1. Demand refers to how much of a good or service is desired by buyers at various prices and is determined by factors like price, income, tastes, and expectations of buyers.
2. The relationship between price and quantity demanded is known as the demand curve, which slopes downward as quantity demanded decreases when price increases.
3. A shift in the demand curve occurs when a change in a determinant of demand causes a different quantity to be demanded at each price, while movement along the curve refers to changes in quantity demanded due to price changes with other factors held constant.
1) The document discusses the theory of demand and supply. It defines demand as the quantities of a good that consumers are willing and able to purchase at various prices. Supply is defined as the quantities of a good that producers are willing to offer for sale at various prices.
2) The law of demand states that, other things remaining constant, as price increases, quantity demanded decreases. The law of supply states that as price increases, quantity supplied also increases.
3) Market equilibrium occurs where quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. This establishes an equilibrium price where markets clear without surplus or shortage.
The document discusses the concept of demand, including:
1) Demand analysis is essential for businesses to understand sales, production, costs, pricing, inventory, and profit planning.
2) Effective demand refers to when a consumer is willing and able to purchase a good.
3) Demand is determined by willingness and ability to pay, and is influenced by price, income, tastes, and other factors.
4) There are different types of demand curves that show the relationship between price and quantity demanded, income and quantity demanded, and how related goods impact demand.
5) The law of demand states that, all else equal, quantity demanded increases when price decreases.
This document discusses the concept of utility in economics. It defines utility as the satisfaction derived from consuming a good or service. Utility is subjective and varies between individuals. The document outlines two approaches to utility - the cardinal approach which views utility as measurable, and the ordinal approach which sees utility as only able to be compared. It also discusses total utility, marginal utility, diminishing marginal utility, and indifference curves in analyzing utility.
The document summarizes transportation problems and their formulation as linear programming problems. It discusses how transportation problems involve optimizing the shipment of goods from sources to destinations given supply and demand constraints. Different methods for finding an initial basic feasible solution are presented, including the northwest corner method, least cost method, and Vogel's approximation method. Transportation problems can be balanced, where total supply equals demand, or unbalanced. Key concepts like feasible and optimal solutions are also defined.
The document discusses break-even analysis, which determines the sales volume needed for a company to cover its total costs. It defines break-even point as the sales level where total revenue equals total costs, resulting in no profit or loss. The document provides examples of calculating break-even point using tables and charts. It also outlines the assumptions and limitations of break-even analysis, and explains its uses for management decision making like determining a target profit level or the effect of a price change.
The document discusses key concepts in production theory including:
1) The law of variable proportions which states that as more units of a variable input are added to fixed inputs, total output initially increases at an increasing rate and then at a decreasing rate.
2) The three stages of the law of variable proportions - increasing, constant, and diminishing returns. A rational producer will operate where average and marginal returns are positive but diminishing.
3) The laws of returns to scale which examine how output changes as all inputs change proportionally in the long-run. There can be increasing, constant, or diminishing returns to scale.
Price Elasticity of Demand, Degrees of Elasticity, Factors determining Elasticity of Demand, Measurement of Price Elasticity, Importance of Elasticity of Demand
The document discusses the theory of cost, including various cost concepts and cost curves. It covers accounting concepts such as opportunity cost and actual cost as well as analytical concepts such as fixed and variable costs. The document also examines cost functions including linear, quadratic and cubic forms. It analyzes short-run and long-run cost curves, discussing total cost, average cost and marginal cost. Finally, the document addresses economies and diseconomies of scale and assigns further reading on the economics of scale.
1) The document discusses the theory of demand and supply. It defines demand as the quantities of a good that consumers are willing and able to purchase at various prices. Supply is defined as the quantities of a good that producers are willing to offer for sale at various prices.
2) The law of demand states that, other things remaining constant, as price increases, quantity demanded decreases. The law of supply states that as price increases, quantity supplied also increases.
3) Market equilibrium occurs where quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. This establishes an equilibrium price where markets clear without surplus or shortage.
The document discusses the concept of demand, including:
1) Demand analysis is essential for businesses to understand sales, production, costs, pricing, inventory, and profit planning.
2) Effective demand refers to when a consumer is willing and able to purchase a good.
3) Demand is determined by willingness and ability to pay, and is influenced by price, income, tastes, and other factors.
4) There are different types of demand curves that show the relationship between price and quantity demanded, income and quantity demanded, and how related goods impact demand.
5) The law of demand states that, all else equal, quantity demanded increases when price decreases.
This document discusses the concept of utility in economics. It defines utility as the satisfaction derived from consuming a good or service. Utility is subjective and varies between individuals. The document outlines two approaches to utility - the cardinal approach which views utility as measurable, and the ordinal approach which sees utility as only able to be compared. It also discusses total utility, marginal utility, diminishing marginal utility, and indifference curves in analyzing utility.
The document summarizes transportation problems and their formulation as linear programming problems. It discusses how transportation problems involve optimizing the shipment of goods from sources to destinations given supply and demand constraints. Different methods for finding an initial basic feasible solution are presented, including the northwest corner method, least cost method, and Vogel's approximation method. Transportation problems can be balanced, where total supply equals demand, or unbalanced. Key concepts like feasible and optimal solutions are also defined.
The document discusses break-even analysis, which determines the sales volume needed for a company to cover its total costs. It defines break-even point as the sales level where total revenue equals total costs, resulting in no profit or loss. The document provides examples of calculating break-even point using tables and charts. It also outlines the assumptions and limitations of break-even analysis, and explains its uses for management decision making like determining a target profit level or the effect of a price change.
The document discusses key concepts in production theory including:
1) The law of variable proportions which states that as more units of a variable input are added to fixed inputs, total output initially increases at an increasing rate and then at a decreasing rate.
2) The three stages of the law of variable proportions - increasing, constant, and diminishing returns. A rational producer will operate where average and marginal returns are positive but diminishing.
3) The laws of returns to scale which examine how output changes as all inputs change proportionally in the long-run. There can be increasing, constant, or diminishing returns to scale.
Price Elasticity of Demand, Degrees of Elasticity, Factors determining Elasticity of Demand, Measurement of Price Elasticity, Importance of Elasticity of Demand
The document discusses the theory of cost, including various cost concepts and cost curves. It covers accounting concepts such as opportunity cost and actual cost as well as analytical concepts such as fixed and variable costs. The document also examines cost functions including linear, quadratic and cubic forms. It analyzes short-run and long-run cost curves, discussing total cost, average cost and marginal cost. Finally, the document addresses economies and diseconomies of scale and assigns further reading on the economics of scale.
This document discusses transportation problems and three methods to solve them: the North West Corner Method, Least Cost Method, and Vogel Approximation Method. The objective of transportation problems is to minimize the cost of distributing products from sources to destinations while satisfying supply and demand constraints. The document provides examples to illustrate how each method works step-by-step to arrive at a basic feasible solution.
