Abstract Antenna for the 88-108MHz Very high frequency (VHF) broadcast audio frequency-modulation (FM) band. The antenna is intended tofit in the flat area inside the head-band of an over ear hearing-protector headset. The space for the antenna is limited by an existing head-band design, where the unused internal area is the space studied in this thesis. A genetic algorithm is described for the multiple objective optimization of the antenna matching and radiation pattern optimization. The results of multiple genetic algorithm evaluations are described, and possible further improvements outlined. Progress is made on the development of the antenna. The antenna radiation pattern is evolved in desirable way, but a difficulty in solving the antenna matching problem is identified. Research for resolving the antenna matching problem is described in this paper Keywords: Antenna, Modulation, Genetic Algorithm, Frequency, Head-Band, Very High Frequency Broadcast.
Frequency-independent (FI) antennas are radiating structures capable of maintaining consistent impedance and pattern characteristics over multiple-decade bandwidths. Their finite size limits the lowest frequency of operation, and the finite precision of the center region bounds the highest frequency of operation.
Frequency-independent (FI) antennas are radiating structures capable of maintaining consistent impedance and pattern characteristics over multiple-decade bandwidths. Their finite size limits the lowest frequency of operation, and the finite precision of the center region bounds the highest frequency of operation.
A broadband antenna means the antenna with wideband radiation characteristics. To make a broadband antenna, we can use a helical, a biconical, a sleeve, a spiral, and a log-periodic antenna.
Lens antenna is a microwave antenna in which a dielectric lens is placed in front of the dipole or horn radiator to concentrate the radiated energy into a narrow beam or to focus received energy on the receiving dipole or horn.
A high gain antenna is the antenna with very high antenna gain. We can consider antenna gain as concentration ratio of input power. Using Yagi-Uda array, traveling wave, aperture, and parabolic reflector, we can design a high gain antenna.
Microstrip patch antenna with defected ground structure for biomedical applic...journalBEEI
Proper narrowband antenna design for wearable devices in the biomedical application is a significant field of research interest. In this work, defected ground structure-based microstrip patch antenna has been proposed that can work for narrowband applications. The proposed antenna works exactly for a single channel of ISM band. The resonant frequency of the antenna is 2.45 GHz with a return loss of around -30 dB. The -10dB impedance bandwidth of the antenna is 20 MHz (2.442-2.462 GHz), which is the bandwidth of channel 9 in ISM band. The antenna has achieved a high gain of 7.04 dBi with an increase of 17.63% antenna efficiency in terms of realized gain by using defected ground structure. Three linear vector arrays of arrangement 1 2, 1 4 and 1 8 have been designed to validate the proposed antenna performances as an array. The proposed antenna is light weighted, low cost, easy to fabricate and with better performances that makes it suitable for biomedical WLAN applications.
A broadband antenna means the antenna with wideband radiation characteristics. To make a broadband antenna, we can use a helical, a biconical, a sleeve, a spiral, and a log-periodic antenna.
Lens antenna is a microwave antenna in which a dielectric lens is placed in front of the dipole or horn radiator to concentrate the radiated energy into a narrow beam or to focus received energy on the receiving dipole or horn.
A high gain antenna is the antenna with very high antenna gain. We can consider antenna gain as concentration ratio of input power. Using Yagi-Uda array, traveling wave, aperture, and parabolic reflector, we can design a high gain antenna.
Microstrip patch antenna with defected ground structure for biomedical applic...journalBEEI
Proper narrowband antenna design for wearable devices in the biomedical application is a significant field of research interest. In this work, defected ground structure-based microstrip patch antenna has been proposed that can work for narrowband applications. The proposed antenna works exactly for a single channel of ISM band. The resonant frequency of the antenna is 2.45 GHz with a return loss of around -30 dB. The -10dB impedance bandwidth of the antenna is 20 MHz (2.442-2.462 GHz), which is the bandwidth of channel 9 in ISM band. The antenna has achieved a high gain of 7.04 dBi with an increase of 17.63% antenna efficiency in terms of realized gain by using defected ground structure. Three linear vector arrays of arrangement 1 2, 1 4 and 1 8 have been designed to validate the proposed antenna performances as an array. The proposed antenna is light weighted, low cost, easy to fabricate and with better performances that makes it suitable for biomedical WLAN applications.
This paper presents the idea of recent developments and advancements in the field of wireless technology to realize high speed communications which is performed in wideband technology .In this paper the wideband patch antenna is designed and fabricated.
A small H-shaped microstrip patch antenna (MPA) with enhanced bandwidth is presented. The H-shaped antenna is first studied and then fully simulated by HFSS. A dual U slot H patch configuration is proposed to increase the narrow bandwidth, radiation efficiency and directivity. A novel H-shaped patch antenna suitable for wireless and satellite communications is presented. This paper presents the dual U slot H-shaped microstrip patch antenna feed by transmission line. The decrease in the prices of handheld devices and services has made available on the move internet and web services facility to the customers, small antennas requirement are increasing. In this paper H-shaped patch antenna is designed using FR4 substrate. The proposed modified H shaped antenna is designed and simulated using HFSS and caters to various wireless applications such as WiMAX, Wi-Fi, UMTS and Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) e.g. T V, etc.
Multiband antenna using stacked series array for Ka-Band applicationjournalBEEI
In this paper, a multiband stack series array antenna is designed in order to attain solutions for the future 28 GHz Ka-band application. Double layer substrate Technology is utilized to accomplish multiple resonant frequencies with higher data transfer capacities due to high bandwidth. The designed antenna is dependent on twofold layer consisting patches and resonators in different layers stacked together. The designed multiband antennas can resonate at single band of
(28 GHz), dual band of (28 and 30 GHz) and triple band of (24.18, 26 and 28.453). The results achieved in the simulation are later fabricated and tested. The test result illustrates that the antennas have wide bandwidth, high gain and even higher efficiencies. All the proposed antenna configurations have demonstrated a decent possibility for 5G millimeter wave (mmwave) application.
Design of high gain dual T-shaped stub antenna for satellite communicationTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
The ultra wide band (UWB) antennas play a vital role in supporting different wireless standards and are suitable for wide variety of applications. This paper is aimed to present a novel UWB dual notch microstrip antenna with modified ground plane. The antenna is designed to operate in UWB ranging from 2 GHz to 12 GHz with multi band operation. This will help in operating the antenna for different operations independently. The proposed structure will operate in two notch bands 3.3-4 GHz (Wi-MAX), 5.05-5.9 GHz (WLAN) and the structure is suitable for long distance communications because of its increased directivity. The structure can also be used for X-Band applications for various applications of traffic control, weather forecasting and vehicle speed detection systems. It is observed that, the proposed structure is offering a gain of 5.2 dBi with improved directivity with a beam width of 42.230. This makes the antenna structure suitable for long distance satellite communications. The antenna is supporting the circular polarization at higher the frequencies and can be useful for the upcoming 5G mobile applications. Moreover, the proposed structure offers the less interference at the receiver. The structure is found to be smaller in dimensions, easily fabricated at low costs and can be integrated into any compact wireless devices. The structure is simulated using a commercially available software Ansys-HFSS and is analyzed.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
An Internal Wideband Monopole Antenna for UMTS/WLAN Dual-Mode Mobile PhoneSaou-Wen Su
An internal wideband metal-plate monopole antenna for mobile phone applications is presented. The antenna is easily fabricated by bending a single metal plate and suitable to be embedded within the casing of a mobile phone as an internal antenna. Further, the antenna shows a wide operating bandwidth of about 5 GHz (about 1.8−6.7 GHz), making it easy to cover the UMTS band and the 2.4/5.2/5.8 GHz WLAN bands for mobile/WLAN dual-mode operation for a mobile phone.
