This study aimed to establish a descriptive and comparative analysis of the anatomy and histology of mice and rats. A total of 30 mice and 15 rats were examined. The study observed species-specific anatomical and histological characteristics of the main dissected organs of mice and rats. These reference values can help researchers choose the most appropriate animal model for experimental studies.
Researchers use animal models in basic research, in developing new therapeutic strategies for treating human diseases, and in drug discovery research (including target identification and validation, drug screening and lead optimization, and toxicity and safety screening), as well as in preclinical studies of drug safety and efficacy.
Researchers use animal models in basic research, in developing new therapeutic strategies for treating human diseases, and in drug discovery research (including target identification and validation, drug screening and lead optimization, and toxicity and safety screening), as well as in preclinical studies of drug safety and efficacy.
Alternate animal experiments models for pre and post clinical screening of new drugs.
#Expetrimental_Pharmacology.
#Preclinical Screening methods and testing models.
#Animal_Handeling
Prometheus, who has been deigned by poets to have first formed Man, formed a model from water and earth and then stole fire from the sun to animate the model.
An animal model is thus an animated object of imitation in the image of Humans (or other species), used to investigate biological or pathobiological phenomena.
Rodents used in Drug discovery and research are described.Rodents are mammals of the order Rodentia, which are characterized by a single pair of unremittingly growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaw.
Well known rodents are mice , rats , squirrel ,porcupines , guinea pigs , hamsters which are used in research because of their genetic and biological similarities.
Research Methods: Ethics II (Animal Research)Brian Piper
lecture 3 from a college level research methods in psychology course taught in the spring 2012 semester by Brian J. Piper, Ph.D. (psy391@gmail.com) at Linfield College, includes IACUC, animal welfare act, refinement, reduction, replacement
Animal Experimentation- Contemporary IssueChandan Saha
Animals have their own rights. They are not puppet of our laboratory. With the help of modern and scientific technology we can change old traditional animal experiment methods.
I would describe myself as a conscientious worker, problem solver and a dependable team player with laboratory expertise in molecular cloning, virology and immunology. I am proficient at developing small animal infection models, mammalian cell culture, proficient at working in Biosafety level -2 and 3 laboratories, developing recombinant gene constructs through primer design, restriction digestion and bacterial cloning. I am proficient at nucleic acid (DNA/RNA) extraction, quantitative PCR and RT-PCR. My technical expertise in virology and immunology include performing plaque assays and foci forming assays to quantify viremia and ELISA. I possess extensive training in working with laboratory animals and I am proficient at intra-nasal and intra-peritoneal drug administration, working with animal restraint systems like the In-TOX system and have performed nebulization studies using guinea pigs in the past. I also perform tail DNA genotyping in mice.
Alternate animal experiments models for pre and post clinical screening of new drugs.
#Expetrimental_Pharmacology.
#Preclinical Screening methods and testing models.
#Animal_Handeling
Prometheus, who has been deigned by poets to have first formed Man, formed a model from water and earth and then stole fire from the sun to animate the model.
An animal model is thus an animated object of imitation in the image of Humans (or other species), used to investigate biological or pathobiological phenomena.
Rodents used in Drug discovery and research are described.Rodents are mammals of the order Rodentia, which are characterized by a single pair of unremittingly growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaw.
Well known rodents are mice , rats , squirrel ,porcupines , guinea pigs , hamsters which are used in research because of their genetic and biological similarities.
Research Methods: Ethics II (Animal Research)Brian Piper
lecture 3 from a college level research methods in psychology course taught in the spring 2012 semester by Brian J. Piper, Ph.D. (psy391@gmail.com) at Linfield College, includes IACUC, animal welfare act, refinement, reduction, replacement
Animal Experimentation- Contemporary IssueChandan Saha
Animals have their own rights. They are not puppet of our laboratory. With the help of modern and scientific technology we can change old traditional animal experiment methods.
I would describe myself as a conscientious worker, problem solver and a dependable team player with laboratory expertise in molecular cloning, virology and immunology. I am proficient at developing small animal infection models, mammalian cell culture, proficient at working in Biosafety level -2 and 3 laboratories, developing recombinant gene constructs through primer design, restriction digestion and bacterial cloning. I am proficient at nucleic acid (DNA/RNA) extraction, quantitative PCR and RT-PCR. My technical expertise in virology and immunology include performing plaque assays and foci forming assays to quantify viremia and ELISA. I possess extensive training in working with laboratory animals and I am proficient at intra-nasal and intra-peritoneal drug administration, working with animal restraint systems like the In-TOX system and have performed nebulization studies using guinea pigs in the past. I also perform tail DNA genotyping in mice.
Similar to Descriptive Comparative Anatomohistological Study of the Main Dissected Organs of Mus musculus and Rattus norvegicus for Experimental Model Research
Today there exists a wide spectrum of views on this subject, ranging from those concerned with animal 'rights' to those who view animals only as a resource to be exploited.
All of thThe five freedoms were originally developed from a UK Government report on livestock husbandry in 1965 (Prof.Roger Brambell) then by Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) In July 1979
Freedom from hunger or thirst by ready access to fresh water and a diet to maintain full health and vigour .
Freedom from discomfort by providing an appropriate environment including shelter and a comfortable resting area .
Freedom from pain, injury or disease by prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment.
Freedom to express (most) normal behaviour by providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the animal's own kind.
Freedom from fear and distress by ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid mental suffering.
Study of virulence genes in vancomycin resistant Enterococci (vre) from anima...Innspub Net
With Enterococcus species in the leading cause of nosocomial infections and resistance to an array of antibiotics, this study focused to determine the frequency and distribution of vancomycin-resistant Enterococci, the presence of virulence genes and to determine the relative nucleotide sequence relatedness among isolates using 16S rRNA sequence. A random sampling of 120 fecal samples of cattle, poultry, and piggery, and human clinical isolates was analyzed. Standard bacteriological methods were employed in the isolation and characterization of isolates and the disk diffusion method was used in determining their antibiotic resistance profiles. Results showed Enterococcus species in cattle at 100%, followed by clinical isolates at 80%. Vancomycin resistance was observed at high rates in Enterococcus species from human clinical isolates and cattle isolates at 90% and 80% respectively. Multiple antibiotic-resistant isolates yielded twelve resistance profiles and 16S rDNA sequences identified E. faecalis, E. durans, E. mundtii, and Enterococcus sp. Isolates from cattle samples were the most probable source of clinical isolates at 78% homology of conserved regions with the clinical isolates. Virulence determinant genes Asa1 was recorded at66.6%, Cyl at 16.6% and GelE at 8.3% among the isolates. This study established farm animals as possible reservoirs of VRE isolates to man. Hence, healthy and professional practices among animal farmers with antibiotic usage, as well as hygienic and preventive measures among hospital workers are here recommended.
Ethical issues related to animal biotechnologyKAUSHAL SAHU
Introduction
Why are genetically modified animals produced?
Examples of transgenic animals
Why are animals used instead of genetically modified microbes or plants?
Ethical issues
Religious concerns
Responsibility of Scientists
Need for Guidelines
Conclusion
References
The Science of Zoology
Zoology As Part of Biology
Branches of Zoology
Branches of Zoology related to the medical science
Importance in daily life
The Importance of Animals in Biomedical Research
Animal Testing: Rationale for conducting studies, CPCSEA Guidelines
The use of animals in research is currently an essential component of the drug discovery process.
Animals help us advance our scientific understanding, serve as models to study disease, help us develop and test potential new medicines and therapies.
Animal testing has benefited researchers in understanding how to treat and prevent various conditions such as high blood pressure, diabetes, tuberculosis, polio, muscular dystrophy, and Parkinson's disease.
Education:
Undergraduate teaching to demonstrate effects of various drugs although this has been phased out in most institutes.
Postgraduate teaching to demonstrate the effects of various drugs, to determine the nature of an unknown drug for bioassay, screening methods and to learn skills e.g. administering drugs.
Research:
A larger number and a greater variety of animals are used in pure research than in applied research. This usually involves studies on embryogenesis, developmental biology, behaviour and breeding in Fruit flies, nematodes, mice and rats.
INTRODUCTION
The motto of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PCA) Act 1960 as amended in 1982 is to prevent infliction of unnecessary pain or suffering on animals.
The Central Government has constituted a Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA), which is duty bound to take all such measures as may be necessary to ensure that animals are not subjected to unnecessary pain or suffering before, during or after the performance of experiments on them.
The goal of these guidelines is to promote the human care of animal used in biomedical and behavioural research and testing.
To avoid/minimize pain and suffering inflicted on experimental animals
Inspection of animal house facilities
It provides guidelines for -
Proper care, housing, breeding, maintenance, handling and use of experimental animals.
Source of experimental animals
Acceptable experimental procedures for anaesthesia and euthanasia.
Registration of establishments conducting animal experimentation or breeding of animals for this purpose.
Selection and assignment of nominees for the Institutional Animal Ethics Committees (IAEC) of the registered establishments.
Approval of Animal House Facilities on the basis of reports of inspections conducted by CPCSEA.
Permission for conducting experiments involving use of animals.
Recommendation for import of animals for use in experiments.
Action against establishments in case of established violation of any legal norm/stipulation.
Conduct of Training Programmes for the Nominees of CPCSEA.
Conduct/Support of Conference/Workshop on Animal Ethics.
To assure quality maintenance and safety of animals used in laboratory studies while conducting biomedical and behavioural research and testing of products.
Quarantine
2. Personal hygiene
3. Environment
4. Physical facility
5. Animal husbandry
6. Animal disposal
7. Documentation
Animal Experimentation for Cosmetics - Resources for Healthy Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613963 - Gardening with Volcanic Rock Dust www.scribd.com/doc/254613846 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/254613765 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/254613694 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254613553 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/254613494 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/254613410 - Free Organic Gardening Publications www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 ~
Slide contains aspects of animal use in pharmacology laboratory.
Along with CPCSEA Guidelines (now CCSEA).
Laboratory animals experiment benefits as well as limitations.
Different animals used in laboratory.
Effects of acupuncture on point pericardium 6 on hydromorphone induced nausea...Amanda Maijer
Similar to Descriptive Comparative Anatomohistological Study of the Main Dissected Organs of Mus musculus and Rattus norvegicus for Experimental Model Research (20)
BACKGROUND: Sequential Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)–positive B cell lymphoma to the initial diagnosis of angioimmunoblastic T cell lymphoma (AITL) is very rare, the exact mechanism and standard therapy of which is still being explored. CASE: A 50-year-old man was admitted to our hospital in January 2014 with a three-week history of enlargement of multiple lymph nodes. His initial pathological evaluation indicated AILT. The reactivation of EBV was observed during the immunosuppression therapy for AITL, accompanied by onset of subcutaneous nodules proven to be EBV-positive diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) based on the pathological findings of rebiopsy. The patient was successfully treated with chidamide, a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, and rituximab.
Conclusion: The sufficient surveillance for serum EBV and repeat biopsy is necessary for patients with AITL, and this treatment modality may become an active option.
Keywords: angioimmunoblastic T cell lymphoma, Epstein-Barr virus, HDAC inhibitor, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, peripheral T cell lymphoma
Objective: To investigate the protective effect of lo- sartan, an angiotensin II type 1 receptor blocker with antioxidative effect on intestinal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury in rats, against inflammation and apoptotic development.
Study Design: Forty male Wistar albino rats with a mean weight of 200–250 g each were divided into 4 groups: (1) Sham operation (laparotomy only, sham surgical preparation including isolation of the superior mesenteric artery [SMA] without occlusion), (2) Ischemia model with SMA closure for 2 hours, (3) I/R group (2 hours of ischemia followed by 3-hour reperfusion (SMA occlusion for 120 minutes followed by 240 minutes reperfusion), and (4) Losartan group (2 hours of ischemia, 40 mg/kg losartan was administered to the animals; losartan was dissolved in 1 mL distilled water and administered intraperitoneally after 2 hours of ischemia). Malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione (GSH) levels were examined in jejunum tissue.
