inversion, and the optical cavity formed by mirrors. It also provides brief histories of the development of masers and the first ruby laser.
Huygen's principle describes how each point on a wavefront acts as a secondary source of waves, and that the new wavefront is the envelope of these secondary waves. It provides a method for determining the propagation and behavior of light waves. The principle is based on assuming each point on the initial wavefront emits spherical wavelets, and the new wavefront is the envelope of these secondary waves. It can be used to understand phenomena like interference and diffraction of light.
This document describes Newton's rings experiment to observe the interference of light. When a plano-convex lens is placed on a glass slide, a thin air film is formed of varying thickness. Circular interference fringes called Newton's rings are seen when monochromatic light is shone on the setup. The rings appear as alternating bright and dark circles whose diameters are used to determine the wavelength of light through mathematical formulas derived from light interference principles.
This article speaks about the optical phenomenon of diffraction. The terms related to it. This article explains the principle of diffraction and provides a comprehensive understanding for the students of optics.
The document discusses various topics related to wave optics and the physics of light, including:
- The wave nature of light and how it explains phenomena like reflection, refraction, the formation of shadows and spectra.
- Huygens' principle which states that each point on a wavefront is the source of secondary wavelets and the new wavefront is the tangent to these wavelets.
- The laws of reflection which state that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
- Refraction and how the speed and wavelength of light changes when passing from one medium to another.
- Interference and coherence - the addition of waves to form a resultant wave, and how coherent sources are required
1) Fresnel's theory of diffraction explains that diffraction occurs due to the interference of secondary wavelets produced by unobstructed portions of the wavefront.
2) When considering the diffraction pattern at a point P, Fresnel divided the wavefront into concentric half-period zones centered on the point's pole O. The contribution of each zone to the intensity at P depends on the zone's area and distance from P.
3) For a large number of zones, the total intensity at P is approximately one fourth of that due to the first zone alone, explaining the dimming of light in diffraction patterns.
This document provides information about a physics course titled "WAVE OPTICS/MODERN PHYSICS" taught by S.N. Dash at NIT Rourkela. The 4 credit course covers topics like interference, diffraction, electromagnetic waves, polarization, and quantum mechanics. Exams and assignments make up the evaluation, with the midterm worth 30%, end term 50%, and assignments 20%. Letter grades are assigned based on percentage scores. The document also provides the instructor's contact information and outlines course topics, textbooks, and assignments.
Geometrical optics is the study of how light interacts with materials and their shapes. Light rays reflect off surfaces according to the law of reflection, where the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Refraction occurs when light travels from one medium to another and its speed changes, causing it to change direction. Snell's law describes the relationship between the refractive indices and angles of incidence and refraction between two media. Total internal reflection occurs when light travels from an optically dense to a less dense medium at an angle greater than the critical angle, and the light is fully reflected back into the first medium.
1. Diffraction refers to the bending of light around obstacles or through openings, and results in interference patterns.
2. There are two main types of diffraction: Fresnel diffraction occurs when light passes near an obstacle, while Fraunhofer diffraction occurs when light passes through or around objects and the observation is made far from the obstacle.
3. Diffraction gratings consist of many parallel slits and cause light to diffract into several beams. The angles and intensities of these beams can be determined through analysis of interference from the multiple slits.
The slide is about single slit diffraction. this slide gives a complete presentataion on the same. it also contains interesting pictures to get a better idea of the topic.
This article discusses the basics of Interference phenomenon of light. Young's Double Slit Experiment is discussed to understand the phenomenon of Interference and also to understand the wave behaviour of light. Newton's Ring experiment, Lloyd's Mirror experiment, Fresnel's Biprism experiment are studued here to establish the wave nature of light. Also the bright and the dark fringes and there mathematical expressions are elaborated here in this article.
This document summarizes key concepts about laser beams and optical resonators:
1) Laser beam propagation can be described by the Helmholtz equation, with one solution being a Gaussian beam profile. The beam waist radius varies along the beam axis according to the Rayleigh range.
2) Optical resonators provide feedback to turn an amplifier into an oscillator. They contain mirrors between which light bounces and is amplified on each pass through the gain medium.
3) Resonator stability depends on the curvature and separation of the mirrors. Different resonator types support distinct transverse mode patterns within the beam.