Similar to Developing an actual very high frequency antenna using genetic algorithms (20)
Mechanical properties of hybrid fiber reinforced concrete for pavementseSAT Journals
Abstract
The effect of addition of mono fibers and hybrid fibers on the mechanical properties of concrete mixture is studied in the present
investigation. Steel fibers of 1% and polypropylene fibers 0.036% were added individually to the concrete mixture as mono fibers and
then they were added together to form a hybrid fiber reinforced concrete. Mechanical properties such as compressive, split tensile and
flexural strength were determined. The results show that hybrid fibers improve the compressive strength marginally as compared to
mono fibers. Whereas, hybridization improves split tensile strength and flexural strength noticeably.
Keywords:-Hybridization, mono fibers, steel fiber, polypropylene fiber, Improvement in mechanical properties.
Material management in construction – a case studyeSAT Journals
Abstract
The objective of the present study is to understand about all the problems occurring in the company because of improper application
of material management. In construction project operation, often there is a project cost variance in terms of the material, equipments,
manpower, subcontractor, overhead cost, and general condition. Material is the main component in construction projects. Therefore,
if the material management is not properly managed it will create a project cost variance. Project cost can be controlled by taking
corrective actions towards the cost variance. Therefore a methodology is used to diagnose and evaluate the procurement process
involved in material management and launch a continuous improvement was developed and applied. A thorough study was carried
out along with study of cases, surveys and interviews to professionals involved in this area. As a result, a methodology for diagnosis
and improvement was proposed and tested in selected projects. The results obtained show that the main problem of procurement is
related to schedule delays and lack of specified quality for the project. To prevent this situation it is often necessary to dedicate
important resources like money, personnel, time, etc. To monitor and control the process. A great potential for improvement was
detected if state of the art technologies such as, electronic mail, electronic data interchange (EDI), and analysis were applied to the
procurement process. These helped to eliminate the root causes for many types of problems that were detected.
Managing drought short term strategies in semi arid regions a case studyeSAT Journals
Abstract
Drought management needs multidisciplinary action. Interdisciplinary efforts among the experts in various fields of the droughts
prone areas are helpful to achieve tangible and permanent solution for this recurring problem. The Gulbarga district having the total
area around 16, 240 sq.km, and accounts 8.45 per cent of the Karnataka state area. The district has been situated with latitude 17º 19'
60" North and longitude of 76 º 49' 60" east. The district is situated entirely on the Deccan plateau positioned at a height of 300 to
750 m above MSL. Sub-tropical, semi-arid type is one among the drought prone districts of Karnataka State. The drought
management is very important for a district like Gulbarga. In this paper various short term strategies are discussed to mitigate the
drought condition in the district.
Keywords: Drought, South-West monsoon, Semi-Arid, Rainfall, Strategies etc.
Life cycle cost analysis of overlay for an urban road in bangaloreeSAT Journals
Abstract
Pavements are subjected to severe condition of stresses and weathering effects from the day they are constructed and opened to traffic
mainly due to its fatigue behavior and environmental effects. Therefore, pavement rehabilitation is one of the most important
components of entire road systems. This paper highlights the design of concrete pavement with added mono fibers like polypropylene,
steel and hybrid fibres for a widened portion of existing concrete pavement and various overlay alternatives for an existing
bituminous pavement in an urban road in Bangalore. Along with this, Life cycle cost analyses at these sections are done by Net
Present Value (NPV) method to identify the most feasible option. The results show that though the initial cost of construction of
concrete overlay is high, over a period of time it prove to be better than the bituminous overlay considering the whole life cycle cost.
The economic analysis also indicates that, out of the three fibre options, hybrid reinforced concrete would be economical without
compromising the performance of the pavement.
Keywords: - Fatigue, Life cycle cost analysis, Net Present Value method, Overlay, Rehabilitation
Laboratory studies of dense bituminous mixes ii with reclaimed asphalt materialseSAT Journals
Abstract
The issue of growing demand on our nation’s roadways over that past couple of decades, decreasing budgetary funds, and the need to
provide a safe, efficient, and cost effective roadway system has led to a dramatic increase in the need to rehabilitate our existing
pavements and the issue of building sustainable road infrastructure in India. With these emergency of the mentioned needs and this
are today’s burning issue and has become the purpose of the study.
In the present study, the samples of existing bituminous layer materials were collected from NH-48(Devahalli to Hassan) site.The
mixtures were designed by Marshall Method as per Asphalt institute (MS-II) at 20% and 30% Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP).
RAP material was blended with virgin aggregate such that all specimens tested for the, Dense Bituminous Macadam-II (DBM-II)
gradation as per Ministry of Roads, Transport, and Highways (MoRT&H) and cost analysis were carried out to know the economics.
Laboratory results and analysis showed the use of recycled materials showed significant variability in Marshall Stability, and the
variability increased with the increase in RAP content. The saving can be realized from utilization of recycled materials as per the
methodology, the reduction in the total cost is 19%, 30%, comparing with the virgin mixes.
Keywords: Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement, Marshall Stability, MS-II, Dense Bituminous Macadam-II
Laboratory investigation of expansive soil stabilized with natural inorganic ...eSAT Journals
Abstract
Soil stabilization has proven to be one of the oldest techniques to improve the soil properties. Literature review conducted revealed
that uses of natural inorganic stabilizers are found to be one of the best options for soil stabilization. In this regard an attempt has
been made to evaluate the influence of RBI-81 stabilizer on properties of black cotton soil through laboratory investigations. Black
cotton soil with varying percentages of RBI-81 viz., 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, and 2.5 percent were studied for moisture density relationships
and strength behaviour of soils. Also the effect of curing period was evaluated as literature review clearly emphasized the strength
gain of soils stabilized with RBI-81 over a period of time. The results obtained shows that the unconfined compressive strength of
specimens treated with RBI-81 increased approximately by 250% for a curing period of 28 days as compared to virgin soil. Further
the CBR value improved approximately by 400%. The studies indicated an increasing trend for soil strength behaviour with
increasing percentage of RBI-81 suggesting its potential applications in soil stabilization.
Influence of reinforcement on the behavior of hollow concrete block masonry p...eSAT Journals
Abstract
Reinforced masonry was developed to exploit the strength potential of masonry and to solve its lack of tensile strength. Experimental
and analytical studies have been carried out to investigate the effect of reinforcement on the behavior of hollow concrete block
masonry prisms under compression and to predict ultimate failure compressive strength. In the numerical program, three dimensional
non-linear finite elements (FE) model based on the micro-modeling approach is developed for both unreinforced and reinforced
masonry prisms using ANSYS (14.5). The proposed FE model uses multi-linear stress-strain relationships to model the non-linear
behavior of hollow concrete block, mortar, and grout. Willam-Warnke’s five parameter failure theory has been adopted to model the
failure of masonry materials. The comparison of the numerical and experimental results indicates that the FE models can successfully
capture the highly nonlinear behavior of the physical specimens and accurately predict their strength and failure mechanisms.
Keywords: Structural masonry, Hollow concrete block prism, grout, Compression failure, Finite element method,
Numerical modeling.
Influence of compaction energy on soil stabilized with chemical stabilizereSAT Journals
Abstract
Increase in traffic along with heavier magnitude of wheel loads cause rapid deterioration in pavements. There is a need to improve
density, strength of soil subgrade and other pavement layers. In this study an attempt is made to improve the properties of locally
available loamy soil using twin approaches viz., i) increasing the compaction of soil and ii) treating the soil with chemical stabilizer.
Laboratory studies are carried out on both untreated and treated soil samples compacted by different compaction efforts. Studies
show that increase in compaction effort results in increase in density of soil. However in soil treated with chemical stabilizer, rate of
increase in density is not significant. The soil treated with chemical stabilizer exhibits improvement in both strength and performance
properties.
Keywords: compaction, density, subgradestabilization, resilient modulus
Geographical information system (gis) for water resources managementeSAT Journals
Abstract
Water resources projects are inherited with overlapping and at times conflicting objectives. These projects are often of varied sizes
ranging from major projects with command areas of millions of hectares to very small projects implemented at the local level. Thus,
in all these projects there is seldom proper coordination which is essential for ensuring collective sustainability.