Results: Losartan treatment reduced the I/R-induced increase in MDA levels in the gut. Statistically, while SOD, CAT, and GSH activities decreased significantly in the I/R group, they increased in the I/R+Losartan group. Villus loss and increase in inflammation after ischemia persisted after reperfusion. Losartan treatment played a role in the reduction of inflammation and apoptosis and in the regulation of TNF-α and caspase-9 activity.
Conclusion: It has been thought that losartan in I/R may reduce mucosal damage and cell apoptosis in the direction of inflammation and may stabilize caspase-9 activity by inhibiting TNF-α stimulus.
Keywords: caspase-9, ischemia, ischemia/reperfusion, rat, reperfusion injury, TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-alpha
Objective: The association between telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) promoter mutation and outcome of melanoma is unclear and controversial. We aim to conduct a meta-analysis and investigate whether the TERT promoter mutation is a prognostic factor of melanoma.
Study Design: Appropriate studies were searched in 3 databases: PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase. Pooled hazard ratios (HRs) were counted through random effects model.
Results: Heterogeneity was moderate in overall survival (OS) (I2=43.7%, p=0.059) and low in disease-free survival (DFS) (I2=0.0%, p=0.587). Sensitivity analysis indicated that the removal of any of the study did not affect the final results. Evidence for publication bias was not found (Begg’s test, p=0.281; Egger’s test, p=0.078). The pooled OS HRs from combined effects analysis was determined (HR 1.07; 95% CI 0.83–1.39, p=0.585), together with the pooled HRs of DFS (HR 1.65; 95% CI 1.02–2.66, p=0.042). TERT promoter mutation predicted a good outcome in meta-static melanoma patients (HR 0.66; 95% CI 0.46–0.96, p=0.042). The pooled HRs of combined mutation in TERT promoter and BRAF (HR 6.27; 95% CI 2.7–14.58, p=0.000) predicted a bad outcome in melanoma patients.
Conclusion: TERT promoter mutation significantly predicted poor DFS outcome but, on the contrary, predicted a good outcome in metastatic melanoma patients. The combined TERT promoter and BRAF mutation was a significant independent factor of OS in melanoma patients.
Keywords: melanoma; meta-analysis; mutation; prognosis; promoter regions, genetic; skin neoplasms; telomerase; TERT promoter mutation; TERT protein, human
Objective: In order to reduce complications accompanied with dental implant restoration, this study strives to prepare a novel sealant and lubricant that can be used in dental implant systems as well as to evaluate its characteristics.
Study Design: Chitosan (CS), β-glycerophosphate pentahydrate (β-GP), and nano silver (nAg) were used to prepare thermosensitive hydrogel. According to the different volume ratios of CS to β-GP, 3 experimental groups were established, namely 16/4, 13/7, and 10/10 groups. Their morphology, composition, and chemical properties were analyzed via SEM, EDS, and FTIR. In addition, the effect of the hydrogel on the stability of dental implant-abutment connection was investigated by removal torque test combined with dynamic cyclic loading experiment. The maximum fracture load was measured under different lubricating conditions by electronic universal testing machine. The cytotoxicity and in vitro antibacterial effect of the hydrogel were examined respectively by CCK-8 test and the spread plate method.
Results: The CS/β-GP/nAg thermosensitive hydro-gel was successfully prepared in this study, which was found to be a porous structure through SEM. The removal torque test and the dynamic cyclic loading experiment showed that the removal torque of the experimental group was greater than that of the control group. Furthermore, the single load-to-fracture test indicated that the 16/4 group had the greatest maximum bearing load. The in vitro cytotoxicity test using rat bone marrow stromal cells (rBMSCs) and human gingival fibroblast cells (hGFCs) showed no cytotoxicity in all 3 groups. The 3 experimental groups had obvious antibacterial effects against E. coli, S. aureus, and P. gingivalis.
Conclusion: A nontoxic antibacterial CS/β-GP/nAg thermosensitive hydrogel for lubricating purpose was successfully fabricated. When the volume ratio of CS to β-GP was 16/4, this thermosensitive hydrogel demonstrated better sealing and lubricating abilities and had a positive influence on the reliability of dental implant-abutment connection.
Keywords: abutment, dental implant, dental implant restoration, dental sealant, lubrication, thermosensitive hydrogel
Objective: To investigate the bond strength of resin-modified glass ionomer enhanced with bioactive glass (Activa BioActive-Base/Liner) to composite resin using different dental adhesive systems.
Study Design: In this study, Activa BioActive-Base/Liner (ABA/BL) was placed in cylindrical cavities formed in acrylic blocks. In blocks divided into 6 groups according to the adhesive system to be applied, two-step etch-and-rinse Gluma 2 Bond (Heraeus Kulzer, Germany), one-step self-etch Gluma Self Etch (Heraeus Kulzer), universal system Gluma Universal (Heraeus Kulzer), two-step self-etch Clearfil SE Protect (Kuraray, Japan), one-step self-etch Clearfil S3 Bond Plus (Kuraray), and universal system Clearfil S3 Bond Universal (Kuraray) adhesive systems were applied on ABA/BL. After composite resin (3M ESPE Filtek Ultimate) was applied to the prepared surfaces, the specimens were placed in a universal test device and shear bond strength test was determined. Fracture types were evaluated using a stereomicroscope and scanning electron microscope. Data were analyzed by Shapiro-Wilk, two-way ANOVA, Kruskal-Wallis, and Post-Hoc Multiple Comparisons tests.
Results: In terms of bond strength values, the highest bond value was seen in the two-step self-etch (Clearfil SE Protect) group, and the lowest bond strength value was seen in the universal system (Clearfil S3 Bond Universal) group. There was no statistically significant difference between the adhesive agent groups in terms of bond strength values (p>0.05).
Conclusion: It is thought that choosing the two-step self-etch technique as an adhesive system when resin-modified glass ionomer enhanced with bioactive glass (ABA/BL) is used as the pulp capping/base material will be more appropriate in terms of bond strength.
Keywords: adhesive systems, bioactive materials, bond strength, cariostatic agents, composite resins, dental materials, fluorides, glass ionomer, glass ionomer cements, materials testing, vital pulp therapy
Objective: To analyze the sonographic features of different histopathological subtypes of borderline ovarian tumors (BOTs) confirmed by pathology, and to study the ultrasound performances of various types in borderline ovarian tumors.
Study Design: Retrospective analysis was performed on the pathological results and ultrasound projection findings of 129 patients diagnosed as BOTs by ultrasound department of our hospital from January 2012 to November 2019. All patients were confirmed by surgical pathology and scanned consecutively by the investigators using transabdominal or transvaginal ultrasound examination.
Results: Serous borderline tumors (SBOTs) were observed, and the prevalence rate (53%) was significantly higher than that of other subtypes, and the probability of bilateral lesions was higher (40%). The sonogram often showed ultrasound features of papillary neoplasm in the lesion and good internal echo (p<0.05). Mucinous borderline ovarian tumors (MBOTs) were mostly unilateral lesions (86%). The prevalence was second only to SBOTs. Histomorphological examinations were divided into gastrointestinal-type and endocervical-type. Among them, the gastrointestinal type of MBOTs were mostly unilateral, and their incidence was higher than that of endocervical-type of MBOTs. Compared with other pathological subtypes, the gastrointestinal type is more likely to show the sonographic characteristics of huge space occupying in the pelvic and abdominal cavity (mean diameter >10 cm), polycystic, multiple septums, and poor internal echo (p<0.05). The ultrasonographic features of the endocervical-type of MBOTs were similar to those of SBOTs. Compared with gastrointestinal type, the sonographic images showed smaller lesion diameter, less septal or cyst, and more papillary excrescences in the tumor (p<0.05). The borderline clear cell tumor is the intermediate transition between the clear cell adenofibroma and the clear cell carcinoma. The clinical manifestations are diverse and lack specificity. The histology of sonography was mainly solid, and the multiple microcapsules were honeycomb-like. It can also be shown as cystic. Among the 169 patients with BOTs, 20 cases of SBOTs, 17 cases of MBOTs, and 10 cases of other rare subtypes were complicated with other diseases or multiple subtypes. This study did not find significant ultrasonic characteristics were used for distinguish them from other subtypes.
Conclusion: BOTs is a common disease in women during the reproductive period. It is characterized by the development of malignant tumors. Its clinical and pathological subtypes are complex and diverse. It leads many doctors to use the terms “large pelvic mass” and “solid ovarian mass” for diagnosis because of their lack of experience and understanding.
Keywords: adenocarcinoma, mucinous; adenocarcinoma, serous; borderline ovarian tumors; diagnostic imaging; ovarian neoplasms; papillary neoplasms; prognosis; transvaginal ultrasound, ultrasonography
Objective: To evaluate the results of the effect of nebivolol on tibial bone defect and graft application in new bone development in the rat.
Study Design: Thirty Wistar albino rats were divided into 3 groups. In the Control group, tibia bone defect was created without any treatment. In the Defect+ Graft group, allograft treatment was performed by forming a 6 mm tibial bone defect. In the Defect+Graft+ Nebivolol group, alloplastic bone graft was placed in the calvarial bone defect and then nebivolol (0.34 mg/mL solution/day) treatment was intraperitoneally applied for 28 days.
Results: Histopathological examination revealed inflammation in the defect area, congestion in the vessels, degeneration in collagen fibers, and an increase in osteoclast cells. There was an increase in inflammation and blood vessel structure in graft application, and osteoblastic activity matrix formation after reorganization nebivolol application in collagen fibers. Osteonectin expression was positive in the collagen fiber and matrix, starting in the Graft group, in osteoblasts, whereas in the Nebivolol group, osteoblasts increased in osteocytes and new bone formation.
Conclusion: Nebivolol is thought to have a positive effect on osteoinductive bone growth factors and contribute to the cell-matrix interaction, in addition to the supporting effect of the graft with its antioxidative effect.
Keywords: allograft; bone; bone regeneration; disease models, animal; nebivolol; orthopedic procedures; osteonectin; rats; tibia; tibial defect
Objective: The prognostic indictors of age-related poor outcomes in patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) are still controversial. The aim of this work was to provide comprehensive insights into the effect of different hemocytes and to investigate the association between age and clinical features in adult patients with AML.
Study Design: A retrospective study was performed to determine the role of age in the therapeutic outcomes of AML. A total of 166 newly diagnosed adult patients’ data from January 2015 to November 2019 in Zhongshan Hospital of Xiamen University were collected and analyzed.
Results: Older patients presented a poorer prognosis (p=0.001) with shorter overall survival, which is served as age-related outcomes. Binary logistic regression demonstrated that cytogenetic risk (OR=4.508, 95% CI 2.733–7.435), leukocyte (OR=7.410, 95% CI 1.139–5.910), and bone marrow blast cells (OR=3.261, 95% CI 1.075–5.615) were independent indictors for age-related prognosis. In addition, Kaplan-Meier curve also revealed that the above factors were associated with overall survival (all p values <0.001).
Conclusion: Cytogenetic risk, leukocyte, and bone marrow blast cells are dominant factors which account for the age-related poor outcomes and shorter overall survival in AML.
Keywords: acute myeloid leukemia, adult, cytogenetic risk, hemocyte, leukemia, overall survival
Objective: To investigate the effects of nicorandil and tirofiban on no-reflow and postoperative outcome in patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention.