This document describes how to determine the birefringence of mica using a Babinet compensator. A Babinet compensator contains two quartz wedges that allow plane polarized light to split into ordinary and extraordinary rays when passed through a birefringent material. By measuring the fringe shift caused when mica is placed between the polarizer and compensator, and using the fringe width and material thickness in an equation, the birefringence of the mica can be calculated. The experiment involves setting up the apparatus, measuring the fringe width without mica, measuring the fringe shift caused when mica is added, and using these values in the equation (no-ne) = λδβ/βt
There are three main types of polarization: plane, circular, and elliptical. Plane polarization occurs when light vibrates in a single plane, and can be produced through reflection, refraction, double refraction, scattering, or selective absorption. Circular polarization results from two plane waves that are 90 degrees out of phase. Elliptical polarization is when the electric field vector traces out an ellipse as the light propagates.
The document summarizes Young's double-slit experiment, which demonstrated the wave-like properties of light. In the experiment, monochromatic light passing through two slits results in a pattern of bright and dark fringes on a screen due to constructive and destructive interference. The document derives the equations that relate the spacing between the fringes to the wavelength of light and the geometry of the double-slit setup. Specifically, it shows that the spacing is directly proportional to the wavelength and distance between slits, and inversely proportional to the separation between the slits.
This document discusses the phenomenon of diffraction, specifically single slit diffraction. When light passes through a small aperture, the wavefronts spread out in a phenomenon called diffraction. With a single slit, this results in a diffraction pattern of bright and dark fringes on a distant screen. The width of the central bright fringe is determined by the slit width and wavelength of light. A mathematical relationship is derived that expresses the half-angle of the central fringe as being inversely proportional to the slit width and proportional to the wavelength. Examples are given to illustrate how this relationship can be used to determine unknown wavelengths from measured diffraction patterns.
What is Polarization?
Types of polarized light
Few related terms
Few laws related to polarization
Applications
FOR MORE VISIT: https://tariqalfayad.blogspot.com/
The document provides an overview of lasers, including their introduction, characteristics, population inversion, types of coherence, and applications. It discusses key laser concepts such as spontaneous emission, stimulated emission, optical pumping, threshold inversion density, and optical feedback. Examples of specific laser types are given, including ruby lasers, HeNe lasers, and semiconductor lasers. The document concludes with applications of lasers in areas like welding, medicine, data storage, printing, and military weapons.
This document discusses the diffraction of light. It begins by describing the objectives of understanding how light waves bend around obstacles, calculating the positions of fringes in a diffraction grating, and how diffraction determines an optical instrument's ability to resolve images. It then explains Huygens' principle that every point on a wavefront can be seen as a secondary source of waves. It discusses how diffraction causes light to bend when passing through an opening or slit and describes Thomas Young's double slit experiment that demonstrated the wave-like nature of light. It concludes by mentioning how a diffraction grating is used to show the colors of white light and that Young observed bright and dark fringes caused by the interference of light recombined from two slits.
Interference of light refers to the redistribution of light energy due to superposition of two light waves. This superposition leads to a pattern of alternate dark and bright fringes. These dark and bright fringes are called as minima and maxima respectively.
1) A lens is made of glass with two curved surfaces that refract light to form images. Optical instruments use combinations of lenses to form high-quality images free of aberrations.
2) Any optical system can be characterized by six cardinal points - two focal points, two principal points, and two nodal points. The focal points are where light rays converge or diverge after passing through the system. The principal points define planes where light rays are assumed to refract. The nodal points define planes where light rays pass through without refraction.
3) Cardinal points allow the image of any object to be determined without analyzing individual light rays. Distances between corresponding cardinal points characterize properties like focal length and angular
This document provides an introduction to the textbook "Introduction to Nonlinear Optics" by Geoffrey New. The textbook covers fundamental concepts in nonlinear optics such as harmonic generation, phase matching, and frequency mixing. It also discusses nonlinear optical effects in crystals including second- and third-order processes. The textbook is intended as a gentle introduction for graduate students beginning research in nonlinear optics.