8 measurement of elasticity of demand copyDr. Raavi Jain
ย
This document discusses four methods of measuring elasticity of demand: 1) Percentage or proportionate method, 2) Total outlay (expenditure) method, 3) Geometric (point) method, and 4) Arc method. The percentage method measures the percentage change in quantity demanded relative to the percentage change in price. The total outlay method compares the change in price to the subsequent change in total expenditure. The geometric method measures elasticity as the ratio of the lower portion of the demand curve to the upper portion. Finally, the arc method uses the average of the original and new price and quantity to calculate elasticity.
An indifference curve represents combinations of two goods that provide equal satisfaction to a consumer. It has a negative slope and is convex, meaning that the marginal rate of substitution diminishes as consumption increases along the curve. The slope of the indifference curve represents the rate at which a consumer is willing to substitute one good for another to maintain the same satisfaction level.
The cross-price elasticity of demand is the degree of responsiveness of quantity demanded of a commodity due to the change in price of another commodity.
Utility refers to the ability of a good or service to satisfy a want. The document discusses several key concepts regarding utility:
- Utility is subjective and relative to the individual. It is also independent of morality.
- Total utility is the sum of utility from consuming all units of a good. Marginal utility is the additional utility from consuming one more unit.
- The law of diminishing marginal utility states that as consumption increases, the marginal utility of additional units declines and can become negative.
- Consumer equilibrium occurs when the marginal utility per rupee spent equals the marginal utility of money, maximizing satisfaction within a budget constraint.
1. The document discusses the concept of perfect competition, which is an ideal market structure with no barriers to entry, homogeneous products, perfect information, and price-taking firms and consumers.
2. Under perfect competition, firms seek to maximize profits by producing at the level where marginal revenue equals marginal cost, and marginal cost is rising. In the long run, no firms earn abnormal profits as free entry and exit drives prices down to minimum average cost.
3. The perfect competition model serves as a benchmark for analyzing market imperfections, as it achieves an efficient allocation of resources where price equals minimum average cost and marginal cost equals marginal benefit to consumers.
Demand distinctions and elasticity of demand distinctionsRajaKrishnan M
ย
1. There are several distinctions in demand including between consumers goods and producers goods, durable and non-durable goods, derived demand and autonomous demand, industry demand and corporate demand, and short-run demand versus long-run demand.
2. Demand for producers goods is derived demand as it depends on demand for other goods, while demand for consumers goods is direct. Durable goods have demand that can be separated into new demand and replacement demand which have different determinants.
3. Derived demand is for a product that is demanded as a result of purchasing another product, and is less price elastic. Autonomous demand is independent of demand for other goods.
IC2
Q Good X
Substitution Effect
The document discusses concepts of utility theory including cardinal and ordinal utility, law of diminishing marginal utility, indifference curves, and consumer equilibrium. It provides explanations and diagrams to illustrate:
- The law of diminishing marginal utility and how total utility and marginal utility are related.
- Indifference curves and how they represent combinations of goods that provide the same level of satisfaction.
- How a consumer reaches equilibrium where marginal utility per dollar spent is equal across all goods, given prices and income.
- How changes in income or prices can shift the budget line or indifference curves and impact equilibrium.
1) Consumer surplus measures how much better off consumers are from purchasing goods that provide them utility, which is the difference between what consumers are willing to pay and the actual price they pay.
2) Consumer surplus can be measured for each unit purchased and is the total surplus from summing the surplus of each individual unit.
3) Graphically, consumer surplus is represented by the area above the price line and below the demand curve up to the quantity purchased. A lower price increases consumer surplus while a higher price decreases it.
This document discusses demand and supply analysis. It begins by defining demand as a want supported by both willingness and ability to pay. There are three conditions for a product to have demand: desire to buy it, willingness to pay the price, and ability to pay. Demand can be of different types depending on price, income, or related goods. The law of demand states that as price increases, quantity demanded decreases, assuming other factors remain unchanged. A demand curve on a graph shows the inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded. A change in a factor like income can cause a shift in the demand curve, representing a change in demand rather than a movement along the curve.
This document discusses concepts related to utility analysis in economics. It defines utility as the satisfaction derived from consumption and discusses how early economists assumed utility could be measured in cardinal units. It introduces the concepts of total utility, marginal utility, and how marginal utility decreases with increasing consumption due to the law of diminishing marginal utility. The document also discusses consumer equilibrium when prices are zero and when prices are not zero, as well as the concepts of consumer surplus, demand curves, and indifference curve analysis of ordinal utility.
Utility theory examines how consumers derive satisfaction from consuming goods and services. It uses the concepts of total utility, marginal utility, and equi-marginal utility. Total utility is the total satisfaction gained from consumption, while marginal utility refers to the additional satisfaction from consuming one more unit of a good. The law of diminishing marginal utility states that marginal utility decreases with increasing consumption as satisfaction reaches a maximum. The law of equi-marginal utility proposes that consumers maximize satisfaction when the marginal utility per rupee spent is equal across goods, within the constraints of their budget.
Here are the key points regarding Mallikarjuna's problem and suggestions to improve the functioning of the shop:
1. Mallikarjuna's problem fits the law of variable proportions. As he increases the number of assistants (variable input) from 0 to 3, total output/customers served initially increases at an increasing rate as one assistant can help multiple customers. However, beyond 3 assistants, adding more in the limited space leads to diminishing returns as customers get inconvenienced in the crowded shop.
2. Suggestions to improve:
- Increase shop floor area to accommodate more customers comfortably without overcrowding. This allows employing more assistants without diminishing returns.
- Add more billing counters to reduce
Demand is defined as the desire for a commodity supported by the ability and willingness to pay for it. The law of demand states that demand increases when price decreases and decreases when price increases, with other factors held constant. Demand can be individual, family-level, or market-level. A demand schedule shows the relationship between price and quantity demanded at different price levels, while a demand curve graphs this relationship. Elasticity measures the responsiveness of demand or supply to changes in factors like price and income. The different types of elasticity include price elasticity, income elasticity, cross elasticity, and advertising elasticity.
1) The document discusses consumer behavior and equilibrium from a microeconomics perspective. It covers concepts like utility, total utility, marginal utility, indifference curves, budget constraints, and the conditions for consumer equilibrium.
2) Consumer equilibrium is achieved when marginal utility per rupee spent is equal for all goods, or when the budget constraint is tangent to the highest possible indifference curve.
3) Equilibrium is analyzed graphically using indifference curves and budget constraints, as well as through the condition that marginal utility divided by price is equal across goods.
Utility refers to the satisfaction or benefit derived from consuming a good. The law of diminishing marginal utility states that as consumption of a good increases, the marginal utility of each additional unit decreases. The law of equi-marginal utility extends this to consumption of multiple goods, stating that a consumer will allocate their budget in a way that equalizes the marginal utility across goods. This occurs when a consumer spends their money in a way that maximizes total utility subject to their budget constraint.
Vogel's Approximation Method (VAM) is a 3 step process for solving transportation problems:
1) Compute penalties for each row and column based on smallest costs.
2) Identify largest penalty and assign lowest cost variable the highest possible value, crossing out exhausted row or column.