Study Design: A total of 438 patients with ACS diagnosed by the second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University from January 2019 to December 2020 were divided into two groups: nicorandil group (n=223) and tirofiban group (n=215). The nicorandil group was injected with 2 mg nicorandil 2 mm before coronary occlusion before balloon dilation, and the tirofiban group received 10 μg/kg intravenous injection during operation. Measurement of thrombolysis grade (thrombolysis in myocardial infarction [TIMI]), corrected TIMI frame count, and major adverse vascular events were recorded 30 days after operation in patients with ACS.
Results: Both nicorandil and tirofiban could improve the TIMI grade, and TIMI grade 3 blood flow was obtained in 190 cases (85.2%) and 175 cases (81.4%), respectively. There was no significant difference in the incidence of major adverse cardiac events (14.3% vs. 13.5%, score 0.13).
Conclusion: Intracoronary use of nicorandil in patients with ACS can improve coronary perfusion, but the improvement of prognosis needs further study.
Keywords: coronary perfusion, myocardial infarction, nicorandil, no-reflow phenomenon, percutaneous coronary intervention, repercussion
Objective: To identify interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) in the common bile duct of Kunming mice.
Study Design: Common bile ducts obtained from the Kunming mice were prepared for immunohistochemical investigations using the c-kit antibody. Immunoelectron microscopy was used to detect the expression of c-kit in the ICC of the common bile duct. Transmission electron microscopy showed ultrastructure of ICC in the murine bile duct. Reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and western blot were used to confirm the expression of mRNA specific for the c-kit gene and production of c-kit protein in the Kunming mice common bile duct.
Results: Immunohistochemistry revealed that ICC in the murine common bile duct are c-kit positive and the ICC are located in the tela submucosa and the tunica muscularis of the murine common bile duct and do not connect with each other. Immunoelectron microscopy confirmed the expression of Kit by ICC in the murine common bile duct. Transmission electron microscopy showed that ICC in the murine common bile duct have long processes, abundant mitochondria, plenty of smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sER), a lot of lysosomes, and dense bodies. The caveolae of ICC are distinctive. At the same time, RT-PCR indicated that the Kunming mice common bile duct expressed mRNA specific for the c-kit gene, and western blot analysis showed the evidence of production of c-kit protein in the Kunming mice common bile duct.
Conclusion: ICC are found in the Kunming mice common bile duct, which is likely to lead to the development of motility study of the common bile duct.
Keywords: common bile duct; electron microscopy; immuno-electron microscopy; interstitial cells of Cajal; intestines; smooth muscle; tyrosine kinase receptor (c-kit)
Objective: To study the effects of resveratrol in neuronal structures in traumatic brain injury (TBI).
Study Design: Thirty rats were categorized as (1) control group (n=10), saline solution administered i.p. for 14 days, (2) TBI group (n=10), trauma induced by weight-drop model on brain, and (3) TBI+Resveratrol group (n=10), 15 minutes after injury the rats were given resveratrol (10 μmoL/kg/i.p.) for 14 days. At the end of the experiment the cerebellum was excised for routine paraffin tissue protocol. Blood samples were tested for serum biochemical markers (MDA, SOD, CAT, and GSH-x).
Results: SOD, GPx, and CAT values were lowest in the TBI group. MDA and histological scores of dilations in vessels, inflammation, degeneration in neurons, apoptosis in microglia, ADAMTS8, and GFAP expressions were highest in the TBI group. Sections of the control group showed normal cerebellar histology. The trauma group showed degenerated ganglion layer, pyknotic and apoptotic Purkinje cell nuclei. Vascular thrombus was seen in the substantia alba and substantia grisea. In the Trauma+Resveratrol group, most pa- thologies observed in the TBI group were improved. In the control group, GFAP protein was expressed in granular cells, axons, dendrites, Purkinje cells, and microglia cells. In the trauma group, increased GFAP expression was observed in glial processes, neurons, and Purkinje cells. In the Trauma+Resveratrol group, GFAP was expressed in molecular layer and glial processes. In the control group, ADAMTS-4 activity was observed in granulosa layer, glial cells, and Purkinje cells. In the trauma group, ADAMTS-4 expression was positive in Purkinje cells and glial cells. In the Trauma+ Resveratrol group, ADAMTS-4 was expressed in Purkinje cells, granular cells, and glial cells.
Conclusion: GFAP and ADAMTS-4 proteins may be involved in regeneration of damaged astroglial cells and other glial cells, Purkinje cells, and synaptic extensions. We suggest that antioxidative drugs such as resveratrol may be alternative target agents in neurological disease.
Keywords: ADAMTS-4, brain, cerebellum, GFAP, rat, resveratrol, traumatic brain injury
Objective: To evaluate the antibacterial effects of 4 different cavity disinfectants on Streptococcus mutans, Lactobacillus acidophilus, and Enterococcus faecalis bacteria in different time periods.
Study Design: The antibacterial effects of Cavity Cleanser, Tubulicid Red Label, Chloraxid 2%, and Oxygenated Water cavity disinfectant solutions on E. faecalis (ATCC 29212), S. mutans (ATCC 25175), and L. acidophilus (RSKK 03037) bacterial strains were evaluated by disk diffusion method. In the study where vancomycin antibiogram disc constituted the positive control group, physiological saline solution was used as the negative control group. Standard, sterile, blank antibiogram discs of 5 mm in diameter, in which 15 μL of each material were added, were placed on agar plates at 2.5–3 cm intervals. The inhibition zone diameters formed around the discs that were left to incubate for 24–48 hours at 37°C were measured in millimeters. Statistical analysis of the data was performed using one-way analysis of variance, Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Levene, and Bonferroni tests.
Results: At the end of the study the solutions tested showed a statistically significant antibacterial effect on all bacterial strains used (p<0.05). Cavity Cleanser disinfectant containing 2% chlorhexidine showed the highest antibacterial effect on S. mutans and L. acidophilus, and benzalkonium-containing Tubulicid Red disinfectant on E. faecalis.
Conclusion: The antibacterial effect of all cavity disinfectants used in the study was found to be higher at the end of the 48th hour than at the end of the 24th hour, but there was no statistically significant difference (p>0.05).
Keywords: antibacterial agents; antibacterial effect; cavity disinfectants; chlorhexidine; contamination; dental caries; disinfection; disc diffusion; gram-negative bacteria; gram-positive bacteria
Objective: To probe into the influence of miR-21 on the proliferation as well as apoptosis of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) and its causative role.
Study Design: We adopted microarray for detecting the differentially expressed genes in OSCC tumor tis-sues and paracancerous tissues. We assessed the link of miR-21 expression with tumor size, lymph node metastasis, and tumor differentiation. We employed CCK-8 and EdU assay for detecting the impact of miR-21 inhibitor and miR-21 mimic on Cal-27 cell proliferation, as well as TUNEL and AnnexinV-FITC/PI double staining for detecting miR-21 expression on cell apoptosis. We forecasted the possible target of miR-21 via TargetScan, as well as detected the interaction of miR-21 with PTEN via luciferase reporter experiment. The function of miR-21 expression in PTEN signaling pathway was monitored via western blot. We constructed PTEN overexpression plasmid and conducted rescue experiment to evaluate overexpressed PTEN on miR-21–induced proliferation.
Results: Microarray and RT-qPCR indicated that miR-21 expression increased demonstrably in OSCC. Subsequently, statistical analysis showed that miR-21 expression was plainly correlated with tumor size, lymph node metastasis, tumor differentiation, and smoking history. CCK-8 and EdU method exhibited that miR-21 mimics manifestly promoted Cal-27 cell proliferation, while miR-21 inhibitor blatantly inhibited Cal-27 cell proliferation. TUNEL and V-FITC/PI double staining assay showed that miR-21 inhibitor conspicuously promoted Cal-27 cell apoptosis. CCK-8 and EdU assay exhibited that overexpressed PTEN abolished the pro-proliferation influence of miR-21 mimic. TUNEL and V-FITC/PI experiments pointed out that knocking down PTEN abrogated the pro-apoptosis impact of miR-21 inhibitor.
Conclusion: miR-21 contributes to OSCC cell proliferation via targeting PTEN and inhibits its apoptosis.
Keywords: Akt/PKB signaling pathway; apoptosis; biomarkers, tumor; carcinoma, squamous cell; cell line, tumor; cell proliferation; microRNAs; miR-21; miRNA-21; mouth neoplasms; oral cancer; oral squamous cell carcinoma; proliferation; real time PCR
Objective: Ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) leads to reactive oxygen species formation and cell death in kidney tissue with injury and organ transplantation. Simvastatin (SIM) is an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticoagulant agent. Alterations in I/R-induced acute kidney injury model with SIM treatment were analyzed.
Study Design: Wistar rats (n=28) were grouped into Sham, Ischemia, I/R, and I/R+SIM treated. Left rat kidney renal vessels were clamped for 60 minutes for ischemia, and the I/R group had 6 hours of reperfusion. 10 mg/kg SIM was given orally for 28 days. MDA, GSH, and MPO were analyzed. Kidney tissues were paraffin embedded, and primary antibodies TNF-α and caspase-3 were applied for immunohistochemistry.
Results: In the I/R group, intense inflammatory cell infiltration around the vessels and necrosis in the glomerular structures were observed. In the treated group, proximal and distal tubular cells were found to be close to normal. Immunoexpression of caspase-3 in the ischemia group was positive in degenerative glomeruli. In the treated group, TNF-α expression was negative in the glomerular structures. MDA and MPO levels were significantly increased in ischemia and I/R.
Conclusion: We suggest that SIM treatment improved kidney tissue structure and function in a model of I/R injury.
Keywords: caspase-3; immunohistochemistry; ischemia/reperfusion; kidney; MPO; simvastatin
Objective: To investigate the changes in the retina due to deltamethrin toxicity and the process in cell inflammation and apoptosis.
Study Design: Sixteen Wistar albino rats were randomly divided into two groups as control (n=8) and deltamethrin (n=8) groups. Saline was given to the control group, and 0.5 mL of 5 mg/kg deltamethrin was given to the deltamethrin group for 14 days each. Blood was collected for biochemical analysis. Retinal tissue was processed for histological examination.
Results: Compared to the control group, MDA levels were high while GSH and CAT levels were low in the deltamethrin group. Histopathological analysis showed spaces between the pigment epithelium, irregularity in the delimiting membrane, degenerated ganglion, cone and bacillus cell, pyknotic nuclei, thinned inner limitation membrane, and thickened vascular wall. The control group showed FAS expression in the pigment layer limiting membranes, in the nuclei of many cone and bacillus cells, and ganglion cells in the control group sections. In the deltamethrin group, FAS expression was observed in the inner and outer limiting membranes of the pigment epithelium, cone and bacillus cells, and ganglion cell nuclei. In the control group, negative NOS expression in the pigment epithelium and outer limiting membranes, internal limitation membrane, and ganglion cells in the cone and bacillus cell nuclei were observed. In the deltamethrin group, NOS expression was positive in the pigment epithelium, cone and bacillus, and ganglion cell nuclei.
Conclusion: We suggest that deltamethrin toxicity induced apoptotic process due to increased inflammation in the retina and may cause visual impairment as a result of neural damage.
Keywords: deltamethrin, FAS, insecticides, NOS, nitric oxide synthase, retina
Objective: Tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC) is a prominent type of oral cancer. Despite the numerous research studies on SCC and microRNAs (miRs), the relation between TSCC and miR-135b-5p is poorly discussed. This experiment aims to find out the possible effect of miR-135b-5p on TSCC with the network of its downstream genes.