This document provides an introduction to lasers and their applications. It begins with recommended textbooks on the subject, then provides a chart showing the laser spectrum and examples of different laser types and their wavelengths. The remainder of the document discusses the basic components and functioning of lasers, including the gain medium that provides stimulated emission, the pump source to create population inversion, and the optical cavity formed by mirrors. It also provides brief histories of the development of masers and the first ruby laser.
Huygen's principle describes how each point on a wavefront acts as a secondary source of waves, and that the new wavefront is the envelope of these secondary waves. It provides a method for determining the propagation and behavior of light waves. The principle is based on assuming each point on the initial wavefront emits spherical wavelets, and the new wavefront is the envelope of these secondary waves. It can be used to understand phenomena like interference and diffraction of light.
This document describes Newton's rings experiment to observe the interference of light. When a plano-convex lens is placed on a glass slide, a thin air film is formed of varying thickness. Circular interference fringes called Newton's rings are seen when monochromatic light is shone on the setup. The rings appear as alternating bright and dark circles whose diameters are used to determine the wavelength of light through mathematical formulas derived from light interference principles.
This article speaks about the optical phenomenon of diffraction. The terms related to it. This article explains the principle of diffraction and provides a comprehensive understanding for the students of optics.
The document discusses various topics related to wave optics and the physics of light, including:
- The wave nature of light and how it explains phenomena like reflection, refraction, the formation of shadows and spectra.
- Huygens' principle which states that each point on a wavefront is the source of secondary wavelets and the new wavefront is the tangent to these wavelets.
- The laws of reflection which state that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
- Refraction and how the speed and wavelength of light changes when passing from one medium to another.
- Interference and coherence - the addition of waves to form a resultant wave, and how coherent sources are required
MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD
CLASS XI AND XII
PHYSICS
CHAPTER 7
WAVE OPTICS
CONTENT:
Huygen's principle.
Huygen's principles & proof of laws of reflection/refraction.
Condition for construction & destruction of coherent waves.
Young's double slit experiment.
Modified Young's double slit experiment.
Intensity of light in Y.D.S.E.
Diffraction due to single slit.
Polarisation & doppler effect.
1. The document describes an experiment on diffraction using laser light passing through single and double slits of varying widths and distances.
2. The experiment aims to understand how the diffraction pattern is influenced by the distance between slits, width of slits, and number of slits.
3. Key results found that smaller distance between slits formed more diffraction patterns, while slit width and number of slits did not influence the pattern formation.
This document discusses the phenomenon of diffraction, which refers to the bending of waves around obstacles. It provides explanations of diffraction from both classical physics and quantum mechanics perspectives. Examples of diffraction effects in everyday life are given, such as the rainbow pattern seen on CDs/DVDs. The document also covers the history of diffraction studies, analytical models used to calculate diffraction, and the role of coherence in diffraction.
Measurement of physical optics and microwavesSubhasis Shit
This document provides an overview of physical optics and microwaves. It discusses several topics including interference using a Michelson interferometer, diffraction of light and microwaves, photoconductivity, and polarization of light. For interference, it describes types of interference and performing measurements using a Michelson interferometer to determine the wavelength of a laser and refractive index of a glass plate. For diffraction, it discusses Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction and performing experiments to observe diffraction patterns from microwaves and laser light. It also presents the results of experiments measuring photoconductivity and verifying Malus' law of polarization.
Physics Investigatory project on Diffractionsaurabh yadav
Physics investigatory project on Diffraction. Kendriya Vidyalaya physics investigatory project on Diffraction made by Saurabh Yadav a student of class 12.
Light is a type of electromagnetic wave that stimulates the optic nerves to create vision. It comes in a range of wavelengths from gamma rays to radio waves. For photography, the most important wavelengths are those in the visible light spectrum from 400-700nm.
When light passes from one medium to another, such as from air to glass, it changes direction in a phenomenon called refraction. The degree of refraction is indicated by the index of refraction. Dispersion occurs when the refractive index varies by wavelength, separating light into its component colors. Reflection causes a portion of the light to change direction entirely rather than refract.
Key optical concepts in photography include the optical axis that connects lens elements, paraxial
This document discusses several key concepts in waves and optics:
- Interference occurs when two waves pass through the same space and can be constructive or destructive depending on the relative phases of the waves.
- Diffraction causes waves to bend around obstacles, with more bending for smaller obstacles or shorter wavelengths.