3) Recalculate penalties and repeat until all requirements are satisfied.
The document discusses replacement theory, which determines the optimal time to replace equipment or machines that deteriorate over time. It increases maintenance costs as equipment ages. The document provides examples of industries that use replacement theory and outlines the methodology. It presents a sample replacement problem looking at the purchase price, annual running costs, and resale values to determine the year when replacement is most economical based on minimum average total cost. The optimal replacement period is calculated based on rules comparing maintenance costs to average costs or scrap value.
The document discusses the economic concepts of supply, determinants of supply, the law of supply, supply schedules and curves, market versus individual supply, equilibrium of supply and demand, and how shifts in supply and demand curves impact equilibrium price and quantity. It provides examples of supply and demand schedules and equilibrium, and how excess supply or demand can lead to changes in price until equilibrium is restored. It also includes 10 examples of how changes in factors can shift supply and demand curves and impact price and quantity.
NORMA QUE REGULA EL CONCURSO PรBLICO PARA EL ASCENSO DE LA PRIMERA A LA SEGUN...JEAN PIAGET PERU
ย
NORMA QUE REGULA EL CONCURSO PรBLICO PARA EL ASCENSO DE LA PRIMERA A LA SEGUNDA ESCALA MAGISTERIAL DE LA CARRERA PรBLICA MAGISTERIAL DE LA LEY DE LA REFORMA MAGISTERIAL
This document discusses transportation problems and three methods to solve them: the North West Corner Method, Least Cost Method, and Vogel Approximation Method. The objective of transportation problems is to minimize the cost of distributing products from sources to destinations while satisfying supply and demand constraints. The document provides examples to illustrate how each method works step-by-step to arrive at a basic feasible solution.
8 measurement of elasticity of demand copyDr. Raavi Jain
ย
This document discusses four methods of measuring elasticity of demand: 1) Percentage or proportionate method, 2) Total outlay (expenditure) method, 3) Geometric (point) method, and 4) Arc method. The percentage method measures the percentage change in quantity demanded relative to the percentage change in price. The total outlay method compares the change in price to the subsequent change in total expenditure. The geometric method measures elasticity as the ratio of the lower portion of the demand curve to the upper portion. Finally, the arc method uses the average of the original and new price and quantity to calculate elasticity.
An indifference curve represents combinations of two goods that provide equal satisfaction to a consumer. It has a negative slope and is convex, meaning that the marginal rate of substitution diminishes as consumption increases along the curve. The slope of the indifference curve represents the rate at which a consumer is willing to substitute one good for another to maintain the same satisfaction level.
The cross-price elasticity of demand is the degree of responsiveness of quantity demanded of a commodity due to the change in price of another commodity.
Utility refers to the ability of a good or service to satisfy a want. The document discusses several key concepts regarding utility:
- Utility is subjective and relative to the individual. It is also independent of morality.
- Total utility is the sum of utility from consuming all units of a good. Marginal utility is the additional utility from consuming one more unit.
- The law of diminishing marginal utility states that as consumption increases, the marginal utility of additional units declines and can become negative.
- Consumer equilibrium occurs when the marginal utility per rupee spent equals the marginal utility of money, maximizing satisfaction within a budget constraint.
1. The document discusses the concept of perfect competition, which is an ideal market structure with no barriers to entry, homogeneous products, perfect information, and price-taking firms and consumers.
2. Under perfect competition, firms seek to maximize profits by producing at the level where marginal revenue equals marginal cost, and marginal cost is rising. In the long run, no firms earn abnormal profits as free entry and exit drives prices down to minimum average cost.
3. The perfect competition model serves as a benchmark for analyzing market imperfections, as it achieves an efficient allocation of resources where price equals minimum average cost and marginal cost equals marginal benefit to consumers.
Demand distinctions and elasticity of demand distinctionsRajaKrishnan M
ย
1. There are several distinctions in demand including between consumers goods and producers goods, durable and non-durable goods, derived demand and autonomous demand, industry demand and corporate demand, and short-run demand versus long-run demand.
2. Demand for producers goods is derived demand as it depends on demand for other goods, while demand for consumers goods is direct. Durable goods have demand that can be separated into new demand and replacement demand which have different determinants.
3. Derived demand is for a product that is demanded as a result of purchasing another product, and is less price elastic. Autonomous demand is independent of demand for other goods.
IC2
Q Good X
Substitution Effect
The document discusses concepts of utility theory including cardinal and ordinal utility, law of diminishing marginal utility, indifference curves, and consumer equilibrium. It provides explanations and diagrams to illustrate:
- The law of diminishing marginal utility and how total utility and marginal utility are related.
- Indifference curves and how they represent combinations of goods that provide the same level of satisfaction.
- How a consumer reaches equilibrium where marginal utility per dollar spent is equal across all goods, given prices and income.
- How changes in income or prices can shift the budget line or indifference curves and impact equilibrium.
1) Consumer surplus measures how much better off consumers are from purchasing goods that provide them utility, which is the difference between what consumers are willing to pay and the actual price they pay.
2) Consumer surplus can be measured for each unit purchased and is the total surplus from summing the surplus of each individual unit.
3) Graphically, consumer surplus is represented by the area above the price line and below the demand curve up to the quantity purchased. A lower price increases consumer surplus while a higher price decreases it.
This document discusses demand and supply analysis. It begins by defining demand as a want supported by both willingness and ability to pay. There are three conditions for a product to have demand: desire to buy it, willingness to pay the price, and ability to pay. Demand can be of different types depending on price, income, or related goods. The law of demand states that as price increases, quantity demanded decreases, assuming other factors remain unchanged. A demand curve on a graph shows the inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded. A change in a factor like income can cause a shift in the demand curve, representing a change in demand rather than a movement along the curve.
This document discusses concepts related to utility analysis in economics. It defines utility as the satisfaction derived from consumption and discusses how early economists assumed utility could be measured in cardinal units. It introduces the concepts of total utility, marginal utility, and how marginal utility decreases with increasing consumption due to the law of diminishing marginal utility. The document also discusses consumer equilibrium when prices are zero and when prices are not zero, as well as the concepts of consumer surplus, demand curves, and indifference curve analysis of ordinal utility.
Utility theory examines how consumers derive satisfaction from consuming goods and services. It uses the concepts of total utility, marginal utility, and equi-marginal utility. Total utility is the total satisfaction gained from consumption, while marginal utility refers to the additional satisfaction from consuming one more unit of a good. The law of diminishing marginal utility states that marginal utility decreases with increasing consumption as satisfaction reaches a maximum. The law of equi-marginal utility proposes that consumers maximize satisfaction when the marginal utility per rupee spent is equal across goods, within the constraints of their budget.
Here are the key points regarding Mallikarjuna's problem and suggestions to improve the functioning of the shop:
1. Mallikarjuna's problem fits the law of variable proportions. As he increases the number of assistants (variable input) from 0 to 3, total output/customers served initially increases at an increasing rate as one assistant can help multiple customers. However, beyond 3 assistants, adding more in the limited space leads to diminishing returns as customers get inconvenienced in the crowded shop.
