Here are the key points about star topology:
- In a star topology, each node connects to a central hub or switch.
- The central hub acts as a repeater and facilitates communication between the nodes.
- If a node fails or the connection is broken, it does not disrupt communication between other nodes. Only that node is isolated.
- Star topology is easy to install and manage. Adding or removing a node is simple as it only requires connecting/disconnecting to the central hub.
- It provides high reliability since failure of one node does not bring down the entire network.
- The central hub acts as a single point of failure. If the hub fails, the entire network fails.
Public key cryptography uses two keys, a public key that can encrypt messages and a private key that decrypts messages. It has six components: plain text, encryption algorithm, public and private keys, ciphertext, and decryption algorithm. Some key characteristics are that it is computationally infeasible to determine the private key from the public key alone, and encryption/decryption is easy when the relevant key is known. The requirements of public key cryptography are that it is easy to generate a public-private key pair, easy to encrypt with the public key, easy for the recipient to decrypt with the private key, and infeasible to determine the private key from the public key or recover the plaintext from the ciphertext and public key alone
Pgp-Pretty Good Privacy is the open source freely available tool to encrypt your emails then you can very securely send mails to others over internet without fear of eavesdropping by cryptanalyst.
This document discusses various methods of digital-to-analog conversion for analog transmission of digital data. It describes techniques such as amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), phase shift keying (PSK), and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). For each method, it discusses how the digital data modulates an analog carrier signal, provides equations for calculating bandwidth, and includes examples demonstrating how to apply the techniques. Diagrams and constellation plots are also used to illustrate the different modulation schemes.
The network layer provides two main services: connectionless and connection-oriented. Connectionless service routes packets independently through routers using destination addresses and routing tables. Connection-oriented service establishes a virtual circuit between source and destination, routing all related traffic along the pre-determined path. The document also discusses store-and-forward packet switching, where packets are stored until fully received before being forwarded, and services provided to the transport layer like uniform addressing.
This document describes the sliding window protocol. It discusses key concepts like both the sender and receiver maintaining buffers to hold packets, acknowledgements being sent for every received packet, and the sender being able to send a window of packets before receiving an acknowledgement. It then explains the sender side process of numbering packets and maintaining a sending window. The receiver side maintains a window size of 1 and acknowledges by sending the next expected sequence number. A one bit sliding window protocol acts like stop and wait. Merits include multiple packets being sent without waiting for acknowledgements while demerits include potential bandwidth waste in some situations.
In cryptography, a block cipher is a deterministic algorithm operating on ... Systems as a means to effectively improve security by combining simple operations such as .... Finally, the cipher should be easily cryptanalyzable, such that it can be ...
This document provides an overview of cryptography including:
1. Cryptography is the process of encoding messages to protect information and ensure confidentiality, integrity, authentication and other security goals.
2. There are symmetric and asymmetric encryption algorithms that use the same or different keys for encryption and decryption. Examples include AES, RSA, and DES.
3. Other techniques discussed include digital signatures, visual cryptography, and ways to implement cryptography like error diffusion and halftone visual cryptography.
This document discusses different types of multiplexing techniques. It describes that multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link using a multiplexer device. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the combined signals. The key types of multiplexing covered are frequency division multiplexing (FDM), time division multiplexing (TDM), and wave division multiplexing (WDM). FDM uses different frequencies, TDM divides time into slots, and WDM uses different light wavelengths. Synchronous and asynchronous TDM are also explained, with synchronous TDM assigning fixed time slots and asynchronous using flexible slots.
Public key cryptography uses two keys, a public key that can encrypt messages and a private key that decrypts messages. It has six components: plain text, encryption algorithm, public and private keys, ciphertext, and decryption algorithm. Some key characteristics are that it is computationally infeasible to determine the private key from the public key alone, and encryption/decryption is easy when the relevant key is known. The requirements of public key cryptography are that it is easy to generate a public-private key pair, easy to encrypt with the public key, easy for the recipient to decrypt with the private key, and infeasible to determine the private key from the public key or recover the plaintext from the ciphertext and public key alone
Pgp-Pretty Good Privacy is the open source freely available tool to encrypt your emails then you can very securely send mails to others over internet without fear of eavesdropping by cryptanalyst.