- Dispersion of light occurs because the refractive index varies with wavelength, causing different colors to refract differently.
- Reflection and refraction change the direction of waves at material interfaces due to changes in speed of light and refractive index.
- Mirrors and lenses use reflection and refraction to focus or diffuse light waves.
This document discusses several key concepts in waves and optics:
- Interference occurs when two waves pass through the same space and can be constructive or destructive depending on the relative phases of the waves.
- Diffraction causes waves to bend around obstacles, with more bending for smaller obstacles or shorter wavelengths.
- Dispersion of light occurs because the refractive index varies with wavelength, causing different colors to refract differently.
- Reflection and refraction change the direction of waves at material interfaces due to changes in speed, governed by Snell's Law and the refractive index.
- Mirrors and lenses use reflection and refraction to focus or diffuse light rays using their focal points and lengths.
Physical optics studies phenomena like interference, diffraction, and polarization of light. It includes Huygens' principle that each point on a wavefront acts as a secondary source, and Young's double slit experiment which demonstrates interference through bright and dark bands. Michelson's interferometer precisely measures distance using interference of light. Diffraction is the spreading of light waves around obstacles, prominently seen when the wavelength is greater than the obstacle size. Diffraction gratings with many parallel slits cause diffraction patterns. Optical instruments like microscopes use lenses and have properties like magnification and resolving power. Optical fibers transmit data using total internal reflection within the fiber.
This powerpoint goes through the mechanics of a Michelson Interferometer as well as the theory behind how one works. There is a brief mention of an application of the interferometer, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO).
This presentation talks about the basic terms and terminologies related to Radiometry and Photometry. Their definitions.
This article also highlights the different theories about Light. It provides a rudimentary and comprehensive idea about light and its nature.
This document discusses several aspects of diffraction and polarization of light. It begins by introducing diffraction and how it occurs when light encounters an obstacle or aperture. It then discusses single-slit diffraction and how a slit wider than the wavelength of light produces interference patterns downstream. Next, it explains how to calculate the angle for destructive interference using the path difference between light from different points across the slit. It also discusses diffraction from circular apertures and the Airy disk pattern. Finally, it defines polarization as the orientation of oscillations in transverse waves and discusses polarized and unpolarized light.
Physics Investigated Project for CBSE Class 12
To get the whole "WORD" file DM me at
wadhawan.maanit@yahoo.com
Or Watsapp- 6389004709
( INCLUDING COVER PAGE, CERTIFICATE, AKNOWLEDGEMENT,INDEX, THEORY AND BIBLIOGRAPHY)
This document is a project report on phase contrast microscopy submitted by a student named Jaybhardhan Bain. It includes an introduction describing how phase contrast microscopy allows viewing of unstained living cells by converting phase shifts in light to brightness changes. It then provides a brief history of phase contrast microscopy, noting it was invented in 1934 by Frits Zernike. It explains the principle of how phase contrast microscopy works by manipulating scattered and background light rays to increase contrast in the image.
Light is electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye that has wavelengths between 380-740 nm. It exhibits properties of both waves and particles. Light travels at 299,792,458 m/s in a vacuum. It can be produced through various mechanisms and sources like the sun. Theories of light include the particle theory, wave theory, and quantum theory. Light behaves as both a wave and particle and can be reflected, exhibiting the laws of reflection.
An optical prism is a transparent optical element with flat, polished surfaces that refract light. At least one surface must be angled—elements with two parallel surfaces are not prisms. The traditional geometrical shape of an optical prism is that of a triangular prism with a triangular base and rectangular sides, and in colloquial use "prism" usually refers to this type. Some types of optical prism are not in fact in the shape of geometric prisms. Prisms can be made from any material that is transparent to the wavelengths for which they are designed. Typical materials include glass, plastic, and fluorite.
Similar to Diffraction-Fraunhofer Diffraction (20)
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
ANAMOLOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS.pptxRASHMI M G
Abnormal or anomalous secondary growth in plants. It defines secondary growth as an increase in plant girth due to vascular cambium or cork cambium. Anomalous secondary growth does not follow the normal pattern of a single vascular cambium producing xylem internally and phloem externally.