Study Design: TSCC tissues and adjacent normal tissues were harvested. Then, expression of miR-135b-5p and AT-rich interactive domain‑containing protein 1A gene (ARID1A) and the phosphatidyl inositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/AKT) pathway was analyzed. After the transfection of miR-135b-5p inhibitor and its negative control into TSCC cells, functional assays were employed to measure cell proliferation, apoptosis, and cycle. Next, the target relation between miR-135b-5p and ARID1A was confirmed. In addition, the fact that miR-135b-5p promoted TSCC development via mediating ARID1A was demonstrated by functional rescue experiment.
Results: miR-135b-5p was upregulated in TSCC tissues and cells, while ARID1A was suppressed (p< 0.05). Silenced miR-135b-5p discouraged TSCC cell proliferation, improved apoptosis, induced cell cycle arrest, and increased ARID1A expression while inactivating the PI3K/AKT axis (p<0.05). Furthermore, knockdown of ARID1A reversed the impacts on TSCC cell proliferation and apoptosis exerted by silencing miR-135b-5p.
Conclusion: This research supported that silenced miR-135b-5p impeded TSCC proliferation and apoptosis by promoting ARID1A and inactivating the PI3K/AKT axis, which may provide some indications for TSCC alleviation.
Keywords: apoptosis; ARID1A; ARID1A protein, human; carcinoma, squamous cell; cell line, tumor; cell proliferation; drug resistance, neoplasm; microRNA-135b-5p; microRNAs; PI3K/AKT pathway; neoplasm metastasis; neoplastic stem cells; proliferation; protein binding; tongue; tongue squamous cell carcinoma
Objective: To investigate the immunohistochemical staining of hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α) and Ki-67 expression in the placenta of pregnant women with placenta previa and placenta accreta.
Study Design: Thirty placentas (10 normotensive, 10 placenta previa, and 10 placenta accreta) were processed for routine histological tissue processing. The biochemical parameters of patients were recorded. Placentas were stained with hematoxylin-eosin and HIF-1α and Ki-67 immunostaining.
Results: Normal histology was observed in placentas of normotensive pregnant women. Placenta previa sections showed increased syncytial knots, intervillous hemorrhage, fibrin accumulation, and hyalinization. In placenta accreta sections, increased syncytial nodes, vascular dilation/congestion, fibrin accumulation, and hyalinization were observed. Normotensive placentas showed no HIF-1α expression. In placenta previa tissues, high HIF-1α expression was observed in vascular endothelial cells, villous stromal cells, and syncytial knots. High HIF-1α expression was recorded in villous stromal cells and cytotrophoblast cells in placenta accreta. In normotensive placental tissues, no Ki-67 expression was observed. In placenta previa sections, high Ki-67 expression was observed mostly in root villi stromal cells and some endothelial cells. High Ki-67 expression was observed mostly in villi stromal cells of placenta accreta.
Conclusion: It is thought that HIF-1α is an important regulatory gene in the development of villus in trophoblast invasion such as placenta accreta and previa, while Ki-67 will play a key role in the development of abnormal placenta with its stimulating effect on inflammatory cell development and angiogenesis in accreta and preeclampsia.
Objective: A spinal cord injury (SCI) is damage to the spinal cord either from trauma, loss of its normal blood supply, or compression from tumor or infection. In this study we focused on alterations in the bladder tissue with angiogenic and apoptotic aspects after spinal cord injury.
Study Design: Twenty Wistar Albino rats were categorized as control and SCI groups. At T7-T9 vertebras, a steel rod was dropped from 10 cm to create a spinal cord injury under anesthesia. Rats were decapitated and spinal tissue was processed to measure malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), and myeloperoxidase (MPO).
Results: MDA, MPO, epithelial degeneration, vascular dilation, inflammation, VEGF, and APAF-1 expressions in the SCI group were statistically higher than those in the control group. GSH content of the SCI group was statistically lower than that in the control group. In the hematoxylin-eosin–stained sections of the control group, normal histology was observed in bladder tissue. In the SCI group, degeneration epithelial cells, thinned epithelium, increased fibrosis, dilated and congested blood vessels, and hyperplastic endothelial cells were observed. In the control group, VEGF expression was slightly observed in some epithelial cells and vascular cells. In the SCI group, VEGF expression was increased in inflammatory and vascular endothelial cells. For APAF-1 expression, the control group showed no expression. In the SCI group, APAF-1 expression was positive in degenerated epithelial cells and connective tissue cells.
Conclusion: It is thought that the urination reflex was affected due to increased inflammation in the bladder tissue, leading to alterations in the regulation and function of the muscles.
Objective: To investigate the effect of sildenafil on reducing the impact of hepatic ischemia/reperfusion (HIR) injury established by Pringle maneuver on the heart of rats.
Study Design: Forty Wistar albino rats were divided into 4 groups: Sham (laparotomy only), Control (laparotomy following sildenafil application), IR (ischemia/reperfusion injured by HIR), and IR+SIL (injured by HIR following sildenafil application). Ischemia was developed by clamping the hepatoduodenal ligament for 30 minutes; then reperfusion was applied for 30 minutes. Sildenafil (single dose of 50 mg/kg) was administered by oral gavage for 15 minutes before ischemia. Blood samples of rats were collected from Sham and Control groups at 60 minutes and from IR and IR+SIL groups at 30 minutes after initiation of reperfusion for biochemical analysis. Meanwhile, heart tissues were sampled for biochemical analysis. Malondialdehyde (MDA) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) in serum samples and TAC, total oxidative capacity (TOC), and oxidative stress index in heart tissues were examined biochemically.
Results: Serum MDA levels were elevated significantly in the IR and IR+SIL groups as compared to the sham group. Sildenafil treatment inhibited MDA increase considerably in the IR+SIL group as compared to the IR group. Serum TAC levels were elevated significantly in the sildenafil and control groups (compared with sham groups) and in the IR+SIL group (compared with the IR group). TAC levels detected in heart tissue increased significantly in the IR group as compared to the sham group; however, sildenafil treatment had no effect on this increase.
Conclusion: Heart tissue was affected by HIR. It was revealed that sildenafil treatment may prevent the oxidative stress via increasing serum TAC levels in both control and IR+SIL groups.
Objective: To examine the oropharynx of patients with ectodermal dysplasia showing maxillary retrusion and mandibular protrusion with a short and concave facial structure using cone-beam computed tomography method. Ectodermal dysplasia refers to the congenital disorder defined by the abnormal development of the structure originating from the ectoderm.
Study Design: In order to examine the oropharynx airway, measurements and statistical evaluations were made in 3 levels in sagittal and transversal directions on three-dimensional cone beam computed tomography images obtained from 14 individuals divided into 2 groups as Ectodermal Dysplasia group (n=7) and Control group (n=7).
Results: As a result of statistical analysis, no statistically significant difference was found between the groups at any level or direction in metric measurements performed on all 3 planes taken at the sagittal and transversal levels (p>0.05).
Conclusion: Our findings on ectodermal dysplasia are similar to Class III malpositions that show similarity with ectodermal dysplasia.
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
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2. Volume 43, Number 2/April 2021 91
Descriptive Comparative Anatomohistological Study
mals. As mice and rats are the most used animals in
experimental studies, the anatomical and histological
differences between species should be carefully evalu-
ated in order to better apply the study model and avoid
unnecessary waste. (Anal Quant Cytopathol Hist-
pathol 2021;43:90–106)
Keywords: anatomy; experimental model; histo
logy; mice, laboratory; Mus musculus; rats, labora-
tory; Rattus norvegicus.
Using animals in laboratory research for biological
investigations arose from the study of compara-
tive diseases.1,2 These studies aimed to find sim-
ilarities in the origin and characteristics of the
pathological processes that affected the human
species in animals with the same conditions. Cur-
rently, implementing defined genetically appro-
priate and sanitary laboratory animals has aided
in new discoveries via experimental models, con-
tributing to the prevention of incurable diseases
such as cancers, AIDS, and multiple sclerosis and
also to the development of new surgical treat-
ment techniques. Other applications correspond
to vaccine development, monoclonal antibodies,
evaluation and control of biological products,
pharmacology, toxicology, bacteriology, virology,
and parasitology in addition to basic immunology
studies, immunopathology, organ transplants, and
immunosuppressive drug development.3,4 How-
ever, with technological advances, alternative in
vitro methods, such as cell culture, made it possi-
ble to obtain satisfactory results without relying
on laboratory animals. Nonetheless, animal models
still present advantages, such as providing infor-
mation about the body as a whole.5-8 In regard to
phylogenetic relationship or anatomical conformi-
ty, previous studies have shown that extrapolating
results to humans is not always reliable.7,9-11
Introduced as a laboratory animal in the 19th
century with the Asian species Mus musculus, mice
came to be, from that period on, the most used
animals in experimental studies, becoming an im
portant experimental model for genetic research.4,12
The Swiss albino lineage is easily accepted and
features heavily in experimental studies due to
its small size, short gestation period, easy domes-
tication and maintenance, and the fact that they
are very prolific.4,13 Eventually, their 99% genet-
ic similarity with humans, allowing to establish
mechanisms involved in human genetic disorders,
and greater capacity of genetic modifications up to
97% of the total of its genes, ensured their labora-
tory use.4
Comprising 137 species from the Central Asia
regions, the genus Rattus have 2 species of great
laboratory importance: Rattus norvegicus (domestic
rat or brown rat) and Rattus rattus (black rat).14 Its
most commonly used species, the albino lineage
Wistar descendant from Rattus norvegicus, devel-
oped at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia in 1906,
was the first to be implemented as a model organ-
ism at a time when researchers used primarily Mus
musculus mice.15 Heterogenic animals have been
used for various scientific purposes, such as stud-
ies on rheumatology, endocrinology, orthopedics,
and others.16
We consider it of great importance that each
laboratory knows the set of reference values of
its healthy animals according to species, lineage,
genre, and age in order to assist professionals in
their different studies. Thus, the present study
aims to address the general biology of Mus mus-
culus and Rattus norvegicus, establishing a descrip-
tive and comparative analysis of the animals’ main
organs.
Materials and Methods
Ethical Statement and Animals
All experimental procedures described in this
study were approved by the Animal Experimenta-
tion Ethics Committee (CEUA) of the Fluminense
Federal University (UFF) in accordance with Law
no. 11.794/2008 (Arouca law). All procedures used
followed the Brazilian Directive for the Care and
Use of Animals for Scientific and Didactic Pur-
poses of the National Council for Animal Experi-
mentation Control (CONCEA).
This study was conducted per the recommenda-
tions of the National Institutes of Health’s Guide
for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. This
study used data obtained from 30 male heterogenic
Mus musculus (Swiss) mice, aged between 60 and
90 days, selected from control groups in a project
approved by the CEUA of the Pro-Rectory of Re
search, Graduate Programs and Innovation of the
UFF, under protocol no. 439/2013. This study also
used data collected from 15 male heterogenic Rat-
tus norvegicus (Wistar) rats, aged between 90 and
120 days, selected from control groups in a project
approved by the CEUA/UFF under protocol no.
035/2011.
All animals, procured from the Animal Core
Laboratory (NAL), were kept in strict health con-
3. 92 Analytical and Quantitative Cytopathology and Histopathology®
Silva-Santana et al
trol and specific-pathogen-free (SPF). The animals
underwent no surgical intervention that could
cause anatomical changes, nor were they exposed
to any chemical or drug treatment that could alter
their natural physiological state.
Both animals were kept in the NAL/UFF vivar-
ium: the mice in collective cages in groups of 5
and the rats in collective cages in groups of 3.
Both species received commercial ration Nuvilab
CR-1, containing in their composition the nutri-
tional values required, and sterile water (auto-
claved) ad libitum, kept in 12-hour light-dark cy-
cles, with room temperature between 22°C (±2°C)
and 50% humidity, according to laboratory recom-
mendations.