Integrated watershed development and management is the accepted answer but in turn requires a comprehensive framework that can
enable planning process involving all the stakeholders at different levels and scales is compulsory. Such a unified hydrological
framework is essential to evaluate the cause and effect of all the proposed actions within the drainage basins.
The present paper describes a hydrological framework developed in the form of a Hydrologic Information System (HIS) which is
intended to meet the specific information needs of the various line departments of a typical State connected with water related aspects.
The HIS consist of a hydrologic information database coupled with tools for collating primary and secondary data and tools for
analyzing and visualizing the data and information. The HIS also incorporates hydrological model base for indirect assessment of
various entities of water balance in space and time. The framework would be maintained and updated to reflect fully the most
accurate ground truth data and the infrastructure requirements for planning and management.
Keywords: Hydrological Information System (HIS); WebGIS; Data Model; Web Mapping Services
Forest type mapping of bidar forest division, karnataka using geoinformatics ...eSAT Journals
Abstract
The study demonstrate the potentiality of satellite remote sensing technique for the generation of baseline information on forest types
including tree plantation details in Bidar forest division, Karnataka covering an area of 5814.60Sq.Kms. The Total Area of Bidar
forest division is 5814Sq.Kms analysis of the satellite data in the study area reveals that about 84% of the total area is Covered by
crop land, 1.778% of the area is covered by dry deciduous forest, 1.38 % of mixed plantation, which is very threatening to the
environmental stability of the forest, future plantation site has been mapped. With the use of latest Geo-informatics technology proper
and exact condition of the trees can be observed and necessary precautions can be taken for future plantation works in an appropriate
manner
Keywords:-RS, GIS, GPS, Forest Type, Tree Plantation
Factors influencing compressive strength of geopolymer concreteeSAT Journals
Abstract
To study effects of several factors on the properties of fly ash based geopolymer concrete on the compressive strength and also the
cost comparison with the normal concrete. The test variables were molarities of sodium hydroxide(NaOH) 8M,14M and 16M, ratio of
NaOH to sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) 1, 1.5, 2 and 2.5, alkaline liquid to fly ash ratio 0.35 and 0.40 and replacement of water in
Na2SiO3 solution by 10%, 20% and 30% were used in the present study. The test results indicated that the highest compressive
strength 54 MPa was observed for 16M of NaOH, ratio of NaOH to Na2SiO3 2.5 and alkaline liquid to fly ash ratio of 0.35. Lowest
compressive strength of 27 MPa was observed for 8M of NaOH, ratio of NaOH to Na2SiO3 is 1 and alkaline liquid to fly ash ratio of
0.40. Alkaline liquid to fly ash ratio of 0.35, water replacement of 10% and 30% for 8 and 16 molarity of NaOH and has resulted in
compressive strength of 36 MPa and 20 MPa respectively. Superplasticiser dosage of 2 % by weight of fly ash has given higher
strength in all cases.
Keywords: compressive strength, alkaline liquid, fly ash
Experimental investigation on circular hollow steel columns in filled with li...eSAT Journals
Abstract
Composite Circular hollow Steel tubes with and without GFRP infill for three different grades of Light weight concrete are tested for
ultimate load capacity and axial shortening , under Cyclic loading. Steel tubes are compared for different lengths, cross sections and
thickness. Specimens were tested separately after adopting Taguchi’s L9 (Latin Squares) Orthogonal array in order to save the initial
experimental cost on number of specimens and experimental duration. Analysis was carried out using ANN (Artificial Neural
Network) technique with the assistance of Mini Tab- a statistical soft tool. Comparison for predicted, experimental & ANN output is
obtained from linear regression plots. From this research study, it can be concluded that *Cross sectional area of steel tube has most
significant effect on ultimate load carrying capacity, *as length of steel tube increased- load carrying capacity decreased & *ANN
modeling predicted acceptable results. Thus ANN tool can be utilized for predicting ultimate load carrying capacity for composite
columns.
Keywords: Light weight concrete, GFRP, Artificial Neural Network, Linear Regression, Back propagation, orthogonal
Array, Latin Squares
Experimental behavior of circular hsscfrc filled steel tubular columns under ...eSAT Journals
Abstract
This paper presents an outlook on experimental behavior and a comparison with predicted formula on the behaviour of circular
concentrically loaded self-consolidating fibre reinforced concrete filled steel tube columns (HSSCFRC). Forty-five specimens were
tested. The main parameters varied in the tests are: (1) percentage of fiber (2) tube diameter or width to wall thickness ratio (D/t
from 15 to 25) (3) L/d ratio from 2.97 to 7.04 the results from these predictions were compared with the experimental data. The
experimental results) were also validated in this study.
Keywords: Self-compacting concrete; Concrete-filled steel tube; axial load behavior; Ultimate capacity.
Evaluation of punching shear in flat slabseSAT Journals
Abstract
Flat-slab construction has been widely used in construction today because of many advantages that it offers. The basic philosophy in
the design of flat slab is to consider only gravity forces; this method ignores the effect of punching shear due to unbalanced moments
at the slab column junction which is critical. An attempt has been made to generate generalized design sheets which accounts both
punching shear due to gravity loads and unbalanced moments for cases (a) interior column; (b) edge column (bending perpendicular
to shorter edge); (c) edge column (bending parallel to shorter edge); (d) corner column. These design sheets are prepared as per
codal provisions of IS 456-2000. These design sheets will be helpful in calculating the shear reinforcement to be provided at the
critical section which is ignored in many design offices. Apart from its usefulness in evaluating punching shear and the necessary
shear reinforcement, the design sheets developed will enable the designer to fix the depth of flat slab during the initial phase of the
design.
Keywords: Flat slabs, punching shear, unbalanced moment.
Evaluation of performance of intake tower dam for recent earthquake in indiaeSAT Journals
Abstract
Intake towers are typically tall, hollow, reinforced concrete structures and form entrance to reservoir outlet works. A parametric
study on dynamic behavior of circular cylindrical towers can be carried out to study the effect of depth of submergence, wall thickness
and slenderness ratio, and also effect on tower considering dynamic analysis for time history function of different soil condition and
by Goyal and Chopra accounting interaction effects of added hydrodynamic mass of surrounding and inside water in intake tower of
dam
Key words: Hydrodynamic mass, Depth of submergence, Reservoir, Time history analysis,
Evaluation of operational efficiency of urban road network using travel time ...eSAT Journals
Abstract
Efficiency of the road network system is analyzed by travel time reliability measures. The study overlooks on an important measure of
travel time reliability and prioritizing Tiruchirappalli road network. Traffic volume and travel time were collected using license plate
matching method. Travel time measures were estimated from average travel time and 95th travel time. Effect of non-motorized vehicle
on efficiency of road system was evaluated. Relation between buffer time index and traffic volume was created. Travel time model has
been developed and travel time measure was validated. Then service quality of road sections in network were graded based on
travel time reliability measures.
Keywords: Buffer Time Index (BTI); Average Travel Time (ATT); Travel Time Reliability (TTR); Buffer Time (BT).
Estimation of surface runoff in nallur amanikere watershed using scs cn methodeSAT Journals
Abstract
The development of watershed aims at productive utilization of all the available natural resources in the entire area extending from
ridge line to stream outlet. The per capita availability of land for cultivation has been decreasing over the years. Therefore, water and
the related land resources must be developed, utilized and managed in an integrated and comprehensive manner. Remote sensing and
GIS techniques are being increasingly used for planning, management and development of natural resources. The study area, Nallur
Amanikere watershed geographically lies between 110 38’ and 110 52’ N latitude and 760 30’ and 760 50’ E longitude with an area of
415.68 Sq. km. The thematic layers such as land use/land cover and soil maps were derived from remotely sensed data and overlayed
through ArcGIS software to assign the curve number on polygon wise. The daily rainfall data of six rain gauge stations in and around
the watershed (2001-2011) was used to estimate the daily runoff from the watershed using Soil Conservation Service - Curve Number
(SCS-CN) method. The runoff estimated from the SCS-CN model was then used to know the variation of runoff potential with different
land use/land cover and with different soil conditions.