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
3. 7.Distinction between fresnel and fraunhofer diffraction
8.Fraunhofer Diffraction
9.Far Field
10.Focal planeof a positive lens as the far field plane
11.Diffraction due to a Single Slit
12.Circular Aperture
4. 13.Limit of Resolution
14.Resolving Power of Grating
15.Determination of wavelength using Diffraction Grating
16.Fraunhofer Diffraction due to double slit
17.Fraunhofer diffraction due to n slits
5. 1.Introduction
Diffraction refers to various phenomena that occur when a wave
encounters an obstacle or a slit. It is defined as the bending of waves
around the corners of an obstacle or through an aperture into the
region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle/aperture. The
diffracting object or aperture effectively becomes a secondary source
of the propagating wave. Italian scientist Francesco Maria Grimaldi
coined the word "diffraction" and was the first to record accurate
observations of the phenomenon in 1660.
6. 2.Examples
The effects of diffraction are often seen in everyday life. The most
striking examples of diffraction are those that involve light; for
example, the closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a
diffraction grating to form the familiar rainbow pattern seen when
looking at a disc. This principle can be extended to engineer a
grating with a structure such that it will produce any diffraction
pattern desired; the hologram on a credit card is an example.
8. 3.History
Thomas Young performed a celebrated experiment in 1803
demonstrating interference from two closely spaced slits.Explaining
his results by interference of the waves emanating from the two
different slits, he deduced that light must propagate as waves.
Augustin-Jean Fresnel did more definitive studies and calculations of
diffraction, made public in 1815 and 1818 and thereby gave great
support to the wave theory of light that had been advanced by
Christiaan Huygens and reinvigorated by Young, against Newton's
particle theory.
9. 4.Mechanism-Ancient View
In traditional classical physics diffraction arises because of the way in which waves propagate;
this is described by the Huygens–Fresnel principle and the principle of superposition of waves.
The propagation of a wave can be visualized by considering every particle of the transmitted
medium on a wavefront as a point source for a secondary spherical wave. The wave
displacement at any subsequent point is the sum of these secondary waves. When waves are
added together, their sum is determined by the relative phases as well as the amplitudes of the
individual waves so that the summed amplitude of the waves can have any value between zero
and the sum of the individual amplitudes. Hence, diffraction patterns usually have a series of
maxima and minima.
10. 5.Mechanism-Modern Quantum Mechanical View
In the modern quantum mechanical understanding of light propagation through a slit (or
slits) every photon has what is known as a wavefunction which describes its path from the
emitter through the slit to the screen. The wavefunction — the path the photon will take —
is determined by the physical surroundings such as slit geometry, screen distance and
initial conditions when the photon is created. In important experimentsthe existence of the
photon's wavefunction was demonstrated. In the quantum approach the diffraction pattern
is created by the distribution of paths, the observation of light and dark bands is the
presence or absence of photons in these areas (no interference!). The quantum approach
has some striking similarities to the Huygens-Fresnel principle; in that principle the light
becomes a series of individually distributed light sources across the slit which is similar to
the limited number of paths (or wave functions) available for the photons to travel through
the slit.
11. 6.Fresnel Diffraction
In optics, the Fresnel diffraction equation for near-field diffraction
is an approximation of the Kirchhoff–Fresnel diffraction that can be
applied to the propagation of waves in the near field. It is used to
calculate the diffraction pattern created by waves passing through
an aperture or around an object, when viewed from relatively close
to the object. In contrast the diffraction pattern in the far field
region is given by the Fraunhofer diffraction equation.
18. Comparison between the diffraction pattern obtained with the Rayleigh-
Sommerfeld equation, the (paraxial) Fresnel approximation, and the (far-field)
Fraunhofer approximation.
21. 8.Fraunhofer diffraction
In optics, the Fraunhofer diffraction equation is used to model the diffraction of waves
when the diffraction pattern is viewed at a long distance from the diffracting object, and
also when it is viewed at the focal plane of an imaging lens. In contrast, the diffraction
pattern created near the object, in the near field region, is given by the Fresnel diffraction
equation.
The equation was named in honor of Joseph von Fraunhofer although he was not actually
involved in the development of the theory
A detailed mathematical treatment of Fraunhofer diffraction is given in Fraunhofer
diffraction equation.
22.