Evaluation of Absolute and Relative Weight
The animals’ absolute weight was measured using
a precision scale (Marte AD2000, maximum load
210 g, sensitivity of 0.01 g).
The animals were euthanized with ketamine
(150 mg/kg) and xylazine (60 mg/kg). After con-
firmation of cardiac and respiratory arrest, absence
of corneal reflex, and drop in body temperature
<25°C,17 they underwent exsanguination by intra-
cardiac puncture for complete removal of blood in
the cardiac chambers, which could interfere with
the hearts’ final weight. Subsequently, a necropsy
was performed for the removal of organs: brain,
heart, lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys, stomach, small
intestine, and large intestine. The eyes were ex-
tracted applying light pressure around the orbital
cavity.
Organ weights were measured using a precision
scale (Sartorius BP 221S, maximum load 220 g,
sensitivity of 0.1 mg), with paired organs (eyes,
lungs, and kidneys) being weighed individually.
Evaluation of Organ Length and Width
The organs were evaluated for their anatomical
form, coloring, length, and width. Each organ was
anatomically positioned to measure length and
width using a titanium pachymeter (Mitutoyo, 6
inches, 150 mm), having as initial point the mid-
line. Subsequently, they were photographed (dig-
ital photographic camera, Sony DSC-W310) and
forwarded for anatomic-histological analysis.
Histology
The organs were sectioned symmetrically in half,
in vertical orientation, positioned in cassettes,
stored in formaldehyde at 10% with pH ~6–7 for
48 hours, and submitted to the dehydration pro-
cesses in growing concentrations of ethanol, diaph-
anization in xylol, and inclusion in paraffin. After-
wards, sections were made with 3 µm thickness
using a microtome (LAB-MR500), using the same
fixed in blade stained with hematoxylin and eosin
(H&E). The slides were observed using optical
microscope (model LX 500) and photographed
using an iVm 5000 camera by the ProgRes pro-
gram capture Pro 2.7.18-20
Statistical Analysis
The variables considered in the study were the
absolute and relative body weights of 2 animal
species and of its organs, besides the length and
width of each organ. The data were statistically
described by mean±standard deviation and es-
tablished the correlation between the weights of
paired organs by Pearson’s correlation coefficient.
Dispersion diagrams were used to allow visual-
izing the weights of the paired organs (lungs and
kidneys) and included the linear regression and
the coefficient of determination R2 of the linear
model. To compare body weights (absolute and
relative) as well as organ weights between spe-
cies, Student’s t test was used (in independent or
paired modality when the data presented normal-
ity), Mann-Whitney U test, or Wilcoxon signed-
rank test (in the absence of normality). Length and
width data comparison of each organ was made
by using the correspondent weights tests. Levene’s
test was carried out to investigate the difference
between numerical data variances of sets. The sta-
tistical analysis was set at 95% confidence interval
(CI) and p=0.05 (5%) level of significance, unless
stated otherwise. PASW version 18.0 acted as sup-
port for the statistical analyses.
Results
Analysis of the Weight, Length, and Width of the
Organs
The statistical description (mean±standard devia
tion) of the rat and mouse organs’ weight, length,
and width can be observed in Tables I–II. As
expected, given the animal’s physical constitu-
tion, mice presented smaller measures when com-
pared with rats, which was not always verified
when evaluating the relative weights. The anal
ysis of the relative weight of all organs revealed
statistically significant differences for mice and
rats in the heart, spleen, right and left kidney, right
lung, liver, and large intestine but no statistically
4. Volume 43, Number 2/April 2021 93
Descriptive Comparative Anatomohistological Study
significant evidence for left lung, brain, stomach,
and small intestine. Of the significant differences,
the relative weight of the mice’s organs exceeded
that of the rats’ organs, with greater expressive-
ness in the spleen, followed by the heart and other
organs (right and left kidney), with the liver and
large intestine showing smaller expressiveness
(Table I).
When analyzing the correlation of the weights
in paired organs, such as lungs and kidneys, both
species showed strong correlation (all larger than
0.800) (Figure 1). The relation between the Swiss
mice’s lung weight (right and left lung) presented
a coefficient correlation of r=0.960 (p<0.0001) and
r=0.906 (p<0.0001) between the kidney weight
(right and left kidney). For Wistar rats the observed
correlations were r=0.801 (p=0.0003) and r=0.857
(p<0.0001) for lungs and kidneys, respectively.
We found a statistically significant difference
between the Swiss mice’s right and left lung
weight (z=−3.411; value of p=0.001), with mean
difference of 0.057 g and 95% CI for mean differ-
ence of 0.054–0.060. We also observed a statistically
significant difference regarding the weight of the
Table I Absolute and Relative Weight Values
Absolute weight
Comparison of species
Relative weight
Comparison of species
Organ Species
(mean±SD) Statistical test p Value (mean±SD) Statistical test p Value
Body weight Mouse 34.001±1.3031 Student’s t test <0.0001*
(total) Rat 189.39±1.7142 t=346.367;
gl=46
Brain Mouse 0.4415±0.05969 Mann-Whitney <0.0001* 0.0130±0.00143 Mann-Whitney 0.116
Rat 2.7061±0.05916 U=0 0.0143±0.00021 U=142
Eyes Mouse 0.0224±0.00083 Mann-Whitney <0.0001* 0.0007±0.00002 Mann-Whitney 0.0003*
Rat 0.1328±0.00811 U=0 0.0007±0.00004 U=71
Left lung Mouse 0.0801±0.01062 Mann-Whitney <0.0001* 0.0024±0.00026 Mann-Whitney 0.133
Rat 0.4641±0.03702 U=0 0.0024±0.00018 U=279.5
Right lung Mouse 0.1372±0.01833 Student’s t test <0.0001* 0.0040±0.00042 Student’s t test <0.0001*
Rat 0.8127±0.03368 t=–74.362; 0.0043±0.00014 t=–5.566;
gl=17.115 gl=38.725
Heart Mouse 0.1443±0.01734 Mann-Whitney <0.0001* 0.0042±0.00040 Mann-Whitney 0.0001*
Rat 0.7203±0.01118 U=0 0.0038±0.00004 U=81
Liver Mouse 2.0446±0.02832 Mann-Whitney <0.0001* 0.0606±0.00176 Mann-Whitney 0.011**
Rat 11.3733±0.02776 U=0 0.0601±0.00042 U=106
Spleen Mouse 0.1204±0.02476 Student’s t test <0.0001* 0.0035±0.00063 Student’s t test <0.0001*
Rat 0.4366±0.01833 t=–51.978; 0.0023±0.00008 t=10.371;
gl=40 gl=28.257
Left kidney Mouse 0.1982±0.00746 Student’s t test <0.0001* 0.0058±0.00014 Mann-Whitney <0.0001*
Rat
1.0616±0.01314 t=–244.004; 0.0056±0.00005 U=28
gl=16.679
Right Kidney Mouse 0.2542±0.01965 Mann-Whitney <0.0001* 0.0075±0.00047 Mann-Whitney <0.0001*
Rat 1.3479±0.02656 U=0 0.0071±0.00010 U=73.5
Stomach Mouse 0.2823±0.01160 Mann-Whitney <0.0001* 0.0084±0.00022 Mann-Whitney 0.537
Rat 1.5855±0.01120 U=0 0.0084±0.00005 U=178.5
Small intestine Mouse 1.5073±0.01160 Mann-Whitney <0.0001* 0.0402±0.01370 Mann-Whitney 0.077
Rat 8.3373±0.01118 U=0 0.0440±0.00036 U=151
Large intestine Mouse 0.8676±0.01196 Mann-Whitney <0.0001* 0.0257±0.00074 Mann-Whitney 0.007*
Rat 4.8105±0.01153 U=0 0.0254±0.00019 U=101.5
*p<0.01.
**p<0.05.
gl = degree of freedom, SD = standard deviation.
5. 94 Analytical and Quantitative Cytopathology and Histopathology®
Silva-Santana et al
mice’s right and left kidneys (z=−5.025; p<0.0001),
with mean difference of 0.056 g and 95% CI for
mean difference of 0.051–0.061. Regarding Wistar
rats, right and left lungs and kidneys were sta-
tistically different: lungs (p<0.0001), with mean
difference of 0.347 g and 95% CI for mean differ-
ence of 0.336–0.361, and kidneys (p<0.0001), with
mean difference of 0.286 g and 95% CI for mean
difference of 0.277–0.296.
The analysis revealed that, on average, the right
lung of mice is 71.32% heavier than the left lung,
and the right kidney is 28.26% heavier than the
left kidney. Similar data were verified in rats: on
average, the right lung is 75.12% heavier than the
left lung, and the right kidney is 26.97% heavier
than the left kidney.
The comparative analysis between the 2 species’
organ weights revealed significant statistical differ-
ences, with superior values for rats, as expected by
their proportion. The 95% confidence intervals in
Table III reinforce this observation.
Morphoanatomy and Histology
Mice have lissencephalic brains divided into 3 ana-
tomical parts: the hindbrain (rhombencephalon),
which connects the brain to the spinal cord; the
midbrain (mesencephalon), situated between the
other 2 parts; and the forebrain (prosencephalon),
comprising the cerebral cortex (telencephalon),
the diencephalon, and the olfactory bulb. The rat
brain, on the other hand, presents gyrification and
can be divided into the telencephalon (cortex), di-
encephalon, midbrain, bridge, cerebellum, and
bulb. The brain tissue consists of functional cells
(neurons) and support cells (macroglia and microg-
lia) (Figure 2).
In both species the eyes are paired with an almost
spherical shape. The inside out cornea consists of
the outer layer of stratified squamous epithelium
and stroma formed by collagen fibers, fibroblasts,
and some elastic fibers. The vitreous body fills
the space between the lens (almost spherical and
relatively large) and the retina. The lens consists
of laminated fibers formed by modified epithelial
cells, sealed per capsule. Formed by retinal pigment
epithelium, photoreceptor cell layer (containing
mainly rods), outer nuclear layer (containing the
receivers cell nuclei), and outer plexiform layer,
the retina contains intermediate bipolar, horizon
tal, and amacrine neurons which cross through the
inner layer and the ganglion cell layer forming
the ganglion, where the cells form the axons of
the optic nerve, leading the visual impulses to the
brain. Lastly, the opaque sclera covers the poste-
rior of the eyes (Figure 3).
Their lungs are formed by the bronchi, divided
into bronchioles and alveoli wrapped by capil-
laries, and arteries and veins that follow the bron-
chial tree, with the walls of the pulmonary veins
containing striated heart muscle. While the left
lung consists of 1 lobe, the right lung is sub-
divided into cranial, middle, caudal, and accessory
(Figure 4).
In mammals the heart has 4 chambers: 2 atria
separated by an interatrial septum and 2 ventricles
separated by an interventricular septum. Both spe-
cies’ heart consists almost exclusively of myocytes
inside a fibrous leaf in transversal striated marks
(Figure 5).