Keywords: Watershed, Nallur watershed, Surface runoff, Rainfall-Runoff, SCS-CN, Remote Sensing, GIS.
Estimation of morphometric parameters and runoff using rs & gis techniqueseSAT Journals
Abstract
Land and water are the two vital natural resources, the optimal management of these resources with minimum adverse environmental
impact are essential not only for sustainable development but also for human survival. Satellite remote sensing with geographic
information system has a pragmatic approach to map and generate spatial input layers of predicting response behavior and yield of
watershed. Hence, in the present study an attempt has been made to understand the hydrological process of the catchment at the
watershed level by drawing the inferences from moprhometric analysis and runoff. The study area chosen for the present study is
Yagachi catchment situated in Chickamaglur and Hassan district lies geographically at a longitude 75⁰52’08.77”E and
13⁰10’50.77”N latitude. It covers an area of 559.493 Sq.km. Morphometric analysis is carried out to estimate morphometric
parameters at Micro-watershed to understand the hydrological response of the catchment at the Micro-watershed level. Daily runoff
is estimated using USDA SCS curve number model for a period of 10 years from 2001 to 2010. The rainfall runoff relationship of the
study shows there is a positive correlation.
Keywords: morphometric analysis, runoff, remote sensing and GIS, SCS - method
-
Effect of variation of plastic hinge length on the results of non linear anal...eSAT Journals
Abstract The nonlinear Static procedure also well known as pushover analysis is method where in monotonically increasing loads are applied to the structure till the structure is unable to resist any further load. It is a popular tool for seismic performance evaluation of existing and new structures. In literature lot of research has been carried out on conventional pushover analysis and after knowing deficiency efforts have been made to improve it. But actual test results to verify the analytically obtained pushover results are rarely available. It has been found that some amount of variation is always expected to exist in seismic demand prediction of pushover analysis. Initial study is carried out by considering user defined hinge properties and default hinge length. Attempt is being made to assess the variation of pushover analysis results by considering user defined hinge properties and various hinge length formulations available in literature and results compared with experimentally obtained results based on test carried out on a G+2 storied RCC framed structure. For the present study two geometric models viz bare frame and rigid frame model is considered and it is found that the results of pushover analysis are very sensitive to geometric model and hinge length adopted. Keywords: Pushover analysis, Base shear, Displacement, hinge length, moment curvature analysis
Effect of use of recycled materials on indirect tensile strength of asphalt c...eSAT Journals
Abstract
Depletion of natural resources and aggregate quarries for the road construction is a serious problem to procure materials. Hence
recycling or reuse of material is beneficial. On emphasizing development in sustainable construction in the present era, recycling of
asphalt pavements is one of the effective and proven rehabilitation processes. For the laboratory investigations reclaimed asphalt
pavement (RAP) from NH-4 and crumb rubber modified binder (CRMB-55) was used. Foundry waste was used as a replacement to
conventional filler. Laboratory tests were conducted on asphalt concrete mixes with 30, 40, 50, and 60 percent replacement with RAP.
These test results were compared with conventional mixes and asphalt concrete mixes with complete binder extracted RAP
aggregates. Mix design was carried out by Marshall Method. The Marshall Tests indicated highest stability values for asphalt
concrete (AC) mixes with 60% RAP. The optimum binder content (OBC) decreased with increased in RAP in AC mixes. The Indirect
Tensile Strength (ITS) for AC mixes with RAP also was found to be higher when compared to conventional AC mixes at 300C.
Keywords: Reclaimed asphalt pavement, Foundry waste, Recycling, Marshall Stability, Indirect tensile strength.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...ssuser7dcef0
Power plants release a large amount of water vapor into the
atmosphere through the stack. The flue gas can be a potential
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Developing an actual very high frequency antenna using genetic algorithms
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DEVELOPING AN ACTUAL VERY HIGH FREQUENCY ANTENNA
USING GENETIC ALGORITHMS
Aatish Gandotra1
, Tejaswi Singh2
1
Student, Electronics and Communication Engineering, Guru Tegh Bahadur Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
2
Student,Computer Science Engineering, Guru Tegh Bahadur Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
Abstract
Antenna for the 88-108MHz Very high frequency (VHF) broadcast audio frequency-modulation (FM) band. The antenna is intended
tofit in the flat area inside the head-band of an over ear hearing-protector headset. The space for the antenna is limited by an
existing head-band design, where the unused internal area is the space studied in this thesis.
A genetic algorithm is described for the multiple objective optimization of the antenna matching and radiation pattern optimization.
The results of multiple genetic algorithm evaluations are described, and possible further improvements outlined. Progress is made
on the development of the antenna. The antenna radiation pattern is evolved in desirable way, but a difficulty in solving the antenna
matching problem is identified. Research for resolving the antenna matching problem is described in this paper
Keywords: Antenna, Modulation, Genetic Algorithm, Frequency, Head-Band, Very High Frequency Broadcast.
--------------------------------------------------------------------***----------------------------------------------------------------------
1. INTRODUCTION
currently there is an increasing trend in the electronics
industry to move from products with functional
protrusions, such as antennas and wires, to integrated designs
which hide or remove these protrusions. This can most clearly
be seen in the mobile handset industry, but the same move
can be seen in otherfields, such as hand-held transceivers,
headset products and hearing protectors. For instance, a
typical mobile handset may previously have featured a
protruding antenna, protruding buttons and wires for
connecting a headset. In the recent years these parts have
been replaced with fully integrated antennas, at touchscreens
and wireless headsets. The main advantages of this are
improved device reliability for the end user and increased
design freedom during the device design phase. The move to
integrated, protrusion-less devices provide many new and
unique design challenges for these internal parts: internal
antennas must still be able to transmit and receive, despite
the new volume restrictions. Button functions must still be
available and mechanically reliable. Headsets must be able to
function despite the lack of wires, etc.
The antenna described in the present work was conceived as a
potential way for a generic FM-radio hearing protector to
move to such an integrated, conformal antenna. Initially, the
free volume between the head-band wires was identified
as the most promising volume to house an antenna. A
flexible printed circuit board was selected as a suitable
manufacturing method for such an integrated antenna, being
compatible with the mechanical stresses of product usage
and promising low unit cost. The obvious design challenge
posed is the shape and small volume of the available volume,
in addition to the nearby metallic head-band wires. These
limitations largely prohibit the use of traditional antenna
designs and design methods.
In order to realize the antenna, an iterative method of antenna
design using the genetic algorithm was identified as the best
candidate for success. This paper aims at describing the
work carried out in order to simulate this antenna, and to
document the results. The antennas described were simulated
using Numerical Electromagnetics Code 2 (NEC2). No
hardware has been built to verify the simulations.
2. BACKGROUND
The primary motivation for this study is that existing antenna
solutions, based on helical or wire whip designs, constitute a
mechanical protrusion from the otherwise smooth features of
a headset. This protrusion is a major source of mechanical
fatigue problems. It is also an annoyance for the end user due
to its ability to get tangled in foreign objects and as a source
of conducted mechanical noises when it makes mechanical
contact with foreign objects.
Figure 2.1: A typical headset of the type studied in this thesis
The type of headset targeted in this study, as shown in figure
2.1, is typically used in an industrial or semi-industrial
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setting, while the end user is carrying out normal work. This
implies that a cylindrical radiation pattern is desired, as the
received signal strength should be stable while working
facing different directions. It also places high demands on
antenna efficiency and radio receiver sensitivity, as he use in
industrial or semi-industrial settings commonly involve
severe multiple-path fading situations.