23. 9.Far Field
When the distance between the aperture and the plane of observation (on which the
diffracted pattern is observed) is large enough so that the optical path lengths from edges
of the aperture to a point of observation differ much less than the wavelength of the light,
then propagation paths for individual wavelets from every point on the aperture to the
point of observation can be treated as parallel. This is often known as the far field
24. 10.Focal plane of a positive lens as the far field
plane
In the far field, propagation paths for individual wavelets from every point on the aperture
to a point of observation are approximately parallel, and the positive lens (focusing lens)
focuses parallel rays toward the lens to a point on the focal plane (the focus point position
depends on the angle of the parallel rays with respect to the optical axis). So, if the focal
length of the lens is sufficiently large such that differences between electric field
orientations for wavelets can be ignored at the focus, then the lens practically makes the
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern on its focal plane as the parallel rays meet each other at the
focus
25.
26. 11.Diffraction due to a Single Slit
In the single slit diffraction experiment, we can observe the bending
phenomenon of light or diffraction that causes light from a coherent
source interfere with itself and produce a distinctive pattern on the
screen called the diffraction pattern. Diffraction is evident when
the sources are small enough that they are relatively the size of the
wavelength of light. You can see this effect in the diagram below.
For large slits, the spreading out is small and generally
unnoticeable.
39. When light from a point source passes through a small circular aperture, it does not
produce a bright dot as an image, but rather a diffuse circular disc known as Airy's disc
surrounded by much fainter concentric circular rings. This example of diffraction is of
great importance because the eye and many optical instruments have circular apertures. If
this smearing of the image of the point source is larger that that produced by the
aberrations of the system, the imaging process is said to be diffraction-limited, and that is
the best that can be done with that size aperture. This limitation on the resolution of
images is quantified in terms of the Rayleigh criterion so that the limiting resolution of a
system can be calculated.
40. The aperture diffraction pattern above was photographed with Fuji
Sensia 100ASA slide film and then digitized. With the time
exposure necessary to show the side lobes, the central peak was
washed out nearly white. The only retouching of the digital image
was to paint in the washed out part of the central maximum (Airy's
disc). The pinhole was made by placing aluminum foil on a glass
plate, sticking a straight pin into the aluminum foil, and then
rotating the foil. Several pinholes were made, and this one was the
closest to being round.
41.
42. 13.Limit of Resolution
The limit of resolution (or resolving power) is a measure of the ability of the objective lens
to separate in the image adjacent details that are present in the object. It is the distance
between two points in the object that are just resolved in the image. The resolving power
of an optical system is ultimately limited by diffraction by the aperture. Thus an optical
system cannot form a perfect image of a point.
For resolution to occur, at least the direct beam and the first-order diffracted beam must be
collected by the objective. If the lens aperture is too small, only the direct beam is
collected and the resolution is lost.
43.
44. Consider a grating of spacing d illuminated by light of wavelength λ, at an angle of
incidence i.
48. Airy Discs
When light from the various points of a specimen passes through the objective and an
image is created, the various points in the specimen appear as small patterns in the image.
These are known as Airy discs. The phenomenon is caused by diffraction of light as it
passes through the circular aperture of the objective.
Airy discs consist of small, concentric light and dark circles. The smaller the Airy discs
projected by an objective in forming the image, the more detail of the specimen is
discernible. Objective lenses of higher numerical aperture are capable of producing smaller
Airy discs, and therefore can distinguish finer detail in the specimen.
The limit at which two Airy discs can be resolved into separate entities is often called the
Rayleigh criterion. This is when the first diffraction minimum of the image of one source
point coincides with the maximum of another.
49.
50. From the equation it can be seen that the radius of the central
maximum is directly proportional to λ/d. So, the maximum is more
spread out for longer wavelengths and/or smaller apertures.
The primary minimum sets a limit to the useful magnification of the
objective lens. A point source of light produced by the lens is
always seen as a central spot, and second and higher order maxima,
which is only avoided if the lens is of infinite diameter. Two objects
separated by a distance less than θR cannot be resolved.
51. 14.Resolving Power of Grating
The capacity of an optical instrument to show separate images of
very closely placed two objects is called resolving power. The
resolving power of a diffraction grating is defined as its ability to
form separate diffraction maxima of two closely separated wave
lengths.It is defined as the capacity of a grating to form separate
diffraction maxima of two wavelengths which are very close to
each other.