2. Suggestions to improve:
- Increase shop floor area to accommodate more customers comfortably without overcrowding. This allows employing more assistants without diminishing returns.
- Add more billing counters to reduce
Demand is defined as the desire for a commodity supported by the ability and willingness to pay for it. The law of demand states that demand increases when price decreases and decreases when price increases, with other factors held constant. Demand can be individual, family-level, or market-level. A demand schedule shows the relationship between price and quantity demanded at different price levels, while a demand curve graphs this relationship. Elasticity measures the responsiveness of demand or supply to changes in factors like price and income. The different types of elasticity include price elasticity, income elasticity, cross elasticity, and advertising elasticity.
1) The document discusses consumer behavior and equilibrium from a microeconomics perspective. It covers concepts like utility, total utility, marginal utility, indifference curves, budget constraints, and the conditions for consumer equilibrium.
2) Consumer equilibrium is achieved when marginal utility per rupee spent is equal for all goods, or when the budget constraint is tangent to the highest possible indifference curve.
3) Equilibrium is analyzed graphically using indifference curves and budget constraints, as well as through the condition that marginal utility divided by price is equal across goods.
Utility refers to the satisfaction or benefit derived from consuming a good. The law of diminishing marginal utility states that as consumption of a good increases, the marginal utility of each additional unit decreases. The law of equi-marginal utility extends this to consumption of multiple goods, stating that a consumer will allocate their budget in a way that equalizes the marginal utility across goods. This occurs when a consumer spends their money in a way that maximizes total utility subject to their budget constraint.
Vogel's Approximation Method (VAM) is a 3 step process for solving transportation problems:
1) Compute penalties for each row and column based on smallest costs.
2) Identify largest penalty and assign lowest cost variable the highest possible value, crossing out exhausted row or column.
3) Recalculate penalties and repeat until all requirements are satisfied.
The document discusses replacement theory, which determines the optimal time to replace equipment or machines that deteriorate over time. It increases maintenance costs as equipment ages. The document provides examples of industries that use replacement theory and outlines the methodology. It presents a sample replacement problem looking at the purchase price, annual running costs, and resale values to determine the year when replacement is most economical based on minimum average total cost. The optimal replacement period is calculated based on rules comparing maintenance costs to average costs or scrap value.
The document discusses the economic concepts of supply, determinants of supply, the law of supply, supply schedules and curves, market versus individual supply, equilibrium of supply and demand, and how shifts in supply and demand curves impact equilibrium price and quantity. It provides examples of supply and demand schedules and equilibrium, and how excess supply or demand can lead to changes in price until equilibrium is restored. It also includes 10 examples of how changes in factors can shift supply and demand curves and impact price and quantity.
NORMA QUE REGULA EL CONCURSO PรBLICO PARA EL ASCENSO DE LA PRIMERA A LA SEGUN...JEAN PIAGET PERU
ย
NORMA QUE REGULA EL CONCURSO PรBLICO PARA EL ASCENSO DE LA PRIMERA A LA SEGUNDA ESCALA MAGISTERIAL DE LA CARRERA PรBLICA MAGISTERIAL DE LA LEY DE LA REFORMA MAGISTERIAL
This document summarizes information about Dr. Joel Wallach, a veterinarian and physician who founded Youngevity, a nutritional company. Some key points:
- Dr. Wallach published numerous articles and defeated the FDA in court several times.
- His research on animal nutrition found supplementing with essential nutrients doubled lifespans and eliminated over 900 diseases.
- Youngevity offers supplements containing 90 essential nutrients like vitamins, minerals, and amino acids that the body cannot produce and are necessary for health.
- The company's products and business opportunity are centered around distributing these nutrient formulas to improve health worldwide.
Consumer surplus refers to the difference between how much a consumer is willing to pay for a good or service and the actual amount they pay, representing the extra satisfaction or benefit they receive. It is measured as the amount consumers save when they purchase items for less than what they would be willing to spend. Examples of consumer surplus include paying less than willing amounts for daily items like salt, newspapers, or matches.
1) Demand refers to how much of a good or service is desired by buyers at various prices. It is represented by a demand curve showing the relationship between price and quantity demanded.
2) Demand is determined by factors such as price, income, tastes, prices of substitutes and complements, and expectations about future prices and income.
3) The law of demand states that, all else equal, quantity demanded is inversely related to price - as price increases, quantity demanded decreases, and vice versa.
Normas y orientaciones para el desarrollo del aรฑo escolar 2016JEAN PIAGET PERU
ย
Este documento establece orientaciones y criterios para la planificaciรณn, ejecuciรณn, monitoreo y supervisiรณn de las actividades educativas durante el aรฑo escolar 2016 en las diferentes instancias del sistema educativo peruano. Define los roles del MINEDU, las DRE, las UGEL y las IIEE, asรญ como las seis prioridades o compromisos de gestiรณn que deben cumplir las instituciones educativas para asegurar el aprendizaje de los estudiantes. Ademรกs, presenta lineamientos sobre la elaboraciรณn y seguimiento del Plan Anual de Tra
The document discusses different types of markets, including perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition, and oligopoly. Perfect competition is defined as having many small firms and sellers producing homogeneous goods, with no single firm influencing price. A monopoly exists when there is only one seller of a unique product without close substitutes. Monopolistic competition involves differentiated products and free entry/exit. Oligopoly is characterized by a small number of large firms that interact strategically and can engage in price wars or collusion.
Normas y orientaciones para el desarrollo del aรฑo escolar 2016JEAN PIAGET PERU
ย
Este documento establece orientaciones y criterios para la planificaciรณn, ejecuciรณn, monitoreo y supervisiรณn de las actividades educativas durante el aรฑo escolar 2016 en las diferentes instancias del sistema educativo peruano. Define los roles del Ministerio de Educaciรณn, las Direcciones Regionales de Educaciรณn, las Unidades de Gestiรณn Educativa Local e Instituciones Educativas. Ademรกs, presenta las polรญticas priorizadas del MINEDU para 2016 y los seis compromisos de gestiรณn que deben cumplir las instituciones educativas.
The document discusses several economic concepts related to types of goods and consumer preferences. It defines inferior, normal, and superior goods based on how demand changes with income. It also discusses Giffen goods, Veblen goods, luxury goods, and complementary goods. The document then explains the law of diminishing marginal utility and how marginal utility decreases as consumption of a good increases. It provides an example table and graph to illustrate this concept. Finally, it discusses the law of equi-marginal utility and how consumers allocate their budget to maximize total utility.
This document provides an overview of management principles and practices. It discusses various definitions and approaches to management, including:
1. Classical approaches like scientific management, which focused on efficiency, and administrative management, which looked at problems from a top-down perspective.
2. Behavioral management, which emphasized motivating employees.
3. Bureaucracy, with principles like written rules, clear task relationships, and a hierarchy of authority.
It also covers the evolution of management thought in response to increasing competition and complexity in large organizations. Overall, the document presents different historical perspectives on defining and studying the field of management.