The liver comprises 4 main lobes dorsally uni
ted: a large middle lobe (subdivided by a fissure
in the left and right portions), a right lateral lobe
Table II Length and Width Values
Length (mm) Width (mm)
Organ Species (mean±SD) (mean±SD)
Brain Mouse 13.52±0.54 12.49±0.44
Rat 23.63±0.63 16.73±0.45
Eyes Mouse 3.5±0 (constant radius)
Rat 7.0±0 (constant radius)
Left lung Mouse 11.26±0.56 5.22±0.35
Rat 23.04±1.64 10.67±1.79
Right lung Mouse 13.45±1.19 6.16±0.28
Rat 26.09±1.82 12.04±0.43
Heart Mouse 8.08±0.2 6±0.11
Rat
12.54±0.4
10.01±0.1
Liver Mouse 28.66±0.98 24.46±5.17
Rat 37.37±1.27 42.03±1.03
Spleen Mouse 15.2±0.7 4.64±0.41
Rat 31.89±1.32 6.77±0.39
Left kidney Mouse 10.79±0.83 6.28±0.42
Rat 15.65±2.07 8.57±0.33
Right kidney Mouse 10.74±0.66 6.1±0.43
Rat 16.92±0.97 9.1±0.57
Stomach Mouse 13.02±1.12 5.72±1.01
Rat 25.69±1.32 13.23±1.02
Small intestine Mouse 371.99±1.07 1.87±0.61
Rat 506.06±0.85 5.09±1.03
Large intestine Mouse 116.02±1.12 2.88±0.91
Rat 222.46±1.32 8.09±1.03
SD = standard deviation.
6. Volume 43, Number 2/April 2021 95
Descriptive Comparative Anatomohistological Study
(divided horizontally into anterior and posterior
portions), and a left lateral lobe and caudal lobe.
The latter consists of 2 portions: 1 dorsally, resem-
bling a leaf, and 1 ventrally to the esophagus in
the smallest stomach curve, the surface of which
forms the papillary process. Blood feeds the liver
through interlobular branches of hepatic arteries
and hepatic veins, which are open for the sinu-
soids. The gallbladder sits at the base of the deep
bifurcation of the middle lobe next to the point
of origin of the falciform ligament. Hepatocytes
(parenchymal cells) are placed on plates which
radiate from the central vein to the lobular pe-
riphery (Figure 6).
The spleen is elongated and triangular in cross-
section, with a posterolateral face (diaphragmatic),
a posteromedial face (renal), an anteromedial face
(gastric), and an antero-lower face (colic). Its tis-
sue is formed by parenchyma (splenic pulp), con
stituted by a differentiated cellular arrangement
into a white pulp (a marginal zone of lower cell
density) and a red pulp (found between the nod-
ules and which constitutes the major part of the
parenchyma) (Figure 7).
Their kidneys are shaped like bean grains with
a dark red coloration. The nephron consists of the
glomerulus surrounded by a Bowman’s capsule,
parietal cells of which appear flattened in the vas
cular pole and cuboid on the glomerular urinary
pole. Found mainly in the cortex, the proximal
tubules are formed by cuboidal cells with promi-
nent brush-like microvilli. The distal tubules reen-
ter in the cortex and present a cuboid epithelium
similar to that of proximal tubules but deprived of
microvilli (Figure 8).
In rodents the stomach divides into aglandular
and glandular, separated by a pleated margin or
limiting crest (margo plicatus). The glandless por-
tion is of an opaque whitish coloration, coated by
keratinized stratified pavement epithelium. The
glandular portion is translucent, colored reddish-
pink, and coated with simple cubic epithelium.
The mucosa of the glandular stomach encompasses
(1) the cardiac region, located around the gastric
Figure 1 Correlation between weights of the organ pairs. (A) Lungs (right and left) of mice, (B) kidneys (right and left) of mice, (C) lungs
(right and left) of rats, and (D) kidneys (right and left) of rats.
7. 96 Analytical and Quantitative Cytopathology and Histopathology®
Silva-Santana et al
opening of the esophagus extending to the edge
of the pleated margin, containing mucous cells
called cardiac glands, (2) the fundic region (ven-
tral side of the stomach), composed mainly of
glandular mucosa containing fundic glands and
granular eosinophilic parietal cells, which pro-
duce hydrochloric acid, and (3) the pyloric region
extending to the pylorus (sphincter between the
stomach and small intestine), formed by pyloric
mucous glands (Figure 9).
Both species’ intestine is slender and thick, hav-
ing 3 layers in all its length (mucosa with sub-
mucosa, muscular, and serosa). The mucosal epi-
thelium of the small intestine shows scattered
Paneth’s cells, goblet cells, and absorbent cells
forming microvilli, which become smaller and in
greater quantity from the duodenum to the ileum
(Figure 9). The large intestine comprises the ce-
cum, colon, and rectum. The cecum consists of a
corpuscle and an apex, which is more elongated
and less saccular in mice; its mucosa forms trans-
versal folds. The colon has an ascending, a trans
versal, and a descending part; its mucous mem-
brane contains goblet cells in greater proportion
than in the small intestine, which form crypts with
no villi (Figure 10).
Discussion
Surgical research using laboratory animals has
expanded in recent decades as a result of better
anesthetic support, improved surgery monitoring
infrastructure, and the incessant search for models
capable of reproducing morbid conditions to solve
human diseases.21 Researchers must consider the
Table III Comparison Between Weights of the Organs of Mice and Rats
AHV (Levene’s test) CBOWB-M/R
DBW-A/O
Organ Species MW (g) F statistic p Value AWD (g) SWD (g) t Statistic gl p Value (95% CI)
Brain Mouse 0.442
0.313 0.579 2.265 0.0192 118.169 40 <0.0001** 2.226–2.303
Rat 2.706
Eyes Mouse 0.022
116.055 <0.0001* 0.110 0.0021 52.601 14.165 <0.0001** 0.106–0.115
Rat 0.133
Left lung Mouse 0.077
13.519 0.001* 0.387 0.0097 40.005 14.751 <0.0001** 0.367–0.408
Rat 0.464
Right lung Mouse 0.132
13.546 0.001* 0.681 0.0092 74.362 17.115 <0.0001** 0.662–0.700
Rat 0.813
Heart Mouse 0.139
0.086 0.770 0.582 0.0039 149.742 40 <0.0001** 0.574–0.590
Rat 0.720
Liver Mouse 2.045
0.210 0.649 9.329 0.0091 1029.905 40 <0.0001** 9.310–9.347
Rat 11.373
Spleen Mouse 0.113
0.251 0.619 0.324 0.0062 51.978 40 <0.0001** 0.311–0.336
Rat 0.437
Left kidney Mouse 0.196
6.663 0.014* 0.866 0.0035 244.004 16.679 <0.0001** 0.858–0.873
Rat 1.062
Right kidney Mouse 0.246
14.944 0.0004* 1.102 0.0070 157.667 15.080 <0.0001** 1.087–1.117
Rat 1.348
Stomach Mouse 0.282
0.126 0.725 1.303 0.0037 352.956 40 <0.0001** 1.296–1.311
Rat 1.586
Small intestine Mouse 1.507
0.161 0.691 6.830 0.0037 1850.916 40 <0.0001** 6.823–6.837
Rat 8.337
Large intestine Mouse 0.868
0.155 0.695 3.943 0.0038 1036.818 40 <0.0001** 3.935–3.951
Rat 4.811
*Indicates that variances are unequal (p<0.05).
**Indicates statistical differences highly significant (p<0.01).
AHV = analysis of the homogeneity of variances, AWD = average weight difference, CBOWB-M/R = comparison between organ weights between mice and
rats, DBW-A/O (95% CI) = difference between the weights of animal organs (95% confidence interval), gl = degree of freedom, MW = middle-weight,
SWD = standard weight difference error.
8. Volume 43, Number 2/April 2021 97
Descriptive Comparative Anatomohistological Study
general biology, anatomy, histology, and physiol-
ogy of laboratory animals used in research before
choosing the most appropriate experimental mod
el. In the course of this article we observed some
Figure 2 Anatomy and histology of the mouse and rat brain. (A–B) Brain of mouse and (E–F) brain of rat (bar=5 mm). Dorsal surfaces
(A and E) and ventral surfaces (B and F) of the cerebral hemispheres. (1) Olfactory bulb, (2) forebrain (prosencephalon), (3) midbrain
(mesencephalon), (4) flocculus, (5) vermis, (6) pyriform cortex, (7) rhombencephalon, (8) longitudinal fissure, (9) cerebral cortex,
(10) caudal colliculus, (11) transverse fissure, (12) optic nerve, (13) olfactory bulb, (14) lateral olfactory tract, (15) optic chiasma,
(16) mamillary bodies, (17) cerebral crus, (18) pons, (19) ventral medial fissure, (20) trapezoid body, (21) paraflocculus, (22) lateral ventral
sulcus, (23) medullary pyramid, (24) medulla oblongata, and (25) spinal medulla. (C–D) Mouse brain tissue, 4× and 40×, respectively
(bar=500 μm). (G–H) Rat brain tissue, 20× and 40×, respectively (bar=500 μm). (1) Cerebral cortex, (2) molecular layer, (3) Purkinje
cells, (4) granular layer, (5) white matter, and (6) sulcus.
Figure 3 Anatomy and histology of the mouse and rat eyes. (A) Eyes (right and left) of mouse and (E) eyes (right and left) of rat (bar=5
mm). (1) Eye globe, (2) optic nerve. (B–D) Tissues that make up eyes of mice, 4×, 10×, and 20×, respectively (bar=500 μm). (F–H) Tissues
that make up eyes of rats, 4×, 10×, and 40×, respectively (bar=500 μm). (1) Cornea, (2) anterior chamber, (3) iris, (4) ciliary body,
(5) lens, (6) vitreous body, (7) retina, (8) sclera, (9) choroid, (10) lamina vitrea, (11) pigmented epithelium, (12) roads and cones, (13) outer
nuclear layer, (14) outer plexiform layer, (15) inner nuclear layer, (16) inner plexiform layer, and (17) ganglion cell.
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Silva-Santana et al
Mice have lissencephalic brains (devoid of folds),
where the caudate nucleus and the putamen form
important anatomical and histological features
specific to Mus musculus and Rattus norvegicus.
Figure 4 Anatomy and histology of the mouse and rat lungs (right and left). (A–B) Lungs (right and left) of mouse: (A) ventral surface and
(B) dorsal surface. (F–G) Lungs (right and left) of rat: (F) ventral surface and (G) dorsal surface (bar = 5 mm). (1) Left lung, (2) right cranial
lobe, (3) right middle lobe, (4) right caudate lobe, and (5) accessory lobe. (C–E) Pulmonary tissue of mice, 4×, 10×, and 20×, respectively
(bar=500 μm). (H–J) Pulmonary tissue of rat, 4×, 10×, and 20×, respectively (bar=500 μm). (1) Pleura, (2) alveolus, (3) alveolar septum,
(4) bronchioles, (5) pulmonary vein, and (6) bronchial coating epithelial cells.
Figure 5 Anatomy and histology of the mouse and rat heart. (A) Mouse heart and (D) rat heart (bar = 5 mm). (1) Aorta, (2) left auricle,
(3) left ventricle, (4) right auricle, (5) right ventricle, and (6) conoventricular vein. (B–C) Myocardium of the mouse, 10× and 40×,
respectively (bar=500 μm). (E–F) Myocardium of the rat, 10× and 40×, respectively (bar=500 μm). (1) Myocardial fibers exhibit cross
striations formed by alternating segments, (2) myocyte nuclei, and (3) vein.
10. Volume 43, Number 2/April 2021 99
Descriptive Comparative Anatomohistological Study
Figure 6 Anatomy and histology of the mouse and rat liver. (A) Visceral surface of the mouse liver and (D) visceral surface of the rat liver
(bar=5 mm). (1) Left lateral lobe, (2) caudate lobe, (3) right lateral lobe, (4) right middle lobe, (5) gallbladder, (6) papillary process, and
(7) left middle lobe. (B–C) Hepatic tissue of mice, 10× and 20×, respectively (bar=500 μm). (E–F) Hepatic tissue of rats, 10× and 40×,
respectively (bar=500 μm). (1) Central vein, (2) sinusoid, (3) hepatocyte, (4) portal triad: portal vein, (5) hepatic artery, and (6) bile duct.
Figure 7 Anatomy and histology of the mouse and rat spleen. (A–B) Spleen of a mouse and (E–F) spleen of a rat (bar=5 mm).