52.
53.
54.
55. 15.Determination of wavelength of light using
Diffraction Grating
Young's Double-Slit Experiment verifies that light is a wave simply
because of the bright and dark fringes that appear on a screen. It is
the constructive and destructive interference of light waves that
cause such fringes.
Constructive Interference:The following two waves (Fig. 1) that
have the same wavelength and go to maximum and minimum
together are called coherent waves. Coherent waves help each
other's effect, add constructively, and cause constructive
interference. They form a bright fringe.
56.
57. Destructive Interference of Waves
In Fig. 2 however, the situation is different. When the wave with
amplitude A1 is at its maximum, the wave with amplitude A2 is at its
minimum and they work completely against each other resulting in a
wave with amplitude A2 - A1. These two completely out of phase waves
interfere destructively. If A2 = A1, they form a dark fringe.
The bright and dark fringes in Young's experiment follow these
formulas:
Bright Fringes: d sinθk = k λ where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Dark Fringes: d sinθk = (k - 1/2 ) λ where k = 1, 2, 3, ...
59. Check the following statement for correctness based on the above
figure.
Light rays going to D2 from S1 and S2 are 3(0.5λ) out of phase
(same as being 0.5λ out of phase) and therefore form a dark fringe.
Light rays going to B1 from S1 and S2 are 2(0.5λ) out of phase
(same as being in phase) and therefore form a bright fringe.
Note that SBo is the centerline.
Going from a dark or bright fringe to its next fringe changes the
distance difference by 0.5λ.
60. Diffraction grating is a thin film of clear glass or plastic that has a large number of lines
per (mm) drawn on it. A typical grating has density of 250 lines/mm. Using more
expensive laser techniques, it is possible to create line densities of 3000 lines/mm or
higher. When light from a bright and small source passes through a diffraction grating, it
generates a large number of sources at the grating. The very thin space between every two
adjacent lines of the grating becomes an independent source. These sources are coherent
sources meaning that they emit in phase waves with the same wavelength. These sources
act independently such that each source sends out waves in all directions. On a screen a
distance D away, points can be found whose distance differences from these sources are
different multiples of λ causing bright fringes. One difference between the interference of
many slits (diffraction grating) and double-slit (Young's Experiment) is that a diffraction
grating makes a number of principle maxima along with with lower intensity maxima in
between. The principal maxima occur on both sides of the central maximum for which a
formula similar to Young's formula holds true.
61.
62. D = the distance from the grating to the screen
d = the spacing between every two lines (same as every two
sources)
If there are N lines per mm of the grating, then d, the space
between every two adjacent lines or (every two adjacent sources) is
d=1/N or N=1/d
The diffraction grating formula for the principal maxima
is:
d sin θk = k λ where k = 1, 2, 3, ...
63. A.Determination of (Lines/mm) of the Diffraction Grating:
a)Fix a laser pointer and the diffraction grating (placed in a target holder) on an optical bench as
shown. Try to make a distance D (grating to wall) of about 1.5m.
64. b)Make sure that the direction of the optical bench is normal (at right angle) to the wall and that
you are measuring the perpendicular distance D from the grating to the wall.
c)Measure y1 , y2 , and D with the precision of mm and record the values.
d)Angles θ1 and θ2 may now be calculated from the measured values as follows:
65. e)Use the tan-1 function (built-in in your calculator) to calculate θ1 and θ2 .
f )Use angles θ1 and θ2 along with the wavelength given on your laser pointer (in meters)
and the diffraction grating formula to calculate d, the distance between adjacent spaces
(sources) on the grating. Find d once on the basis of k = 1 and once on the basis of k =2 .
Theoretically, the two values you obtain for d must be equal; however, due to
measurement errors, they might be slightly different. Find an average value for d in
meters.
g)From d, determine N, the number of lines per mm of the grating.