2.1 VHF Broadcast FM Radio
The international VHF broadcast FM radio band of interest
covers the frequencies 88 – 108 MHz’s This is the frequency
band used by the majority of nations, with the exception
of Japan and some former Soviet republics[11]. Most of the
former Soviet republics have, or are in the process of
converting to the international VHF broadcast band. Table
2.1 outlines the basic parameters of the VHF FM broadcast
system.
Frequency range 88-108 MHz
Polarization Vertical
Channel allocation raster 50 kHz
Channel bandwidth 200 kHz
Modulation limit +/-75 kHz
Pre-emphasis 75/50 µs
2.2 Existing Antenna Solutions
Antennas on existing headsets are usually of the shortened
helical or whip type, with the headset printed circuit boards
forming the ground plane. A typical design has an antenna
which is approximately 18cm in length, and use a 5x5cm
ground plane. At the frequencies of interest, it is expected
that the size limitations of the ground plane pose a major
limitation for total antenna efficiency. At the center
frequency100MHz, the 5x5cm ground plane is approximately
0, 016λ (λ denotes wave-length). While a larger ground plane
would be technically desirable, it is not practical for a real-
life application. The ground plane overall size is limited by
the cup size, which is ultimately determined by the size of
human heads.
2.3 Possible Flexible Antenna
The mechanical opportunity for an antenna was identified as
the space inside the head-band of the headset, from a practical
point of view; an etched flexible printed circuit board (PCB)
antenna hidden inside the head-band appears feasible.
While other antenna types could be considered, for example a
conformal antenna embedded in the ear-cup surface, the
flexible-PCB proves several advantages over other types.
These include a higher dimensional accuracy, ability to
implement any conceivable two-dimensional structure, good
mechanical flexibility and low cost. Since the final antenna
design is unknown at the onset of work, it was decided that
the flexible printed circuit antenna should be the type studied
in this thesis.
The choice of a flexible printed-circuit defines the surface of
the simulation output-space as the surface which may be
covered by the flexible-PCB. It should be noted that in order
to simplify the simulation, the carrier substrate for the
flexible-PCB is not included in this simulations. Since the
carrier substrate consists of a very thin layer of non-
conductive dielectric it is believed that this is an acceptable
simplification.
The flexible-PCB considered consists of essentially two
layers omitting surface treatments, binders etc: an upper
copper layer and a flexible carrier substrate material made of
polyamide plastic. The copper is approximately 0.04mm
thick, while the thickness of the base substrate is
approximately 0.3mm [12]. A typical exible PCB is shown in
figure 2.2. During theproduction process of a flexible PCB,
the top layer is etched away using a photo-lithographic
process, leaving a conductive copper pattern matching that of
the designed artwork. Since the copper layer is very thin, and
the polyamide is exible, the resulting PCB ishighly flexible.
A bend radius down to 5mm can typically be accepted
without severing the copper, even in extended fatiguetesting
situations [12].
This type of flexible-pcb therefore lends itself well to our
planned antenna. The exibility allows for easy
installationduring headset production, is possible to hide
within existing structures, and allows for flexing of the entire
antenna when the user isfitting the headset.
Figure 2.2: A typical flexible-pcb
2.4 Existing headband
The existing head-band studied in this thesis is based on
two stainless steel metal spring wires which constitute the
front and back main members of the head-band. The central
part between the two wires are traditionally separated by
non-conductive plastic, and constitute the space where the
antenna elements may be placed. Due to the close
proximity to the existing antenna - approximately 5cm or 0,
016λ - the wires are expected to form a part of the existing
radiating structure. Due to their placement, they are expected
to primarily impair the radiation pattern symmetry, although
this has not been verified by measurements. See
Figure 2.1 and figure 4.2
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2.5 Radiation Pattern
The antenna in this application is head-worn and used during
normal work functions without regard to the placement or
direction of the transmitter. It therefore follows that the
primary requirement for the antenna radiation pattern is that it
should be circular or close to circular in azimuth plane.
Practical experience shows that a small deviation from the
ideal circular pattern may be tolerated. Deep notches in the
radiation pattern are highly undesirable, as the end user is
prone to notice and experience and be annoyed by these
regularly during the work day. The elevation pattern
component variation is less critical, since a typical user tend
to keep their heads nominally horizontal for most of the
day. A dipole antenna radiation pattern, circular in azimuth
and with deep notches only in the nadir and zenith
location is therefore very suitable in this application.
2.6 Antenna feed
As the antenna is connected to the receiver circuit placed in
the right hand cup of the headset, it is desirable to have the
antenna feed point as close to this as possible. The preferred
method to connect the antenna to the receiver circuit is by
soldering a short coaxial cable directly to the feed point on
the antenna. For cost reasons, the antenna feed coax should be
kept as short as possible.
2.7 Design Target
Given the above details, the following design goals are
identified 2.2
Frequency range 88 - 108 MHz
Omnidirectional gain > 2 dB
Directionality tolerance 0.3 dB
VSWR <5
Polarization vertical, nominal
Antenna feed system Soldered coax cable on right extreme of
antenna. Manufacturing method Etched exible printed circuit
board.
3. THEORY
3.1 Relevant Antenna Theory
A short summary of the relevant fields of antenna theory is
provided below.
3.1.1 Far Field Theory
In the very simplest, theoretical antenna cases, the far field
radiation pattern can be calculated analytically [13]. This can
then be used for evaluating the performance of the antenna
directly, which is useful for explaining the relevant antenna
far field theory. The description below follows the outline
provided by Cheng [13].
A simple Herzian dipole consists of a short conductive wire
terminated with two small conductive wires. Assume a
sinusoidal current flows in the wire:
i(t) = I cos(ωt) (3.1)
Since the current diminishes at the end of the wire, charges
must build up there, and we canwrite the relation between
charge and current as
i(t) = ±dq(t)/d(t)
Using the magnetic vector potential A, from B = ∇ × A, it can
be shown that
A = az
(µ0Idℓ)/ 4π ( e−jβR R
) (3.2)
From the above equations, it is possible to identify some
basic properties of the results in the far field, for a bound
source:
1. Eθ and Hθare in space quadrature and in phase
2. The ratio |Eθ|/|Hθ| = η0 is constant. This constant
corresponds to the impedance of the medium
3. The magnitude varies inversely proportional with the
distance to the antenna. The phase of Eθ and Hθ is a periodic
function of the distance with a period that is the wavelength,
λ =c/f
Also it is possible to plot the radiation pattern of this antenna.
The far field radiation pattern describes the relative far field
strength as a function of direction, on a fixed direction from
the antenna. The radiation pattern plot is shown in figure
below.
In order to relate this result to the generic case, it is necessary
to consider the case of a real, linear dipole. Relating the result
to a real, finite dipole, presents a mathematical challenge.
While the problem is largely the same, the determination of
the exact current distribution on the antenna is a di-cult
boundary-value problem. An obvious observation is that the
current must be zero at the ends of the antenna ends, and
finite in the feed point, but this unfortunately does not
provide any major breakthrough in solving the current
distribution.
An analytical equation still leads to an integral equation
where the current distribution is unknown under the integral.
3.1.2 Polarization
The polarization of a uniform planar wave, for example
emanating from a dipole antenna, describes the time-varying
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behavior of electric field intensity of a vector at any point in
space. When the E vector of a plane wave, is fixed in the x-
direction the wave is said to be linearly polarized in the x-
direction. Similarly a plane wave may be linearly polarized
along the other unit axes and said to exhibit the corresponding
linear polarization. In cases where the direction of the E
vector of a plane wave changes with time, the plane wave is
said to exhibit nonlinear polarization, either elliptical or
circular.
It can be shown that this case, the plane wave may be
described by a superposition of two linear polarized plane
waves, one linearly polarized along the x-direction and one
linearly polarized along the y-direction. In the case where the
x-direction and y-direction polarized plane waves have the
same linear magnitude, and are in phase quadrature, the
composite field is said to exhibit circular polarization. If this
is not the case, the plane wave is said to exhibit elliptic
polarization. It can be shown that if the transmitting and
receiving antenna does not share the same polarization, path
losses will increase by a factor depending on the angle of
mismatch between the two antennas [13].