Demand refers to how much of a good or service consumers are willing and able to purchase at a given price. It depends on consumers' desire and ability to pay, as well as the good being available at a certain price, place, and time. Demand is determined by factors like price, income, prices of related goods, tastes, expectations, and the number of buyers. The relationship between price and quantity demanded is shown through a demand schedule and demand curve, which has a negative slope as per the law of demand. A change in any determinant can cause the demand curve to shift, changing the overall relationship between price and quantity demanded.
This document defines and provides examples of consumer surplus. Consumer surplus is the difference between how much a consumer is willing to pay for a good or service and the actual amount they pay. It measures the satisfaction consumers get when they pay less than the maximum they would be willing to spend. The document gives daily examples like salt, newspapers, and matches. It also provides a numerical example in a table to illustrate how consumer surplus is calculated for different units of a product.
marketing for hospitality tourism and airlinesNamita Sharma
ย
The document discusses marketing for the hospitality and tourism industry. It begins by providing an overview of tourism in India, noting that tourism contributes over 6% to India's GDP and accounts for nearly 9% of total employment. It then discusses some key aspects of marketing for tourism and hospitality, including how the production and consumption of tourism services are inseparable. The document also defines marketing and discusses the unique characteristics of marketing for the hospitality industry. It provides examples of career opportunities in hospitality marketing and discusses some of the key elements of the tourism marketing mix.
Managerial economics applies economic theory and techniques to managerial decision-making. It helps managers evaluate resource allocation, determine optimal product mix and output levels, set prices, and respond to economic conditions. The scope of managerial economics is narrower than traditional economics as it focuses on microeconomic problems faced by individual firms, including demand and cost analysis, pricing, profit maximization, and adapting plans to the business environment.
Parle Agro is an Indian beverage company that was originally part of Parle company before splitting into three companies. It produces fruit drinks, juices, and nectars. Parle Agro has factories located in Silvassa, Patalganga, Bhopal, Chennai, and Ghaziabad. The company uses strategies like direct marketing, developing healthy products, and focusing on customer needs. It also used a campaign on Twitter to crowdsource retailers without cost. Parle Agro faces competition from other beverage companies in India.
This document defines indifference curves and indifference schedules, which represent combinations of goods that provide equal utility to a consumer. It provides an example indifference schedule and indifference curve (IC) for apples and mangoes. An indifference map shows multiple ICs, with higher curves representing greater satisfaction. ICs have specific properties: they are negatively sloped, convex to the origin, and do not intersect. Consumer equilibrium occurs where the consumer's preferred IC is tangent to their budget constraint, maximizing satisfaction given prices and income.
The document discusses the laws of returns to scale, which explain how output responds when inputs increase proportionately. There are three possibilities: increasing returns to scale when output grows more than proportionately; constant returns to scale when output grows proportionately; and decreasing returns to scale when output grows less than proportionately. Increasing returns can occur due to technical and managerial indivisibilities, specialization, and dimensional relations, while constant returns are due to economies of scale. Decreasing returns are caused by diseconomies of scale like diminishing management returns and exhausting natural resources.
This document discusses different types of economic systems. It defines a traditional economy as one based on customs and traditions where resources are owned by a sovereign. A market economy is based on individual choices where private firms produce for profit. A centrally planned economy gives the government control over production and distribution. A mixed economy incorporates aspects of market and planned systems, with both government and private sectors.
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This document contains an acknowledgement section thanking various people for their support and inspiration, including the author's students, brother, parents, and lord Krishna. It then includes an index listing the chapters and page numbers. The main content is on the theory of demand, beginning with definitions of desire, want, demand, individual demand, and market demand. It discusses the factors that affect demand, including price, income, tastes, and the prices of substitutes and complements. It also covers the demand schedule, demand curve, individual demand curve, market demand curve, and exceptions to the law of demand.
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Demand Analysis
1.
2. Meaningโฆ
Refers to the desire, backed by the necessary ability to pay.
Demand is a buyer's willingness and ability to pay a price for a
specific quantity of a good or service.
Demand refers to how much (quantity) of a product or service
is desired by buyers at various prices. The quantity demanded
is the amount of a product people are willing to buy at a
certain price.
The relationship between price and quantity demanded is
known as the demand.
3. Aspects of Demandโฆ
Desire for specific commodity.
+
Sufficient resources to purchase the desired
commodity.
+
Willingness to spend the resources.
+
a. Availability of the commodity at
๏ (i) Certain price (ii) Certain place (iii)
Certain time.
4. Willing to purchase:
๏ Being willing to purchase simply means that one likes
an item enough to want to buy it, and this is usually
what people think of when they encounter the concept
of demand. However, it's important to remember that,
while it's good to want things, desire to purchase is not
the only requirement for economic demand.
5. Able to purchase:
๏ Wanting to purchase an item doesn't mean a whole lot
if one doesn't have the means to make the transaction
happen. Therefore, ability to purchase is another
important factor of demand. Economists don't specify
how an individual must be able to pay for an item- she
can pay with cash, check, credit card, money borrowed
from friends or taken from the piggy bank, etc.
6. Ready to purchase:
๏ Demand is, by its nature, a current quantity, so an
individual is only said to demand something if she is
willing and able to purchase it now as opposed to some
point in the future.
7. Types of Demand
๏ง
๏ง
๏ง
๏ง
๏ง
-Consumer Goods and producer goods
Perishable and durable goods
Autonomous and derived demand
Individual demand and market Demand
Firm and Industry demand
๏
1.
-
Others:
Income demand
Demand for normal goods (price โve, income +ve)
Demand for inferior goods (eg., coarse grain)
๏ง Cross demand
- Demand for substitutes or competitive goods (eg.,tea & coffee, bread and
rice)
- Demand for complementary goods (eg., pen & ink)
๏ง
๏ง
๏ง
๏ง
๏ง
Joint demand (same as complementary, eg., pen & ink)
Composite demand (eg., coal & electricity)
Direct demand (eg., ice-creams)
Derived demand (eg., TV & TV mechanics)
Competitive demand (eg., desi ghee and vegetable oils)
8. Demand Schedule and Curve
๏ Demand curve:
๏ a curve showing the
relation between the
price of a good and
quantity demanded
during a given period,
other things constant.
๏ Suppose we are making
pizza.
Price of Quantity
Good
Demand
ed
3
200
4
150
5
100
6
75
7
50
10. Determinants of Demand
๏ Economic demand- how much of an item one is
willing, ready and able to purchase- depends on a
number of different factors. For example, people
probably care about how much an item costs when
deciding how much to purchase. They might also
consider how much money they make when making
purchasing decisions, and so on.
11. Determinants of Demand
๏ Price of Product
๏ Income of Consumer
๏ Price of Related Good
๏ Complementary Goods
๏ Substitute Goods
๏
๏
๏
๏
๏
๏
Tastes and Preferences
Advertising
Consumerโs expectation of future Income and Price
Growth of Economy
Seasonal conditions
Population
12. Price as a Determinant of Demand
๏ Price, in many cases, is likely to be the most
fundamental determinant of demand, since it's
often the first thing that people think about when
deciding how much of an item to buy. The vast
majority of goods and services obey what
economists call the law of demand- that, all else
being equal, the quantity demanded of an item
decreases when the price increases and vice versa.