This document discusses various methods of digital-to-analog conversion for analog transmission of digital data. It describes techniques such as amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), phase shift keying (PSK), and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). For each method, it discusses how the digital data modulates an analog carrier signal, provides equations for calculating bandwidth, and includes examples demonstrating how to apply the techniques. Diagrams and constellation plots are also used to illustrate the different modulation schemes.
The network layer provides two main services: connectionless and connection-oriented. Connectionless service routes packets independently through routers using destination addresses and routing tables. Connection-oriented service establishes a virtual circuit between source and destination, routing all related traffic along the pre-determined path. The document also discusses store-and-forward packet switching, where packets are stored until fully received before being forwarded, and services provided to the transport layer like uniform addressing.
This document describes the sliding window protocol. It discusses key concepts like both the sender and receiver maintaining buffers to hold packets, acknowledgements being sent for every received packet, and the sender being able to send a window of packets before receiving an acknowledgement. It then explains the sender side process of numbering packets and maintaining a sending window. The receiver side maintains a window size of 1 and acknowledges by sending the next expected sequence number. A one bit sliding window protocol acts like stop and wait. Merits include multiple packets being sent without waiting for acknowledgements while demerits include potential bandwidth waste in some situations.
In cryptography, a block cipher is a deterministic algorithm operating on ... Systems as a means to effectively improve security by combining simple operations such as .... Finally, the cipher should be easily cryptanalyzable, such that it can be ...
This document provides an overview of cryptography including:
1. Cryptography is the process of encoding messages to protect information and ensure confidentiality, integrity, authentication and other security goals.
2. There are symmetric and asymmetric encryption algorithms that use the same or different keys for encryption and decryption. Examples include AES, RSA, and DES.
3. Other techniques discussed include digital signatures, visual cryptography, and ways to implement cryptography like error diffusion and halftone visual cryptography.
This document discusses different types of multiplexing techniques. It describes that multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link using a multiplexer device. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the combined signals. The key types of multiplexing covered are frequency division multiplexing (FDM), time division multiplexing (TDM), and wave division multiplexing (WDM). FDM uses different frequencies, TDM divides time into slots, and WDM uses different light wavelengths. Synchronous and asynchronous TDM are also explained, with synchronous TDM assigning fixed time slots and asynchronous using flexible slots.
Principles of public key cryptography and its UsesMohsin Ali
This document discusses the principles of public key cryptography. It begins by defining asymmetric encryption and how it uses a public key and private key instead of a single shared key. It then discusses key concepts like digital certificates and public key infrastructure. The document also provides examples of how public key cryptography can be used, including the RSA algorithm and key distribution methods like public key directories and certificates. It explains how public key cryptography solves the key distribution problem present in symmetric encryption.
This document discusses the history and characteristics of CISC and RISC architectures. It describes how CISC architectures were developed in the 1950s-1970s to address hardware limitations at the time by allowing instructions to perform multiple operations. RISC architectures emerged in the late 1970s-1980s as hardware improved, focusing on simpler instructions that could be executed faster through pipelining. Common RISC and CISC processors used commercially are also outlined.
This document provides an overview of IP security (IPSec). It begins by explaining the need for IPSec due to the lack of security in standard Internet protocols. It then covers the basic architecture and components of IPSec, including authentication headers, encapsulating security payloads, and how security associations combine these elements. The document also discusses key management and provides examples of how IPSec can be implemented in transport and tunnel modes. In under 3 sentences, this document provides an introduction to IPSec, outlines its main architectural components, and discusses how it establishes security associations to encrypt and authenticate network traffic.
The document describes the Quine McCluskey method for minimizing Boolean functions. It provides examples to illustrate the step-by-step process: 1) Write minterms in binary, 2) Group minterms by number of 1s, 3) Find prime implicants by comparing groups, 4) Tabulate prime implicants against minterms to find essential prime implicants. The examples show applying this method to minimize Boolean functions with multiple variables down to simplified sum-of-products expressions.