This factor, known as Polarization Loss Factor, is defined as
P LF = cos2
ϕ (3.3)
Where PLF is the linear loss factor due to the polarization
mismatch, and ϕ is the misalignment angle. Studying
equation 3.12, it can be shown that a small misalignment has
little effect, but if the polarization misalignment is 90, no
power at all is transmitted between the two antennas.
The VHF FM broadcast radio system employs a linear
vertical polarization. Historically, this was chosen because
vertical polarization provides the minimal propagation
attenuation in most terrestrial line-of-sight or near-line-of-
sight situations at these frequencies [14], and because it
usually simplifies antenna installations when using simple
dipole or ground-plane antennas.
Studies of real-world propagation effects show that a clean
polarization may degrade into a set of superimposed polarized
fields, due to reflections on nearby metal objects. A study
carried out by Shrauger and Taylor have shown that, in a real
terrestrial situation, in our band of interest the nominal
received polarization often greatly differ from the nominal
vertical transmitted polarization[14]. This is the primary
reason for considering the polarization a Secondary property
of this antenna
3.1.3 Impedance
The input impedance of an antenna is defined as the ratio of
voltage to current Z =U/I, as presented to the antenna feed
structure. The antenna impedance will depend on many
parameters of the antenna, primarily mechanical design and
measured frequency [13]. Antenna impedance is - in this case
- important primarily in order to be able transfer the
maximum of the received energy to the radio receiver circuit,
as described in the matching section below. Antennas for
VHF broadcast receivers are traditionally designed to have a
50 or 75 Ohm. In order to be able to compareand ultimately
measure different antenna systems, it is therefore desirable to
adhere to this convention
3.1.4 Radiation Resistance
A measure of the amount of power radiated by an antenna is
the antenna radiation resistance; Rr. is theoretical resistance
that would dissipate power equal to the radiated power when
the current in the resistance is equal to the maximum current
along the antenna. It is therefore desirable for an antenna to
have a high radiation resistance.
3.1.5 Antenna Matching
Antenna matching is the measure of how well the impedance
of the antenna matches the impedance of the load circuit.
When these impedances are equal, the maximum power can
be transferred from load to antenna and vice versa. In this
case the antenna and load are perfectly matched. When the
impedances are non-equal, part of the available power is lost
by being reflected at the connection interface.
3.1.6 Electrically small antennas
An antenna which is mechanically considerably smaller than
the wavelength on which is it designed to operate is said to be
electrically small. Such antennas exhibit considerable
differences compared to a larger antenna. There has been
considerable work done on studying the properties of
electrically small antennas, and ascertaining what exactly
constitutes an electrically small antenna. Initial work was
carried by Wheeler [8], Chu [7]. Refined by Hansen [15], and
more recently refined by Gustafson et al. for thin antennas
[9]. The initial, still commonly used, definition of an
electrically small antenna is an antenna with volume V
smaller than (2∗π∗r)/λ [8]. Although this is clearly a non-
ideal metric for our strip shaped antenna, it is still useful in
order to conclude that the antenna is indeed electrically small,
since λ = 3.4...2.8 meters and r = 0.20 meters. For a small
antenna, the background work leads us to expect the
following properties
1. High current densities
2. Difficulty in matching the antenna
3. A very small radiation aperture
3.2 The NEC2 program
The NEC2 program uses a combination of the electric field
integral equation (EIFE) and magnetic field integral equation
(MFIE), as a basis for calculating the current distribution on
antennas [16]. From the current distribution, it is possible to
calculate both the impedance of the antenna and the radiation
pattern. EFIE is used for thin-wire structures, and MFIE is
used when calculating voluminous structures.
They are combined into a hybrid equation, and this is solved
numerically using the method of moments, by describing
each antenna segment by a number of base functions. The
current on wires and structures are then described in matrix
form.
The solution matrix is consequently solved by Gaussian
elimination. From this it is possible to and the requested
antenna impedance and the far field radiation pattern.
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3.2.1 NEC2 limitations
The NEC2 program has several known limitations, such as its
limited support for dielectric volumes, and the difficulty in
accurately simulating complex three-dimensional shapes.
These are of little consequence to the problem at hand, which
is entirely modeled as separate wires.
However, a less obvious limitation clearly has implications to
this problem: Due to the design assumption of each wire
segment being either end fed or open ended, an antenna
where segments intersect between end-points cannot be
simulated without exception.
This is normally not a problem since segments can simply be
split up so that they either begin or end in intersections, thus
avoiding violation of the model.
In this case though, that limitation presents a problem as
antenna segments may or may not cross depending entirely
on the result of the genetic algorithm convergence. As this is
not exception handled in the current genetic algorithm, it
casts some doubt over the validity of the simulation results in
the cases where this happens. Currently, solutions could be
screened manually for violations of this NEC2 limitation, as it
is not caught automatically by the genetic algorithm.
3.3 Genetic Algorithm Theory
A genetic algorithm is an specialized optimization method
which mimics the process of natural selection [17] for solving
a specific problem. This method was pioneered by Holland in
1975 [18]. By this method, genetic algorithms are able to
search a multi-dimensional solution space and find a solution
reasonably efficiently. Genetic algorithms are therefore well
suited to the area of antenna design, where the search space is
wide and multi-dimensional but straight-forward to simulate.
The two key features of the algorithm are
• A basic genome, through which a large set of potential
solutions for the problem at hand may be described.
• A fitness function, through which individual solutions are
evaluated and chosen for generating new solution.
The algorithm works by setting up a number of candidate
solutions, described by the genome. Each solution is then
simulated and evaluated by the fitness function. The top
ranking solutions are then chosen for reproduction into a new
generation, where the best solutions are combined in order to
find solutions which may be closer to the design target. The
process is repeated until a desirable solution is found [19].
Each population iteration is referred to as a generation, and
solutions are referred to as parents and children in analogy
with the process of natural selection. In order to maintain the
progress of the algorithm, it is essential that the basic genome
is able to describe the parameters relevant to the problem at
hand, and that those parameters may be transferred from
parent to child.
3.3.1 Chromosome Representation
The chromosome is the solution vector used for each
individual solution candidate. Each parameter in the
chromosome is referred to as a gene.
The chromosome representation used in the genome is highly
influential on the performance of the genetic algorithm. A too
constrained chromosome design will not allow the algorithm
to find the necessary solutions, but an overly exible design
may on the other hand slow down convergence or prevent
convergence altogether [19]. Apart from exibility, the
chromosome design should also be able to relate to the
problem at hand in a relevant way, so that relevant properties
of the solution may be transferred from parent to child during
cross-over between different parents, in order for desired
solutions to be able to propagate between generations.
4. Implementation
A multi-objective genetic algorithm was implemented in
Matlab, with the NEC2 program used as the simulation back-
end. Matlab is well suited to genetic algorithm tracking and
development, as several plotting and debugging tools needed
are readily available. Apart from that, almost any
programming language could have been employed for the
same purpose.
The NEC2 simulation software is a critical part of this thesis,
as it is well proven and easy to interface from an automated
algorithm. Its method-of-moments simulation foundation,
while unsuitable for certain types of antennas, is well suited
to the wire-type antennas studied in this thesis.
4.1 Genetic Algorithm
The genetic algorithm largely follows the theoretical
description as outlined. The genetic algorithm is implemented
in Matlab, and loops through each individual in each
generation until specific termination criteria are met. The
flow of the implemented algorithm is shown in figure 4.1. In
this thesis the termination criteria isis based on numbers of
generations.
4.2 Mechanical model
The mechanical model for the antenna simulation consists of
two fundamental parts. An overview of the mechanical model
is given in figure 4.2. The fixed part is made up of the static,
pre-existing, structure. This is two wires of 2mm stainless
steel. The shape of these wires is set by mechanical
requirements for the headset. They provide support for the
headset cups and give the necessary holding force for the ear-
cups. The exact dimensions for the fixed part are based on
measurements on real headsets.