(There are some exceptions to this rule, but they
are few and far between.)
13.
14. Income as a Determinant of Demand
๏ People certainly look at their incomes when
deciding how much of an item to buy, but the
relationship between income and demand isn't as
straightforward as one might think. Do people buy
more or less of an item when their incomes
increase? As it turns out, that's a more complicated
question than it might initially seem. For example,
if a person were to win the lottery, he would likely
take more rides on private jets than he did before.
On the other hand, the lottery winner would
probably take fewer rides on the subway than
before.
15. ๏ Economists categorize items as normal goods or
inferior goods on exactly this basis. If a good is a
normal good, then the quantity demanded goes up
when income increases, and the quantity demanded
goes down when income decreases. If a good is an
inferior good, then the quantity demanded goes down
when income increases and goes up when income
decreases.
16. ๏ In our example, private jet rides are a normal good and
subway rides are an inferior good. There are two things to
note about normal and inferior goods:
๏ What is a normal good for one person may be an inferior
good for another person, and vice versa. For an overall
market, a good is normal if market demand increases when
income increases, on average, for the people in that market,
and a good is inferior if market demand decreases when
average income increases.
๏ It's possible for a good to be neither normal nor inferiorfor example, it's quite possible that the demand for toilet
paper neither increases nor decreases when income
changes!
17.
18.
19. Prices of Related Goods as Determinants of
Demand
๏ When deciding how much of a good they want to
purchase, people take into account the prices of
both substitute goods and complementary goods.
Substitute goods, or substitutes, are goods that are
used in place of one another. For example, Coke
and Pepsi are substitutes because people tend to,
well, substitute one for the other. Complementary
goods, or complements, on the other hand, are
goods that people tend to use together. DVD
players and DVDs are examples of complements,
as are computers and high-speed internet access.
20. ๏ The key feature of substitutes and complements is
the fact that a change in price of one of the goods
has an impact on the demand for the other good.
For substitutes, an increase in the price of one of
the goods will increase demand for the substitute
good. (It's probably not surprising that an increase
in the price of Coke would increase the demand for
Pepsi as some consumers switch over from Coke to
Pepsi.) It's also the case that a decrease in the price
of one of the goods will decrease demand for the
substitute good.
21. ๏ For complements, an increase in the price of one of the
goods will decrease demand for the complementary
good. Conversely, a decrease in the price of one of the
goods will increase demand for the complementary
good. (For example, decreases in the prices of video
game consoles serves in part to increase demand for
video games.)
22. ๏ Goods that don't have either the substitute or
complement relationship are called unrelated goods.
In addition, sometimes goods can have both a
substitute and a complement relationship to some
degree- for example, gasoline is a complement to even
fuel-efficient cars, but a fuel-efficient car is a substitute
for gasoline to some degree.
23.
24. Tastes as a Determinant of Demand
๏ How much of a particular good or service also depends
on an individual's taste for the item. In general,
economists use the term "tastes" as a catchall category
for consumers' attitude towards a product. In this
sense, if consumers' tastes for a good or service
increase, then their quantity demanded increases, and
vice versa.
25.
26. Expectations as a Determinant of Demand
๏ Today's demand can also depend on consumers'
expectations of future prices, incomes, prices of
related goods, and so on. For example, consumers
demand more of an item today if they expect the price
to increase increase in the future. Similarly, people
who expect their incomes to increase in the future will
often increase their consumption today.
27. Number of Buyers as a Determinant of
Market Demand
๏ Although not a determinant of individual demand, the
number of buyers in a market is clearly an important
factor in calculating market demand. Not surprisingly,
market demand increases when the number of buyers
increases, and market demand decreases when the
number of buyers decreases.
28.
29. Law of Demand
๏ States that a quantity of a good demanded during a
given period relates inversely to its price, other things
constant.
๏ Price increases ๏จ Quantity Demanded decreases
๏ Price decreases ๏จ Quantity demanded increases
๏ Creates a downward sloping demand curve
30.
31. Demand Curve
A curve showing the relation between
the price of a good and the quantity
demanded.
Price
6
5
Point on the line that matches the schedule
Every point on the line matches the schedule.
It is a price/quantity demanded that consumers
are willing and able to buy.
4
3
0
50
75
100 150
Demand
Quantity
200
32. Demand curves usually slope down because the quantity
demanded rises as the price falls.
33. Movement Along the Demand Curve
๏ Caused by a change in price
๏ Only a change in price
๏ Move from one point to another on the same graph
๏ Called a
๏ Change in quantity demanded.
35. Demand
๏ Individual demand
๏ The demand of an individual consumer
๏ Market demand
๏ Sum of individual demands of all consumers in the
market
36. Aggregate or Market Demand Curve
๏ The
market demand curve describes the quantity
demanded by the entire market for a category of goods or
services. An example of this is gasoline prices overall.
When the cost of oil goes up, all gas stations must raise
their prices to cover their costs. Even if the price drops 50%,
drivers aren't going to increase the amount bought by that
much. That's why, when the price skyrockets from $3.20 $4.00 a gallon, people get very upset. They can't cut back
their driving to work, school and the grocery store very
easily, and so they are forced to pay more for gas.
37. ๏ By the way, this lowers their incomes for things other
than gas. Income is another determinant of demand,
so that means the demand curve for other things they
would like to buy, like ice cream, will drop. This is
called a demand shift. In this case, the entire demand
curve for ice cream shifts to the left. Since buyers have
less income, they will purchase a lower quantity of ice
cream even at the same price.
39. Shifts in the Demand Curve
๏ A demand curve isolates the relation between prices of
a good and quantities demanded when other factors
that could affect demand remain unchanged.
๏ Factors called assumptions or determinants
40. Changes in determinants
๏ Results in changes to the RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
PRICE AND QUANTITY DEMANDED.
๏ At each and every price a DIFFERENT quantity is
demanded.
๏ Results in a shift in the demand curve
๏ New curve must be drawn
41. Changes in Demand
๏ Increase in demand
๏ At each and every price
MORE of the good is
demanded
๏ Shifts to the right
P
4
Qd1 Qd2
150
Price
5
A
B
D2
200
5
100
150
6
75
100
D1
100
150
Quantity
42. Causes of Increase in Demand
๏ Increase in consumer
income
๏ Causes consumers to
buy more of the product
at each and every price.
๏ Normal goods
๏ Inferior goods
43. Change in consumer income
๏ Normal goods
๏ A good for which demand
increases as consumer
income rise
๏ Inferior goods
๏ A good which demand
increases as consumer
income falls
44. Changes in Price of Related Goods
๏ Substitutes
๏ Goods that are not
consumed jointly
๏ Goods that are related in
such a way that an increase
in the price of one shifts the
demand curve for the other
rightward.