Digital signatures provide authentication of digital messages or documents. There are three main algorithms involved: hashing, signature generation, and signature verification. Common digital signature schemes include ElGamal, Schnorr, and the Digital Signature Standard (DSS). The DSS is based on ElGamal and Schnorr schemes. It uses smaller signatures than ElGamal by employing two moduli, one smaller than the other. Digital signatures are widely used to provide authentication in protocols like IPSec, SSL/TLS, and S/MIME.
The document discusses the IEEE 802 networking standards developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. It provides specifications for networking technologies, ensuring compatibility for network interfaces and cabling. The IEEE 802 standards predate and are compatible with the OSI networking model. The standards define networking behaviors for the physical elements of networks, including network interface cards, cables, connectors, and media access control.
This document discusses different methods for allowing one-to-one communication between nodes in large networks, including direct connections, central controllers, and common buses. It focuses on switching networks, which consist of interlinked switches that can create temporary connections between devices. There are three main types of switching networks: circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching. Packet switching breaks messages into small packets that contain user data and control information and are briefly stored at nodes before being passed to the next node.
The document discusses the pumping lemma for regular sets. It states that for any regular language L, there exists a constant n such that any string w in L of length at least n can be broken down into sections xyz such that y is not empty, xy is less than or equal to n, and xykz is in L for all k. The pumping lemma can be used to show a language is not regular by finding a string that does not satisfy the lemma conditions. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to use the pumping lemma to prove languages are not regular.
The document explains about the concepts of sequential circuits in Digital electronics.
This will be helpful for the beginners in VLSI and electronics students.
This document provides an overview of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, which defines seven layers of network communication. It describes each layer's functions and responsibilities, including the physical layer for transmitting bits, the data link layer for framing and addressing, the network layer for routing packets, the transport layer for process-to-process delivery, the session layer for dialog control, the presentation layer for data translation, and the application layer for user interfaces and services. The OSI model was designed by ISO in the late 1970s to provide a standard framework for network protocol implementation across different systems.
The document discusses the differences between packets and frames, and provides details on the transport layer. It explains that the transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery and uses port numbers for addressing. Connection-oriented protocols like TCP use three-way handshaking for connection establishment and termination, and implement flow and error control using mechanisms like sliding windows. Connectionless protocols like UDP are simpler but unreliable, treating each packet independently.
The document provides an overview of Huffman coding, a lossless data compression algorithm. It begins with a simple example to illustrate the basic idea of assigning shorter codes to more frequent symbols. It then defines key terms like entropy and describes the Huffman coding algorithm, which constructs an optimal prefix code from the frequency of symbols in the data. The document discusses how Huffman coding can be applied to image compression by first predicting pixel values and then encoding the residuals. It notes some disadvantages of Huffman coding and describes variations like adaptive Huffman coding.
This document discusses protocol layering in communication networks. It introduces the need for protocol layering when communication becomes complex. Protocol layering involves dividing communication tasks across different layers, with each layer having its own protocol. The document then discusses two principles of protocol layering: 1) each layer must support bidirectional communication and 2) the objects under each layer must be identical at both sites. It provides an overview of the OSI 7-layer model and describes the basic functions of each layer.
This document provides an overview of digital logic circuits and sequential circuits. It discusses various logic gates like OR, AND, NOT, NAND, NOR and XOR gates. It explains their truth tables and symbols. It also covers Boolean algebra, map simplification using K-maps, combinational circuits like multiplexers, demultiplexers, encoders and decoders. Finally, it describes different types of flip-flops like SR, D, JK and T flip-flops which are used to build sequential circuits that have memory and can store past states.
S/MIME (Secure Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) allows users to securely send emails through encryption and digital signatures. It uses public key cryptography, with algorithms like RSA and ElGamal for encryption and DSS and RSA for digital signatures. S/MIME supports encrypting the message contents, digitally signing the message, or both. It defines new MIME types to implement these security features for email. Other technologies like PGP provide similar email security functionality to S/MIME.