(1) Colic surface, (2) gastric surface, (3) diaphragmatic surface, and (4) renal surface. (C–D) Splenic tissue of a mouse, 4× and 20×,
respectively (bar=500 μm), and (G–H) splenic tissue of a rat, 20× and 40×, respectively (bar=500 μm). (1) White pulp, (2) red pulp, and
(3) central artery.
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Silva-Santana et al
Figure 8 Anatomy and histology of the mouse and rat kidney. (A) Kidneys (right and left) of a mouse and (D) Kidneys (right and left) of a
rat (bar=5 mm). (1) Papilla, (2) medulla, and (3) cortex. (B–C) Renal cortex of a mouse, 10× and 20×, respectively (bar=500 μm).
(E–F) Renal cortex of a rat, 10× and 40×, respectively (bar=500 μm). (1) Glomerulus, (2) Bowman’s space, (3) renal tubules, (4) capillary,
and (5) mesentery.
Figure 9 Anatomy and histology of the mice and rat stomach and small intestine. (A) Stomach and small intestine of a mouse and
(E) stomach and small intestine of a rat (bar=5 mm). (1) Stomach, (2) duodenum, (3) jejunum, and (4) ileus. (B–D) Stomach of a mouse,
4×, 10×, and 40×, respectively (bar=500 μm). (F–H) Jejunum of a rat, 4×, 10×, and 40×, respectively (bar=500 μm). (1) Mucosa of
the aglandular stomach, (2) main cells, (2a) parietal cells, (3) limiting crest, (4) mucosa of the glandular stomach, (5) villi, (6) absorbent
columnar cells, (7) lamina propria, (8) crypts, (9) submucosa, (9a) muscularis mucosae, (10) muscular layer, (10a) internal circular
muscular layer, (10b) outer longitudinal muscular layer, (11) adventitia, and (12) cardiac gland.
12. Volume 43, Number 2/April 2021 101
Descriptive Comparative Anatomohistological Study
In mice the rhombencephalon is responsible
for muscle balance and control and autonomous
functions such as heart and respiratory rate.23,24
The midbrain contains structures responsible for
receiving and interpreting visual and auditory
signals.22,24 The hypothalamus controls endocrine
functions and the survival instincts (fight or flight,
reproduction); the thalamus relays sensory infor-
mation to the primary areas of the cortex.23,24 The
fissures and folds that form the cortex, although
abundant in rats and other higher mammals, are
few in mice.23-25 The genes responsible for neural
development in humans and mice are 90% identi-
cal, making the use of these animals in studies of
mental illness of great importance.24
The eyes of both species comprise structures
that nourish, protect, and lubricate the eyeball,
including conjunctiva, eyelids, nictitating mem-
brane (third eyelid), Harderian gland, and Mei-
bomian glands.22-24 Being nocturnal animals, their
retina present peculiarities: a central round area or
“horizontal ray” increases its visual acuity, it also
lacks macula. Under weak light the mouse pupil
a continuous structure (caudate putamen). Com-
monly, the brain of both species can be divided
into 3 anatomical parts: rhombencephalon, mid-
brain, and forebrain. The rhombencephalon, com-
posed of marrow, pons, and cerebellum, connects
the brain to the spinal cord (oblong). The midbrain,
sitting between the hindbrain and the prosenceph-
alon, consists of the tectum, integument, and the
cerebral peduncle. The forebrain encompasses the
cerebral cortex (telencephalon), the basal ganglia,
septum, epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus
(diencephalon) and the olfactory bulb. In the cere-
bral cortex the right and left sides are joined by the
corpus callosum, a thick band of nerve fibers.22,23
The brain tissue consists of functional cells (neu-
rons) and the support cells, macroglia, and microg-
lia. Macroglia are oligodendrocytes (producers of
myelin and astrocytes) present in both gray and
white matter. Ependymal ciliated cells line the
walls of the brain ventricles and can react posi-
tively with astrocytes. The epithelium of the cho-
roid plexus forms microvilli and reacts positively
with epithelial markers.23,24
Figure 10 Anatomy and histology of the mouse and rat large intestine. (A) Large intestine of a mouse and (D) large intestine of a rat
(bar=5 mm). (1) Cecum, (2) colon, and (3) rectum. (B–C) Cecum of a mouse, 10× and 40×, respectively (bar=500 μm). (E–F) Colon of a
rat, 10× and 40×, respectively (bar=500 μm). (1) Serosa (visceral peritoneum), (2) muscular layer, (3) fine submucosa, (4) submucosa,
(5) crypt elongation, (6) Lieberkühn’s glands, (7) goblet cells, and (8) lymphatic follicle.
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Silva-Santana et al
and left lung weight, directly correlated to the
number of lobes. In mice the right lung can be
71.32% heavier than the left; in rats this differ-
ence can reach 75.12%. Another important ana-
tomical difference is the presence of the accessory
lobe in rats and its absence in mice.
In mammals the heart is divided into 4 cham-
bers: 2 atria separated by an interatrial septum
and 2 ventricles separated by an interventricular
septum.22-24 Between the interatrial septum and
interventricular septum exists a small septal seg-
ment known as the atrioventricular septum (rela
tively thick and mainly muscular, a result of the
displacement of the atrioventricular valves), placed
between the subaortic segment leaving the left
ventricle.23,24 At the junction between the atria and
ventricles (AVJ) we find 2 valves: the left AVJ has
a mitral valve with 2 separate leaflets (bicuspid
valve), while the right AVJ comprises a valve with
3 separate leaflets (tricuspid valve).22-24 The inter-
nal cover of the ventricles is characterized by
the presence of numerous myocardial protrusions
(trabeculae).23,24 Inside of the apical cavity of the
ventricles, beyond trabeculation and chordae ten
dineae, we can distinguish fine structures similar
to tendon cords linked to the papillary muscle
(trabeculae tendineae).22-24
The heart consists almost exclusively of myo-
cytes specialized in the conduction system (Pur
kinje cells) inside a fibrous leaf. The pulmonary
veins join in confluence, entering through a single
foramen on the dorsal wall of the left atrium.23,24
The superior relative weight of the mouse heart
may be correlated with the arrangement of myo-
cardial fibers, with greater quantity of myocardio-
cytes observed in histology. Another important
factor that may explain these results is that the
mouse’s heart rate at rest (~500–780 bpm) is higher
than the rat’s (~250–480 bpm).4,36,37
The liver occupies one-third of the anterior re-
gion of the abdominal cavity, presenting a surface
covered by a capsule, formed by conjunctive tis-
sue.23-25 The blood flows from the perilobular re-
gion to the central vein, following to the cava vein
via large hepatic veins. The hepatocytes are dis
tributed on plates radiating from the central vein
to the lobular periphery; the sinusoidal coating
cells (endothelial cells, Kupffer cells, fixed macro-
phages linked to sinusoid wall cells, and granular
lymphocytes with natural killer activity) show ac-
cumulation of cytoplasmic lipid and vitamin A, he-
matopoietic cells, bile duct cells, connective tissue
widens to 1.2 mm in diameter, while in strong
light it contracts about 0.2 mm diameter for half
a second.24,26,27 It can have 2 types of photorecep-
tors: rods, which detect light and darkness, and
cones for green and blue colors. As blue cones
are sensitive to short wavelengths, both animals
can see ultraviolet.4,28 Each neural cell on the
rodent’s retina has a greater number of photore
ceptors than that in humans, i.e., the ganglionic
receptor fields of the rodent’s cells are greater
than those of the human fovea,29 which increases
sensitivity and reduces acuity. Present only in
albino mice, the Bowman’s membrane has both
pigmentation and retinal pigment epithelium.23,24
The mouse sclera is opaque, covering from the
back of the eyes to the choroids, with no tapetum
lucidum.23-25 The ciliary body, iris, and choroid
form the external fibrous vascular tunic (uvea)
containing pigment, except in albino species.23-25
The lens consists of rolled fibers formed by modi-
fied epithelial cells, enclosed per capsule, allowing
for almost all visible light and 50% of ultravio-
let.23,30 Its poorly developed ciliary muscle renders
it impossible to change the shape of the lens26,31
unless administered atropine drops, which relax
the lens keeping its focus, but these are inconclu-
sive data.31,32 Lastly, the nictitating membrane
forms a translucent conjunctiva that, together with
the Harderian gland, surrounds and protects the
optic nerve.23,24
Located in the thoracic cavity, covered by the
parietal pleura, the left lung consists of a single
lobe, while the right lung consists of 4 lobes (cra-
nial, middle, caudal, and accessory), with stud-
ies describing at least 9 standards for pulmonary
lobulation.23,24,33,34 Two bronchi form an intrapul-
monary route with bifurcations ending in bron
chioles. The smallest bronchial airways in mice
are the terminal bronchioles, which evolve into al-
veolar ducts (alveolar sacs and alveoli). The alve-
olar epithelium consists of lung cells type I and cu-
boidal cell type II. Lungs of healthy mice present
few lymphoid tissues (bronchus-associated lym-
phoid tissue [BALT] associated with bronchial tis-
sue), becoming well developed only by pathogen-
ic infections.23,24,35 Blood enters the lungs from the
systemic circulation through the bronchial arter-
ies, and venous blood exits through the pulmo-
nary arteries of the heart. Arteries and veins end
on the bronchial tree, and the walls of the pulmo-
nary veins contain cardiac muscles (striated).23,24
We found a significant difference between right
14. Volume 43, Number 2/April 2021 103
Descriptive Comparative Anatomohistological Study
and macrophages that, when stimulated by an
antigen, can store plasma cells. In continuations
of the periarteriolar lymphoid sheath, found in bi-
furcations of the central arterioles, the follicles
comprise mainly B lymphocytes, follicular den-
dritic cells, and T CD4+ cells in smaller number;
commonly, T CD8+ cells are absent.39,43 When
stimulated by antigens, follicles can form germinal
centers with a greater presence of follicular macro-
phages.39,40 Lastly, situated in the interface of red
pulp with the periarteriolar lymphoid sheath and
the follicles, the marginal zone consists of reticular
fibrils, macrophages, dendritic cells, and medium
B cells.41,44 The macrophages of the marginal zone
assist in removing microorganisms and virus, rec-
ognizing receptors (TLRs) and recognizing bac-
teria.39,44 The marginal zone B cells are a unique
subset of noncirculating B cells that have an IgM+/
IgD− phenotype as opposed to follicular B cells,
which are IgM+/IgD+.39,43
Kidneys lie parallel in the dorsal part of the
abdominal cavity; the right kidney is slightly high-
er (cranially) than the left kidney.22-24 The right
kidney is usually larger than the left, and the kid-
neys of males are relatively larger than those of
females.24 This article corroborates these findings,
as the right kidney of mice showed, on average,
28.26% more weight than the left, with similar
results observed in the right kidney of rats, on
average 26.97% heavier than the left.