๏ Increase in price of Coke
leads to increase in
demand for Pepsi
45. Changes in Price of Related Goods
๏ Substitutes
๏ Suppose that the price of Coke rises from 1 to 1.50, then
the demand for Pepsi will decrease from 75 to 100.
Price
1
D2
D1
75
100
Qty
46. Changes in the price of related goods
๏ Complements
๏ Goods that are
related in a such a
way that an increase
in the price of one
shifts the demand of
the other leftward
๏ Two goods that are
consumed jointly.
๏ An decrease in the
price of one will
increase demand
for the other
47. Changes in Price of Related Goods
๏ Complements
๏ An decrease in the
price of DVD players,
increases the demand
for DVDs
๏ Suppose that DVD
players decrease in
price from 145 to 100,
now the demand for
DVDs will decrease
from 750 at 20 to 900.
20
D2
D
750
900
48. Changes in Consumer Expectations
๏ Such as expectations in
๏ Prices and income
๏ Affect how consumers spend
their money and their
demand
๏ If product cheaper today
than tomorrow, then
increase in demand
49. Changes in consumer tastes
๏ Consumer preferences
likes and dislikes in
consumption assumed to
be constant along a given
demand curve assumed
constant along a given
demand curve
๏ Changes in taste will
cause a shift in the
demand curve as different
quantities are demanded
at each and every price.
50. Changes in taste
๏ Consumers prefer
platform shoes.
๏ At 50, demand
increases from 100
to 200.
50
D2
D
100
200
51. Change in the number and composition of
consumers
๏ The market demand curve is the sum of the individual
demand curves.
๏ If the number of consumers falls then the sum will be
smaller thus shifting the demand curve
52. Changes in Demand
๏ Decrease in demand
๏ At each and every price
Less of the good is
demanded
๏ Shifts to the Left
P
4
Qd1 Qd2
150
Price
A
5
D1
110
5
100
90
6
75
60
D2
90
100
Quantity
53. Causes of Decrease in Demand
๏ Decrease in consumer
income
๏ Causes consumers to
buy less of the product
at each and every price.
54. Exceptions to law of demand
๏ Some special varieties of inferior goods are termed as Giffen goods.
Cheaper varieties of this category like bajra, cheaper vegetable like
potato come under this category. A few goods like diamonds etc are
purchased by the rich and wealthy sections of the society. The prices of
these goods are so high that they are beyond the reach of the common
man.
๏ Certain things become the necessities of modern life. So we have to
purchase them despite their high price. A consumerโs ignorance is
another factor that at times induces him to purchase more of the
commodity at a higher price. Emergencies like war, famine etc. negate
the operation of the law of demand. Households also act speculators. A
change in fashion and tastes affects the market for a commodity. When
a broad toe shoe replaces a narrow toe, no amount of reduction in the
price of the latter is sufficient to clear the stocks.
๏ Though as a rule when the prices of normal goods rise, the demand for
them decreases but there may be a few cases where the law may not
operate.
55. The law of demand does not apply in every case and situation.
The circumstances when the law of demand becomes ineffective
are known as exceptions of the law. Some of these important
exceptions are as under.
๏ (1) Prestige goods/Veblen goods. There are certain commodities like
diamond, sports, cars etc., . which are purchased as a mark of
distinction in society. If the price of these goods rise, the demand for
them may increase instead of falling.
๏ (2) Price expectations. If people expect a further rise in the price of a
particular commodity, they may buy more inspite of rise in price: The
violation of the law in this case is only temporary.
๏ (3) Ignorance of the consumer. If, the Consumer is ignorant *about
the rise in price of goods, he may buy more at a higher price.
๏ (4) Giffen goods. If the prices of basic goods, (potatoes, bajra, sugar
etc) on which the poor spend a large part of their incomes declines, the
poor increase the demand for superior goods, hence when the price of
Giffen good falls, its demand also falls. There is a positive price effect in
the case of Giffen goods. โข
56. Elasticity โ the concept
๏ The responsiveness of one variable to changes in
another
๏ When price rises, what happens
to demand?
๏ Demand falls
BUT!
๏ How much does demand fall?
57. Types..
๏ Price elasticity of demand
๏ Income elasticity of demand
๏ Cross elasticity of demand
๏ Promotional elasticity of demand
๏ Expectations elasticity of demand
58. Kinds Of Price Elasticity Of Demand
1) Perfectly elastic demand (Ed= โ)
2) Perfectly inelastic demand (Ed=0)
3) Elasticity of demand equal to utility(Ed=1)
4) Relatively inelastic demand (Ed<1)
5) Relatively elastic demand(Ed>1)
59. Measurement Of Price Elasticity Of
Demand
There are main methods like
1. Percentage method or proportionate method
2. Total outlay method or total revenue method
3. Geometric method or point method
4. Arc elasticity of demand
60. Percentage method or proportionate
method
Price elasticity of demand (ep)
Proportionate change in quantity demanded of good X
Proportionate change in price of good X
(Q2-Q1)
Q1
=
(P2-P1)
P1
Where Q1 and P1 are original quantity and price
respectively, and Q2 and P2 are the new quantity
and price respectively
61.
62. Perfectly elastic demand
y
Perfectly elastic
demand curve
P
R
I
D
C
E
0
D
When the
demand for a
product changes
โincreases or
decreases even
when there is no
change in price,
it is known as
perfect elastic
x
demand.
63. Perfectly inelastic demand
Y
D
When a change in
price, howsover
Perfectly inelastic
large, change no
demand curve
changes in quality
demand, it is known
as perfectly inelastic
demand
P
R
I
C
E
0
D
demand
X
66. Relatively inelastic demand
Y
D
Relatively inelastic
demand curve
P
R
I
C
E
D
O
X
demand
When the
proportionate
change in demand
is less than the
proportionate
changes in price, it
is known as
relatively inelastic
demand
67. Relatively elastic demand
y
P
Relatively elastic
demand curve
R
D
I
C
E
D
0
demand
x
When the
proportionate
change in
demand is more
than the
proportionate
changes in price,
it is known as
relatively elastic
demand.
68.
69. ALL KINDS OF DEMAND CAN BE SHOWN IN
ONE DIAGRAM AS FOLLOW
Y
P
R
D
D1
I
C
D2
E
D3
D4
0
D5
DEMAND
X
WHERE
D1) Perfectly elastic
demand
D2)Relatively elastic
demand
D3)Elasticity of demand
equal to utility
D4)Relatively inelastic
demand
D5)Perfectly inelastic
demand
70. Factors Affecting Price Elasticity Of
Demand
๏ Nature of the Commodity
๏ Availability of Substitutes
๏ Variety of uses of commodity
๏ Postponement
๏ Influence of habits
๏ Proportion of Income spent on a
commodity
๏ Range of prices
71. Factors Affecting Price Elasticity Of
Demand
๏ Income Groups
๏ Elements of time
๏ Pattern of income distribution
72. Practical Importance of the
Concept of Price Elasticity Of
Demand
๏ The concept is helpful in taking Business Decisions
๏ Importance of the concept in formatting Tax Policy of
the government
๏ For determining the rewards of the Factors of
Production
๏ To determine the Terms of Trades Between the Two
Countries
73. Practical Importance of the
Concept of Price Elasticity Of
Demand
๏ Determination of Rates of Foreign Exchange
๏ For Nationalization of Certain Industries
๏ In economic Analysis ,the concept of price elasticity of
demand helps in explaining the irony of poverty in the
midst of plenty.