The second part is the variable antenna surface, where the
genetic antenna is free to place wires to meet it optimization
targets. For simulation purposes the antenna elements are
considered to be thin wires segments, 1mm in diameter. In a
real product they would be at traces, etched on the exible
PCB.
A fixed diameter is chosen in order to make sure no wire
diameters may violate the manufacturing possibilities for the
flexible PCB.
The active antenna surface part is modeled as a thin section of
a cylindrical surface, where the antenna genetic algorithm
places a number of elements, the first being the fed element.
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The variable antenna surface is highlighted in blue in figure
4.2.
The coordinate system used for this model is a right-handed
Cartesian coordinate system, as used by NEC2. Specifically,
the end-user faces along the positive-Y axis, the end-user left-
right axis is X, while the user up direction coincides with the
Z axis.
Figure 4.1: Genetic algorithm, generation progress
Figure 4.2: Head-band model base, space for antenna
elements in blue
Figure 4.3: Chromosome representation for each solution
candidate
4.3 Chromosome Design
For this thesis a Cartesian coordinate system genome was
chosen, with five movable wire segments. The genome space
spans a [0:0]... [1:1] unity X-Y coordinate space, where each
wire start and stop coordinates is represented as X-Y pairs.
The number of wires may be varied, and the initial number
was arrived on after initial manual tests suggested that five
segments provided sufficient freedom of design. All wires are
fixed to be 1 mm in diameter, which is not adjustable by the
genome.
This straight-forward design makes debugging and range-
checking practical and easy to verify. The major drawback is
it may be non-ideal from an optimization point of view, since
rotational translation is not possible in a simple genome
cross-over scheme. This is left as the subject for a further
study, as a polar coordinate representation would be
considerably more complex to analyze from a theoretical
algorithm point of view.
4.4 Antenna Feed Point
The antenna feed-point is fixed by the algorithm to the center
of the first element in the genome. The starting coordinate of
this first element is forced to genome coordinates x, y = [0,
0]. The other coordinates of this element is subject to genetic
algorithm cross-over and noise like the other elements in the
genome. This ensures that while algorithm is able to move the
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free segment end, other end is fixed in the lower right corner.
The center feed point is therefore kept reasonably close to the
desired location.
.
4.5 Symmetry
Theoretically the antenna is fully symmetrical along the front-
to-back axis. This may havebeen employed to simplify the
genome, but this would have precluded the use of an
asymmetric left-side coax feed, as specified in the design
target. It was also believed that a future addition to the
simulation would be the addition of the asymmetrical left and
right handcircuit boards, which further removes symmetry
from the problem. Therefore the current genome design does
not employ any simplification due to symmetry.
4.6 Coordinate Projection
Since the genome design is based on a Cartesian coordinate
space, as is the output simulationthree dimensional (3D)
spaces, it is possible to map genome space directly to 3D
space with asimple coordinate mapping. A study of the
mechanical design gives the following coordinateprojection.
The mapping function is visualized in figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4: Coordinate mapping. The antenna feed point is
marked with an X
For any short wire segment of the output antenna, a straight
line between the mapped beginning and end coordinates is
sufficient. For wire segments with larger x-coordinate
separation, a segmentation scheme is needed to keep the
antenna segment sufficiently in-plane due to the curved
nature of the output 3D space. In the case where a wire spans
a longer section of the curved plane, a segmentation function
is used to keep the wire segment sufficiently in-plane.
4.7 Solution Mating And Selection Process
The solution mating and the selection process determine a
genetic algorithm convergence performance [19]. It is
generally desirable to select the top ranking solutions for
mating into new solutions. There is a clear trade of between
focusing solely on the top individuals and maintaining the
genetic diversity of the rest of the generation with lower
rankings. A too tight focus on top individuals will tend to
converge to a solution relatively quick, but may employ a
poor exploration of the solution space. A too high focus on
the lower rating solutions may, on the other hand, completely
fail to converge on an acceptable solution or cause very slow
progress. There are several mating schemes that have been
successfully employed in similar cases, such as best-mates-
worst, adjacent-fitness-pairing and emperor-selective. In a
study of mating schemes carried out by B.K Yeo in 1999, the
emperor-selective was found to give the best solution
convergence [20], and this method was therefore selected.
The emperor-selective matching scheme starts by identifying
the highest ranking solution for each generation. This
solution, dubbed the emperor, is then mated with the
remaining top-ranking solutions to produce the desired
number of ospring solutions. A certain amount of overlap
between generations is usually also employed, where a
percentage of the previous generation top-ranking individuals
are kept on to the next generation. This is done to maintain
genetic diversity and ensure that the solution set does not
degrade if all offspring in a generation should rank lower than
the previous generation. In this thesis an overlap of 10 % is
used, as it was found to give acceptable progress results.
4.8 Solution Cross-Over Function
The cross-over function, used for producing ospring
solutions, selects antenna segments from either parent by the
following random selection:
• By a 31% probability, the wire coordinates are copied from
the first parent
• By a 31% probability, the wire coordinates are copied from
the second parent
• By a 31% probability the wire is generated as a mean
between the coordinates used by the rst and second parent. •
By a 7% probability, the wire is subject to a randomization,
where the coordinates are replaced with a 0..1 square
probability distribution random coordinate regardless of
parent coordinates.
4.9 Fitness Evaluation
In a multi-objective genetic algorithm, fitness evaluation is
central to the progress of the optimization. In this thesis, the
two fitness determining factors are the radiation pattern shape
and the impedance matching of the antenna. These factors are
evaluated separately as two parameters, pattern fitness Pf and
impedance fitness Zf . The overall fitness for each solution is
evaluated as
F = Pf + Zf
4.10 Pattern Fitness
As stated above, the radiation pattern should ideally be
completely rotationally symmetrical, vertically polarized, and
exhibit some gain. To rate the fitness, each solution vertical
gain Av [dBi] is evaluated at center frequency λ0 in
the polar Φ plane, maintaining Θ = 90. This vertical gain data
set is available directly from the NEC simulation. For each
solution:
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Figure 4.5: Φ plane vertical gain Av, Θ = 90 : Fitness rating
of radiation pattern
the maximum gain Avmax, minimum gain Avmin is found, and
the average gain Avmin is calculated. A typical pattern is
shown in figure 4.5.
4.12 Population Size and Termination Criteria
In any genetic algorithm, there is an obvious tradeoff between
evolution speed and search width. With a small population
size, each generation will obviously be simulated quicker
than a large population, since the total time to simulate each
generation
Tgeneration = T individual * Nindividuals.
The solutions in a genetic algorithm with a small population
size will therefore also tend to evolve quicker than a large
one. A small population size may not efficiently explore the
given solution space. Such an algorithm runs the risk of
converging on a sub-optimal local solution, taking an
excessive number of generations to converge on a solution or
being unable to converge on a solution at all[6].
The initial compromise was therefore set at 50 individuals per
generation. This was found to be the largest population size
where algorithm development was still practical. At larger
generation sizes, the time to simulate each generation
considerably hindered algorithm development. As a
validation of the 50 individual generation size, tests were
carried out using larger generation sizes. This did not notably
change the evolution progress, apart from reducing algorithm
progress speed, and the choice was therefore deemed
acceptable. As termination criteria, the fixed number of
generations’ method was chosen. While this is known to be a
suboptimal method from a computational efficiency point of
view, it was found to be acceptable for this problem.
4.13 Tracing And Debugging Tools
As the run-time for this genetic algorithm is in the multi-hour
range, direct feedback of the progress, as well as methods to
perform post-run analysis is needed. Several methods for
assessing progress were developed. The most obvious result
to plot is the best-individual performance, as a function of
generations passed. This gives a clear feedback of the
algorithm evolution progress. Also, impedance matching
ratings and pattern rating progress may be 21 plotted in the
same graph, in order for their individual progress to be
assessed.