66. 2.Red and Violet Wavelengths:
a)Hold a diffraction grating close to your eye and look at the objects around you.You will
see a continuous spectrum of rainbow colors around bright objects. The diffraction grating
separates the colors of white light similar to what a prism does. White light coming from a
bright object separates into its constituent colors as it passes thru the grating and reaches
your eyes. If you are looking through a grating at a bright spot such as the filament of a lit
light bulb, you will be able to direct another person to move to the left or right and mark
the ends of the spectrum you are observing. By measuring the distance between each end
of the spectrum and the bright filament Yviolet or Yred and D the distance from the filament
to the grating (held by you), it is possible to calculate the angles θviolet and θred. Then, by
using the formula d sin θk = k λ , the corresponding wavelengths for violet and red light
can be determined.
Note that through the grating you will see more than one rainbow band. You will see two
or three bands on each side of the center. If you use the 1st band to one side of the center,
then k = 1. For the 2nd band k = 2, and for the 3rd band k = 3.
67. b)Place the optical bench near the board in your lab or class on a
somewhat high table.
c)Make sure that the optical bench stays at right angle to the board
and mount a light-bulb so that it almost touches the board. Turn the
light bulb on.
d)Hold a diffraction grating at a fixed distance D from the lit bulb.
When you look into the grating, your line of sight must be normal to
the board. A diagram of the set-up is shown below:
68. where V (in the diagram) is the Violet End of the spectrum, and R the Red end of it. Also
BV is the same as Y1V , the distance from the bulb to the violet end of the first fringe.
Similarly, BR is the same as Y1R, the distance from the bulb to the red end of the first
fringe.
69. a)While looking into the grating and observing the spectrum, guide
your partner to the extreme ends of the spectrum so that he/she can
mark those points on the board. Your partner must have previously
observed the same spectrum and have a good understanding of the
experimental procedure.
b)When those points are marked, double-check their precision and
measure distances BV and BR to the nearest cm as shown in the
figure. Also measure D.
c)From the data collected, calculate angles θviolet and θred and use
each in the above-mentioned formula separately to find the
corresponding wavelengths.
70. 16.Fraunhofer Diffraction due to Double Slit
In the double-slit experiment, the two slits are illuminated by a single light beam. If the
width of the slits is small enough (less than the wavelength of the light), the slits diffract
the light into cylindrical waves. These two cylindrical wavefronts are superimposed, and
the amplitude, and therefore the intensity, at any point in the combined wavefronts
depends on both the magnitude and the phase of the two wavefronts.These fringes are
often known as Young's fringes.
The angular spacing of the fringes is given by:
71. The spacing of the fringes at a distance z from the slits is given by
where d is the separation of the slits.
The fringes in the picture were obtained using the yellow light from a sodium light
(wavelength = 589 nm), with slits separated by 0.25 mm, and projected directly onto the
image plane of a digital camera.
Double-slit interference fringes can be observed by cutting two slits in a piece of card,
illuminating with a laser pointer, and observing the diffracted light at a distance of 1 m. If
the slit separation is 0.5 mm, and the wavelength of the laser is 600 nm, then the spacing
of the fringes viewed at a distance of 1 m would be 1.2 mm.
75. Diffraction by a Grating
A grating is defined in Born and Wolf as "any arrangement which
imposes on an incident wave a periodic variation of amplitude or
phase, or both".
A grating whose elements are separated by S diffracts a normally
incident beam of light into a set of beams, at angles θn given by:
This is known as the grating equation. The finer the grating spacing, the greater the
angular separation of the diffracted beams.
76. If the light is incident at an angle θ0, the grating equation is:
The detailed structure of the repeating pattern determines the form of the
individual diffracted beams, as well as their relative intensity while the
grating spacing always determines the angles of the diffracted beams.
The image on the right shows a laser beam diffracted by a grating into n
= 0, and ±1 beams. The angles of the first order beams are about 20°; if
we assume the wavelength of the laser beam is 600 nm, we can infer that
the grating spacing is about 1.8 μm.
77. 17.Fraunhofer Diffraction due to n slits(Grating)
An arrangement consisting of large number of parallel slits of the same width and
separated by equal opaque spaces is known as Diffraction grating.
Gratings are constructed by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a transparent material such
as glass, with a fine diamond point. The ruled lines are opaque to light while the space
between any two lines is transparent to light and acts as a slit. This is known as plane
transmission grating. When the spacing between the lines is of the order of the wavelength
of light, then an appreciable deviation of the light is produced.
Theory: A section of a plane transmission grating AB placed perpendicular to the plane of
the paper is as shown in the figure.