The document summarizes the incremental theory of decision making. Some key points: - Incrementalism views policy making as an incremental process of bargaining and compromise between decision makers rather than rational planning. Decisions represent political feasibility over technical optimality. - Charles Lindblom developed this theory in the 1950s-60s as an alternative to the rational model, which did not reflect real-world constraints of time, resources etc. - Incrementalism assumes decisions are limited and build on past policies through marginal changes. It focuses on eliminating current problems rather than long term goals. - The theory has been criticized for being conservative and favoring the status quo over innovation, but also reflects real constraints on

1. Disjointed Inrementalism
Incremental theory of decision making or science of muddling Through
“ Policy is not made once and for all; it is made and remade endlessly.”
• Doubts about the usefulness of rational model led
to development of second major school of public
policy decision making or theory that sought a
closer approximation of theory to the actual
behavior of decision makers in real life situation.
• The incremental model viewed public policy
decision making as a political process characterized
by bargaining and compromise among self
interested decision-makers. (Baybrook and
Lindblom, 1963)

2. Contd
• According to this model, the decision made
represent what is politically feasible rather than
technically desirable, and what is possible or
optimal rather than maximal in the rational
model’s meaning of getting the most output for
the least cost.
• Yale University political scientist Charles E
Lindblom and his colleagues at other North
American Universities in the late 1950s and early
1960s developed this model.

3. Contd
• Incrementalism views the public policy as continuation of past government
activities with only some incremental change.
• It means choices changes are incremental or marginal. Further, it views
present policies as the iron grip of past policies.
• Lindblom is of the opinion that constraints of time, intelligence, skill and
cost prevents policy makers from identifying a full range of policy
alternatives and their consequences.
• So, he purposes that "successive limited comparison" is both more relevant
and more realistic in a condition of bounded rationality and satisfying
behavior.
There are basically two schools of thoughts related with it.
1) It tries to avoid the problems of rational comprehensive theory.
2) This is the descriptive way in which policy markers make policies.

4. Contd
• According to Lindblom, there are two reasons
why decisions typically do not stray far from
status quo.
• First, when bargaining takes place among various
participants, it is easier to continue the existing
pattern of distribution rather than try to
negotiate the distribution of resources that
would be required under any radically new
proposal.
• Second, the SOP of bureaucracies also tend to
promote the continuation of existing policies.

5. Elements (assumptions) of
Incrementalism
1. Incremental theory of decision making is characterized by limited analysis as
a limited number of important consequences of alternatives are evaluated.
2. The problem that is confronted/faced by the decision makers is continuously
re-defined. Hence, incrementalism permits means-ends and ends-means
adjustment that makes the problem more manageable.
3. There is no single right solution for a problem. The test of a good decision is
that various analyst find themselves directly agreeing or disagreeing for certain
objectives.
4. Incrementalism is more oriented towards eliminating the current problems
rather than the development of choices for long-term benefits.
5. It involves trial and error.
6. It is not theoretically driven, more application based.
7. It involves mutual adjustment and negotiation among groups or parties.
In short, incremental approach of decision making involves a process of
continually building out from the current situation step by step and by a
small degree

6. Stages of Incrementalism
1. Identification or recognition of problem. (What
is problem? why it emerged? How serious it is and
whether it be real or created?)
2. It tries to find out how similar problems were
handled in the past. The process of finding out the
past practice is investigation.
3. Analysis and evaluation of few possible policies
alternatives.
4. Select the one alternative that solve the problem
satisfactorily.

7. Appraisal of Incremental theory
• Incremental theory of decision making
represents the typical decision making process
in pluralist society. It views decisions and
politics are the products of give and take. In
this process there is mutual agreement among
various participants in decision making.
• The theory is politically expedient as it can
adjust disputes through slight modification in
the existing policies or programs.

8. contd
• Incremental decision reduces the risks and cost of
uncertainty in terms of future consequences of
actions.
• Incrementalism is a useful decision making
process as it addresses decision makers lack of
time, skill, intelligence, resources needed to
engage in comprehensive analysis.
• The theory is pragmatic as decision makers do not
always try to find the best decision but they seek
‘workable decision’.

9. Limitation of Incrementalism
• Incremental decisions would reflect the
interest of the most powerful and organized
interest of the society.
• It focuses on the short run and seeks only
limited variation in the past policies. It hardly
reflects the strategic decision .
• It would neglect social innovation.