Figure 4.7: Typical progress plot, 150 generations elapsed
The optional visualization of each solution output data is also
employed. This allows the fitness rating functions, and
genome antenna wire design to be assessed in real-time. The
visualization makes it possible to catch unexpected behavior
of the fitness functions, or their reaction to unexpected input
from the NEC simulations. As the genetic algorithm will
converge on whatever solutions that give the highest ranking,
it is very important that the rating functions be carefully
debugged. Without these visualization functions, these core
functions would be very difficult to debug. As the genetic
algorithm convergence is highly nonlinear, it is also desirable
to provide means for detailed post-analysis of each run, so
that what appears to be undesirable behavior may be analyzed
and rectied. As an analogy to natural evolution, the genetic
algorithm is therefore fitted with means to create fossil
records at certain intervals. These are complete records of a
generation, stored to separate each 50 generations. After each
run a complete fossil strata is therefore present for analysis,
should this be necessary. After the genetic algorithm
terminates, a 3D surface is plotted which displays individual
rating as a function of generations passed. This allows the
total convergence progress to be assessed.
4.14 Noise Between Generations
In order to keep the genetic algorithm from converging on a
solution which relies too heavily on close tolerances, a certain
amount of noise is added between generations. This makes
sure that solutions may not require unrealistic manufacturing
tolerances. It also avoids convergence on any mathematical
Singularities, should they arise. A random noise with
continuous uniform distribution and with max amplitude of
0.01 mm is added to all coordinates of generated offspring
solutions. A uniform distribution is chosen as a first-order
approximation of the expected error distribution in production
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of a printed antenna. This is caused by a production process
where any position within a tight tolerance is accepted, and
any outliers are discarded.
5. RESULTS
5.1 Genetic Algorithm
The genetic algorithm appears to be functioning as intended.
Antennas are produced within the given mechanical
constraint. There is a clear progress of evolution where initial
solutions can be clearly seen to replace their previous, less fit,
predecessors. As the algorithm is started with a different
random seed for each run, each run is dierent. All runs show
clear progress toward the intended target. It is clear that the
impedance problem is not handled nearly as well as the
radiation pattern problem.
5.1.1 Initial Solutions
The top-ranking solutions of the very rst generations
generally exhibit very poor matching. At this stage, a solution
with acceptable, or close-to acceptable omnidirectionality
may often be found. Note that the antenna is acceptably
omnidirectional, but that the average gain is only around
1.3dBi, varying around 0.5dB. From the 3D diagram it is
noted that this is caused by the radiation pattern being front-
to-back tilted approximately 40 degrees.
5.1.2 Late Solutions
The top-ranking solutions of the final generation generally
still exhibit very poor matching, with little or no improvement
from the initial solutions. At this stage, however, the solution
usually exhibits very good omnidirectionality. This now
exhibits 2.2dBi gain, within a +/- 0.01dB tolerance.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
5.2.1 Radiation Pattern
Radiation pattern optimization works well. The resulting
radiation pattern show a high degree of omnidirectionality,
and would likely to perform well in a real-world application.
The demonstrated omnidirectionality and relative gain is
equal to, or better then what can be expected from a
traditional whip-based antenna design in this type of
application. This objective is considered met.
5.2.2 Antenna matching
Antenna matching has proven di-cult to archive, and the
matching goals have not been met. The resulting antennas
show too poor matching to be usable in a real product. While
it is clear that the genetic algorithm is able to reward
solutions with improved matching performance, these
solutions do not seem to propagate well through the genome.
With the dimensions for our antenna at hand, R = 0.2 m, and
λ = 3 m we get Rr = 0, 035 Ohm. This is a very small value,
and we may therefore expect that such a small dipole would
be a very poor radiator. It should be noted that Herzian
dipoles, when dl ≪ λ, but it gives us a reasonable indication
of performance. By increasing the number of segment in the
algorithm, and hence the antenna length we expect that the
impedance should improve slightly since short antennas have
low impedance. A system that rewards useful SWRs at any
frequency in the band would also likely improve the
algorithms development of matching.
6. CONCLUSIONS
A multi-objective genetic algorithm for creating an
omnidirectional antenna inside the headband of an existing
headset is demonstrated. The algorithm is demonstrated to
show convergence towards the desired solutions. Typical
average gains are shown to start out at 1.3dBi, with a
rotational variation of 0.5dB and end up at 2.2dBi with a
rotational variation of 0.01. This shows that the algorithm is
able to generate antennas with a directional radiation pattern
in close accordance to the design target. The algorithm is not
able to solve the problem of matching the antenna; the
possible reasons for this are discussed in the following
chapter. Polarization optimization is not included but could
be added as a secondary requirement. Several possible
additions to the original scope of the thesis work have been
identified.
7. PRACTICAL LIMITATIONS
Some known limitations in this work are listed below
• Intersected segments are present, even though this violates
the fundamental NEC2 assumptions. A way to avoid this
would be to replace NEC2 with simulation software
which does not suffer from this limitation.
• A model for the end-user head is not included. This is due
to the fact that NEC2 it not able to handle dielectric
bodies well, and it was therefore decided to omit the head
from the model. The antenna designs in this thesis could
be easily tested in real-life without an end-user head, in
order to verify the simulation accuracy. The presence of a
real head is not expected to invalidate any of the prior
results.
• The printed circuit boards for the headset electronics are
also not included. These could easily be simulated by
NEC2, if so desired, but it was believed that they could
safely be omitted in order to speed up the simulations.
Like with the head model, an antenna could be tested in real-
life without printed circuit boards, in order to validate the
antenna simulation results.
8. IDEAS FOR FUTURE IMPROVEMENTS
During the development of this thesis, some ideas for future
developments have been noted. These have not been possible
to investigate during the thesis work, but could be the subject
of future studies.
• A thorough analysis of the problem from a theoretical
point of view could be conducted, extending from the
basic review above. With the recent results provided by
Gustafsson et. al., it should be able to theoretically
establish the fundamental limitations present for a thin
antenna of this shape [9]. This may establish if the
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problems encountered are due to fundamental physics or
merely technical limitations of the algorithm. A careful
study of the recent advances in this field may additionally
provide further insight into possible ways to avoid the
most severe limitations, and ultimately provide a more
successful antenna design.
• A different genome which would allow complex
structures to better transfer between solutions could be
investigated. This should allow matching structures to
better survive between generations and cross-overs and
may also provide an improved stability of the matching
solutions. At the same time a corresponding cross-over
function could be investigated. A study could be
conducted of the feasibility of different genomes and their
cross-over functions described in recent literature, and
their suitability to the problem on-hand. A basic literature
study does not present a great deal on the subject which is
directly applicable to this problem. The two-dimensional,
small size, nature of the problem appears to make the
subject relatively rare.
• A fitness rating rewarding vertical polarization could be
added. This would allow for a shift towards vertical
polarization in the final antennas, should the specification
be changed to request this.
• The termination criteria could be updated with suitable
fitness-based termination criteria, should the major
obstacle of impedance fitness rating be overcome. This
would allow the time to convergence to be assessed in
greater detail and most likely result in a shorter average
time to convergence [19].
• Finally, different weighting functions of the antenna
fitness parameters could be considered. While the
weighting functions have been the subject of considerable
work in this study, without much progress, it cannot be
completely ruled out that it may be possible to improve
them further.
9. REFERENCES
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antennas using genetic algorithms,” in Electromagnetic
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10. BIOGRAPHIES
Aatish Gandotra, a student of Electronics
and Communication Engineering in his final
year with deep interest in telecommunication
and networking.
Publications :- 1. Replication of attacks in
wireless sensor network using NS2.
Tejaswi Singh, a student of computer science
engineering in his final year with a knack for
network security.
Publications :- 1. Replication of attacks in
wireless sensor network using NS2.