74. Determinants of Price Elasticity
of Demand
๏
๏
๏
๏
Demand for a commodity will be more elastic
if:
It has many close substitutes
The share of the commodities in buyersโ
budget is high
Nature of the commodities, luxuries
More time is available to adjust to a price
change
75. Determinants of Price Elasticity
of Demand
๏
๏
๏
๏
Demand for a commodity will be less elastic if:
It has few substitutes
The share of the commodities in buyersโ
budget is low
Nature of the commodities, Essentials
Less time is available to adjust to a price
change
76.
77. Types Of Income Elasticity Of Demand
๏ Positive Income elasticity of demand
๏ Negative Income elasticity of demand
๏ Zero Income elasticity of demand
79. Positive Income elasticity of demand
๏ Income Elasticity Equal to Unity or
One (Edy =1)
๏ Income Elasticity Greater Than Unity
Or One (Edy >1)
๏ Income Elasticity Less Than Unity or
One (Edy < 1)
83. Measurement Of Income Elasticity Of
Demand
Proportionate change in Demand
Income Elasticity Of Demand
Proportionate change in Income
=
i.e.
โq
โy
Income Elasticity Of Demand
+
Q
Y
=
84.
85. Measurement Of Income Elasticity Of
Demand
๏ Here , โq = Change in the quantity
demanded.
Q = Original quantity demanded.
โy = Change in income.
Y = Original income.
๏ For e.g. ,when Income of the consumer =
2,500/- , he purchases 20 units of X, when
income = 3,000/- he purchases 25 units of X
86. Measurement Of Income Elasticity Of
Demand
๏ Thus
Income Elasticity of Demand
โq
โy
+
=
Y
Q
= (5/20) + (500/2500)
= 1.5
therefore here the IED is 1.5 which is more
than one.
88. Importance Of the Concept of Income
Elasticity Of Demand
๏ In production planning and management
๏ In forecasting demand when change in
consumers income is expected
๏ In classifying goods as normal and inferior
๏ In expansion and contraction of the firm by
the figure of income elasticity of demand
๏ Markets situations could be studied with
the help of IED
89. (8) Elasticity Of Substitution
๏ The selection between two product or thing
is called substitution
๏ So Elasticity of Substitution measures the
rate at which the particular product is
substituted .
๏ Thus EOS is the degree to which one
product could be substituted in context of
price and proportion
90. Elasticity Of Substitution
๏ Elasticity of Substitution
= Proportionate change in the quantity
ratios of goods x & y DIVIDED BY
Proportionate change in the price ratios of
goods x & y.
91. Types of Elasticity Of Substitution
๏ Zero Elasticity of Substitution.
๏ Infinite Elasticity Of Substitution
๏ Elasticity of Substitution greater than
unityor1
๏ Elasticity of Substitution is equal to one
๏ Elasticity of Substitution is less than one
92. Change in QUANTITIY ratio of good x
&y
Types of Elasticity Of Substitution on
Y
Graph
O
E4
E3
E5
E2
E1
X
Change in PRICE ratio of good x & y
93. Relationship Between Price Elasticity,
Income Elasticity and Substitution
Elasticity
๏ As Price is depended on income and
substitution effect similarly Price Elasticity
is depended on Income Elasticity an
Substitution Elasticity .
๏ These relationship can be represented by
๏ Ep = Kx E1 + ( 1 โ Kx ) es
94. Price elasticity of demand depends
on:
๏ Proportion of income spent on particular
good say X.
๏ Income elasticity of demand.
๏ Elasticity of substitution.
๏ Proportion of income spent on product
other than X.
95. Cross Elasticity of Demand
๏ Cross elasticity of demand express a
relationship between the change in the
demand for a given product in response
to a change in the price of some other
product
๏ E.g. if the X tea demand reduces
tremendously than it effect could be seen in
demand of sugar and milk.
96. Types of Cross Elasticity of Demand
๏ Cross Elasticity of Demand Equal to Unity
or One
๏ Cross Elasticity of Demand Greater than
Unity or one
๏ Cross Elasticity of demand less than unity
or one
97. Measurement Cross Elasticity of
Demand
Proportionate change in Demand
for product X
Cross Elasticity of Demand
=
i.e.
Proportionate change in Price of
product Y
Cross Elasticity of Demand โqx
Qx
=
+
โp y
Py
98. Price of Y
Cross Elasticity of Demand For
Y
Substitutes
D
D
O
X
Demand for Y
99. Cross Elasticity of Demand For
Complementary Products
Y
Price of Y
D
D
O
X
Demand for Y
100. Cross Elasticity of Demand For Neutral
Products
Y
Price of Y
D
O
X
Demand for Y
101. Importance of Cross Elasticity Of
Demand
๏ The concept is of very great importance in
changing the price of the products having
substitutes and complementary goods .
๏ In demand forecasting
๏ Helps in measuring interdependence of price of
commodity .
๏ Multiproduct firms use these concept to measure
the effect of change in price of one product on the
demand of their other product
102. Advertising Elasticity of Demand
๏ Advertising elasticity of demand is the
measure of the rate of change in
demand due to change in advertising
expenditure
๏ The amount of change in demand of goods
due to advertisement is known as
Advertisement Elasticity of Demand .
103. Advertising Elasticity of Demand
Proportionate change in Demand
for product
Advertising Elasticity of Demand
=
i.e.
โqx
Advertising Elasticity of Demand
Q
=
Proportionate change in
Advertising expenditure
รท
โa
A
105. Factors Affecting Advertising Elasticity
Of Demand
๏ The stage of the Productโs Market
Development .
๏ Reaction of market Rival Firms.
๏ Cumulative Effect of Past Advertisement.
๏ Influence of Other Factors.
106. Importance of the Advertising
Elasticity Of Demand in Business
Decisions
๏ It is useful in competitive industries.
๏ Though advertisement shifts the demand
curve to right path but it also increases the
fixed cost of the firm.
107. Limitation of Advertising Elasticity
of the Demand
๏ The impact of advertising on sales is
different under different conditions, even if
other demand determinants are constant.
๏ Like wise, it is difficult to establish any corelationship between advertising
expenditure and volume of sales when there
counter advertisements by rival firm in the
market . The effect on sales depend on what
the rivals are doing.
108. Review of Demand
๏ A change in quantity demanded is not a change in
demand
๏ Change in quantity demanded is caused by a
change in price
๏ Change in quantity demanded is a movement
along the demand curve
๏ Change is demand is caused by a change in the
determinants
๏ Change in demand shifts the demand curve