10. contd
• Incremenalism is conservative in existing
policies and programs and build consensus to
continue past policies.
• It does not consider many alternatives but
selects from few. Hence it is difficult to select
best option.
• Incrementalism encourages thinking small and
constantly trying too find out some feedback
and make slight changes in policy decision.

11. contd
• It can muddle through ( move with out any
plan) with out any theoretical understanding
or knowledge of decision theories.
• It is status quo oriented rather than having
change orientation.
• It also neglects the concepts of democratic
participation or popular participation as
decisions are made by the higher ups.

12. Contd
• Critics of incrementalism have really debated the extent to
which the incremental model accurately describes how
many public policy decisions are actually made in practice.
Faults with theoretical implications
• Criticized for any good kind of goal orientation
• Inherently conservative—suspicion for large scale change
and innovation.
• Confined to decision making to bargaining within a select
group of senor policy makers
• Discourages systematic analysis and planning and
undermines the need to search for promising new
alternatives. Promoting short sighted decisions that can
have adverse consequences for society in the long run

13. Contd
Incrementalism is criticized for narrow analytic usefulness.
• Yehezkel Dror (1964) noted that incrementalism is more
characteristics of decision making when there is a great
deal of continuity in the nature problems.
• Incrementalism is more a characteristic of decision making
in a relatively stable environment, rather than in situations
that are unusual, such as crisis, or novel policy issue.
• It was pointed out that in practice it is difficult to know
exactly what is an increment and what is not in terms of the
size of the difference moved from the previous status quo.

14. Mix Scanning Theory: Third Approach
to Decision Making
• Amatai Etzioni has proposed the concept of mixed
scanning theory this is a compromise approach which
combines the elements from both rationalism and
incrementalism.
• He is not convinced that incremental and rational model of
decision making are either realistic or satisfactory
normative accounts of decision making. Rational policy
making is not always a sufficient approach because it has
limitation and makes high demands of the rationality of
the decision maker.
• On the other hand, incrementalism reduces some problems
of rational model but it is conservative and status quo-
oriented as it does not accept functional changes in
decision making.

15. The dualism of this approach is explicit
by there two reasons
1) It demands higher and orders fundamental policy
making process.
2) Incremental process which prepares for fundamental
decision and makes conducive (suitable) environment
for reaching to the decision.
• Mixed scanning model of decision making is drawn
using the weather forecasting and observation
techniques. Two cameras were used to record the
weather picture at two levels, one is broad scanning
(rationalism) and the other is more detailed images on
selected areas of interest (incrementalism)

16. contd
• Hence, rationalism and incrementalism were considered
as analogues term in term of scanning. In the context of
decision making it involves a detailed examination of
some areas of problem with a general sweep
(understanding) across as a whole. Mixed scanning
depends upon the different decision into those that are
fundamental and that are incremental.
• The value of the third way approach of decision making
is that it emphasizes how no theory is true in itself in
relation to decision making but is more or less instructive
and informative.
• Furthermore. mixed scanning assumes flexibility of
decision making in the light of change and uncertainty in
the environment. It also addresses the differing ability of
decision makers and co-ordination and conscious among
policy option and policy makers is sought.

17. Appraisal of mixed scanning theory
1. Decisions vary in magnitudes (It indicates size, scope etc.)
• Ametai Etzioni differentiates fundamental decisions from
incremental decisions. In this process (in mixed scanning)
fundamental decisions give direction to incremental decisions and
the accumulation of incremental decision lead to fundamental
decisions.
2. The key element of mixed scanning is flexibility of decision
making after proper consideration of current environmental
factors and actors.
3. Different decision makers possess different capacity of decision
making due to the different environmental context. Hence,
decision making permits the decision maker to tailor the decision
making strategy in their own situational context.
4. Mixed scanning theory has coordination between theory and
practice as it uses the best elements from the both theories and
creates conducive situation to make a strategic decision (long term
effect)

18. Limitations
1. Mixed scanning is a flexible theory but there are
limited situation in which can achieve goal by being
flexible.
2. There is problem of implementation with mixed
scanning theory. For this reason, Anderson says it is
not at all clear as the theory work in actual practice.
3. It is very difficult to scan fundamental or
incremental concepts of decision making at the time
of emergency.
4. It is time consuming as well as expensive.
5. It is very difficult to distinguish which decisions
are incremental and which are rational.