In rats, the kidney is unilobed with a single
papilla, formed by the cortex and medulla. The
cortex contains cortical tubular labyrinths (mainly
proximal convoluted tubules) and medullary rays
that extend from the external medulla.23 The me-
dulla is subdivided into an outer zone, with one
external and internal band and an internal zone
forming the papilla. Its functional unit is the neph-
ron, which consists of the glomerulus (covered by
Bowman’s capsule) wound around the proximal
and distal tubules, the descending and ascending
portions of the Henle loop and the straight por-
tions.24 The nephrons connect into the collecting
ducts, which emerge from the papillary ducts,22,23
which in turn open at the tip of the renal papilla
in the renal pelvis.24 The renal pelvis is lined with
transitional cell epithelium, and its continuation
forms the ureter.22 The renal papilla in rats can
be long and protrudes into the initial portion of
the ureter.23 Most rat species may exhibit sexual
dimorphism under the influence of testosterone
(the female parietal epithelial cells are typically
cells, and blood vessel wall cells (adventitial cells
and smooth muscle).23,24 A characteristic usually
found in hepatic cells of rats and mice is anisocy-
tosis and anisokaryosis (variations in the size of
cells and nuclei).24
Observed only in mice, the gallbladder sits at
the base of the deep bifurcation of the middle lobe
next to the point of origin of the falciform liga-
ment.23,24,38 Both the hepatic duct of the liver and
the cystic duct of the gallbladder join to form the
common bile duct—the standard hepatic pattern,
although studies have described at least 13 dif-
ferent ones.33 In rats the periportal biliary system
consists of a network of canaliculi that end in a
common bile duct.21
Of friable consistency and purple coloration,
the spleen rests on the left dorsocranial region of
the abdominal cavity, posterior to the stomach
and above the upper pole of the left kidney.22,23,39
Both the greater intensity of the color purple found
in the spleens of rats and the superior relative
weight of the mouse spleen can be attributed to
the venous sinuses (hematopoietic tissue)—they
are bigger and more abundant in rats, generating
numerous anastomoses (sinus) that provide larger
areas of red pulp, unlike the venous sinuses in
mice.39 Mice showed a greater proportion of
white pulp than did rats.39,40 Finally, extramedul-
lary hematopoiesis is common in the red pulp of
rodents, with greater prevalence in the spleens of
mice than that in rats.39
This organ acts as an immunological system
and blood reservoir, producing and maturing B
and T lymphocytes, integrating, in some cases,
the reticuloendothelial system and participating
in the hematopoiesis and eryptosis process (reno-
vation of red blood cells).39 The red pulp consists
of reticular tissue formed of splenic cords (or
Cords of Billroth) and venous sinuses (splenic
sinuses), which go to the blood tissue (capillaries
and sinusoids); the leukocytes perform its selec-
tions and destruction, if they present anomalies,
are old or injured. Besides serving as a leukocyte
and platelet deposit, the macrophages contained
therein are responsible for the phagocytosis of
microorganisms.24,39,41 The white flesh comprises
a periarteriolar lymphoid sheath, follicles, and
marginal zone.41,42 The internal periarteriolar lym-
phoid sheath consists predominantly of T CD4+
cells, T CD8+ cells in smaller number, dendritic
cells, and migrating B cells; its outer part consists
of small/medium lymphocytes (B and T cells)
15. 104 Analytical and Quantitative Cytopathology and Histopathology®
Silva-Santana et al
thelium lining and a fibrovascular stroma called
“own blade,” separated from the submucosa by
mucosal muscular lamina (a thin layer of smooth
muscle).23,24 The submucosa consists of connec-
tive tissue involving blood vessels, lymphatic ves-
sels, and nerves. The muscular layer consists of
the muscle inner circular layer, and the serosa com-
prise the thin layer of the peritoneum.23,24,38
Its lymphoid tissue (gut-associated lymphoid tis-
sue) forms the scattered nodules, the submucosa,
and the lamina propria. Located over the mesen
teric accessory of the small intestine are the aggre-
gated lymphoid nodules (Peyer’s patches); on the
surface of the epithelium of the antimesenteric
portion we find antigen-producing M cells.45 In the
large intestine the Peyer’s patches can be antimes-
enteric or not. The mucosal epithelium usually
has absorption cells, with luminal membrane cells
forming microvilli, and a greater number of goblet
cells than in the small intestine, forming crypts.
Rats show a greater number of Paneth cells, which
contain eosinophils (granulocytes) with lysozyme
and antimicrobial peptides. Polypeptide entero-
endocrine cells appear scattered along the gastro-
intestinal tract, and caveolae cells are responsible
for producing intestinal chemoreceptors.23,24 The
entrance of the ileum forms the sacculus rotundus
and the exit of the colon forms the ampulla coli.24
Different from higher mammals, the mucosal
surface of the small intestine of rats has no folds
(plicae). Instead, the mucosa forms villi from epi-
thelium and lamina propria, forming the inner
intestinal lumen23,24,38; the villi, each containing 1
lymphatic vessel, decreases in number from the
duodenum to the ileum.23,24 Between the villi, pro-
trusions emerge in the opposite direction under
the surface of the mucosa, forming crypts or intes-
tinal glands.23,24,38
Both species have a functional cecum, large in
size, with sacs forming a fermentation tank where
specialized microorganisms degrade cell walls
formed by cellulose. In rats the cecum has a cor-
puscle and an apex; its mucosa forms transversal
folds.45 The colon has an ascending, a transversal,
and a descending part and a mucosa consisting of
an ascending and transversal part, which forms
transversal folds. The descending colon and rectum
consist of longitudinal protuberances prominent in
the lumen, formed by the mucosa and submucosa.
The muscular mucosa is more prominent in the
rectum than in the colon. From rectum to anus,
the superficial epithelium becomes squamous and
flattened and the male parietal epithelium can be
both cuboidal and flattened).22,24
Regardless of the genus, the parietal cells of
Bowman’s capsule are flattened in the vascular
pole and cuboidal in the urinary pole of the glom-
eruli.23,24 The proximal tubules, found mainly in the
cortex, consist of cuboidal cells with a prominent
brush-like border (microvilli).22,23 The descend-
ing and ascending portions of the Henle loop are
found in the marrow, lined with flattened epithe
lium that resembles the endothelium of blood
vessels.24 The distal tubules reenter the cortex and
consist of a cuboidal epithelium similar to that
of proximal tubules but devoid of microvilli.22
The straight portion of the distal tubules leads to
dense macula in the vascular pole of the glomer-
ulus, where specialized cells produce renin.24 In
rats, the renal vasculature resembles other spe-
cies: the branches of the renal artery fashion the
arcuate arteries on the corticomedullary border.23
The interlobular branches of the arched arteries
supply the afferent arterioles of the glomeruli,22,24
which in turn provide the cortex with blood and
form the downward straight vessel, responsible for
supplying blood to the marrow.23,24 The ascending
vessel collects venous blood, while spontaneous
vacuolation occurs in the arched interlobular veins,
probably of lysosomal origin, in the renal tubular
epithelium of the external medulla.22,23
In rodents, the stomach divides into glandular
and nonglandular.24,38,45 The nonglandular stom-
ach usually has thin, transparent walls lined with
keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium, serv-
ing for storage and food digestion. The glandular
stomach has thick walls lined with epithelium;
the blade itself consists of tubular gastric glands
containing cells that secrete mucus and pepsino-
gen, main cells, and hydrochloric acid–producing
cells (parietal cells).21,23,24,45 The initial portion of
the duodenum has special tubular alveolar glands
known as Brunner glands.23,24 One or more pan-
creatic ducts and the common bile duct end in
the duodenal papilla.24 Models used to replicate
stomach ulcers should consider inducing ulcers in
the nonsecretory mucosa; such studies must un
dergo rigorous evaluation, as producing ulcers
in the rat’s gastric mucosa is a difficult task, and
most proposed methods frequently end in animal
suffering.21
The intestine is slender and thick, having 3 lay-
ers in all its length (mucosa with submucosa, mus-
cular, and serosa).23,24,38 The mucosa has an epi
16. Volume 43, Number 2/April 2021 105
Descriptive Comparative Anatomohistological Study
Criação e experimentação. Rio de Janeiro, Fiocruz, 2006, p
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usage. Rev Farm Bioquim Univ Säo Paulo 1995;31(1):21-28
7. Salén JCW: Animal models: Principles and problems. In The
Experimental Animal in Biomedical Research: Care, Hus-
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BE Rollin, ML Kessel. Boston, CRC Press, 1995, p 560
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9. Calabrese EJ: Principles of Animal Extrapolation. Michigan,
Lewis Publishers, 1991
10. Fagundes DJ, Taha MO: Animal disease model: Choice’s
criteria and current animals specimens. Acta Cir Bras 2004;
19(1):59-65
11. Lynette AH: Responsible conduct with animals in research.
Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998
12. Santos BF: Camundongos mutantes mais utilizados. In Ani-
mais de Laboratório: Criação e Experimentação. Edited by
A Andrade, SC Pinto, RS Oliveira. Rio de Janeiro, Fiocruz,
2002, pp 139-142
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de Laboratório: Criação e Experimentação. Edited by A
Andrade, SC Pinto, RS Oliveira. Rio de Janeiro, Fiocruz,
2002, pp 115-118
14. Cesarino JL, Gontijo JAR, Zapparoli A: Environment in an ex-
perimental animal facility and the species Rattus norvegicus:
Review. Rev Elet Farm 2011;8(2):25-32
15. Clause BT: The Wistar Institute Archives: Rats (not mice) and
history. Mendel Newsl 1998;7:2-7
16. Andersen ML, D’Almeida V, Ko GM, Kawakami R, Martins
PJF, Magalhães LE, Tufik S: Eutanásia. In Princípios Éticos
e Práticos do Uso de Animais de Experimentação. Edited
by ML Andersen, V D’Almeida, GM Ko, R Kawakami, PJF
Martins. São Paulo, UNIFESP–Universidade Federal de São
Paulo, 2004, pp 71-79
17. Lima JBA, Skare TL, Malafaia O, Ribas-Filho JM, Michaelis
T, Ribas FM, Macedo RAC: Sepsis inducing syndrome of
multiple organ dysfunction: An experimental study in rats.
Arq Bras Cir Dig 2011;24(2):95-102
18. Silva-Santana G, Lenzi-Almeida KC, Fernandes-Santos C,
Couto DS, Paes-De-Almeida EC, Aguiar-Alves F: Mice
infection by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from
different colonization sites in humans resulting in diffusion
to multiple organs. J Clin Exp Pathol 2016;6:1000283
19. Silva-Santana G, Lenzi-Almeida KC, Lopes VGS, Aguiar-
Alves F: Atypical manifestation in infection by methicillin-
resistant Staphylococcus aureus carrier SCCmec IV and Panton-
Valentine Leukocidin-producer in experimental sepsis
model. Afr J Microbiol Res 2017;11(18):724-728
stratified, presenting sebaceous modified glands
(circum-anal gland) around the anus.23,24,38
Conclusion
Except for some veterinary and zoology books,
few are the studies focusing on the specific char-
acteristics between laboratory animals. Today we
can dispose of more refined experimental models,
maintaining and intensifying specific phenotypic
and genotypic characteristics, since the animal’s
genome results from directed mating. The greater
the similarity between the animal’s physiologi-
cal, anatomical, and organic characteristics with
humans, the greater its applicability in studies
and the reliability of results, even if establishing
reliable general rules to validate the extrapolation
from one species to another is infeasible.
Mice and rats are the species most used in
research. They are better known scientifically and
present advantages over other species, such as
smaller physical size and greater weight, easy
mobility, and lower maintenance cost. Currently,
multiple lineages of mice and rats destined to dif-
ferent research purposes exist. However, studies
using animals require careful research planning,
knowledge of the country’s laws and guidelines,
ethical principles, and, above all, being up-to-date
on previous studies in the same area so as to avoid
repetitive tests and inconclusive results, which
would lead to waste, thus allowing to choose the
most suitable species.
With technological advances, alternative re-
search methods, such as in vitro, are being devel-
oped, but experimental models using laboratory
animals still pose the advantage of obtaining in-
formation about the organism as a whole.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Pathology Program at
Fluminense Federal University (UFF), the Institute
of Microbiology Paulo de Góes at Federal Univer-
sity of Rio de Janeiro, and the Laboratory of Diph-
theria and Corynebacteria of Clinical Relevance at
the University of the State of Rio de Janeiro (UERJ).
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