The document describes several digital and analog layout projects completed using Cadence tools including Virtuoso Layout Editor and Assura Verification. For digital projects, standard cells like inverters and logic gates were designed using a 130nm TSMC process. Analog projects included a level shifter, operational amplifier, band gap reference, DAC, and PLL. Challenges involved routing with tight metal pitches, transistor matching, reducing parasitics, and separating analog and digital blocks to prevent noise transfer.
Principles of public key cryptography and its UsesMohsin Ali
This document discusses the principles of public key cryptography. It begins by defining asymmetric encryption and how it uses a public key and private key instead of a single shared key. It then discusses key concepts like digital certificates and public key infrastructure. The document also provides examples of how public key cryptography can be used, including the RSA algorithm and key distribution methods like public key directories and certificates. It explains how public key cryptography solves the key distribution problem present in symmetric encryption.
This document discusses the history and characteristics of CISC and RISC architectures. It describes how CISC architectures were developed in the 1950s-1970s to address hardware limitations at the time by allowing instructions to perform multiple operations. RISC architectures emerged in the late 1970s-1980s as hardware improved, focusing on simpler instructions that could be executed faster through pipelining. Common RISC and CISC processors used commercially are also outlined.
This document provides an overview of IP security (IPSec). It begins by explaining the need for IPSec due to the lack of security in standard Internet protocols. It then covers the basic architecture and components of IPSec, including authentication headers, encapsulating security payloads, and how security associations combine these elements. The document also discusses key management and provides examples of how IPSec can be implemented in transport and tunnel modes. In under 3 sentences, this document provides an introduction to IPSec, outlines its main architectural components, and discusses how it establishes security associations to encrypt and authenticate network traffic.
The document describes the Quine McCluskey method for minimizing Boolean functions. It provides examples to illustrate the step-by-step process: 1) Write minterms in binary, 2) Group minterms by number of 1s, 3) Find prime implicants by comparing groups, 4) Tabulate prime implicants against minterms to find essential prime implicants. The examples show applying this method to minimize Boolean functions with multiple variables down to simplified sum-of-products expressions.
Digital signatures provide authentication of digital messages or documents. There are three main algorithms involved: hashing, signature generation, and signature verification. Common digital signature schemes include ElGamal, Schnorr, and the Digital Signature Standard (DSS). The DSS is based on ElGamal and Schnorr schemes. It uses smaller signatures than ElGamal by employing two moduli, one smaller than the other. Digital signatures are widely used to provide authentication in protocols like IPSec, SSL/TLS, and S/MIME.
The document discusses the IEEE 802 networking standards developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. It provides specifications for networking technologies, ensuring compatibility for network interfaces and cabling. The IEEE 802 standards predate and are compatible with the OSI networking model. The standards define networking behaviors for the physical elements of networks, including network interface cards, cables, connectors, and media access control.
This document discusses different methods for allowing one-to-one communication between nodes in large networks, including direct connections, central controllers, and common buses. It focuses on switching networks, which consist of interlinked switches that can create temporary connections between devices. There are three main types of switching networks: circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching. Packet switching breaks messages into small packets that contain user data and control information and are briefly stored at nodes before being passed to the next node.
The document discusses the pumping lemma for regular sets. It states that for any regular language L, there exists a constant n such that any string w in L of length at least n can be broken down into sections xyz such that y is not empty, xy is less than or equal to n, and xykz is in L for all k. The pumping lemma can be used to show a language is not regular by finding a string that does not satisfy the lemma conditions. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to use the pumping lemma to prove languages are not regular.
The document explains about the concepts of sequential circuits in Digital electronics.
This will be helpful for the beginners in VLSI and electronics students.
This document provides an overview of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, which defines seven layers of network communication. It describes each layer's functions and responsibilities, including the physical layer for transmitting bits, the data link layer for framing and addressing, the network layer for routing packets, the transport layer for process-to-process delivery, the session layer for dialog control, the presentation layer for data translation, and the application layer for user interfaces and services. The OSI model was designed by ISO in the late 1970s to provide a standard framework for network protocol implementation across different systems.
The document discusses the differences between packets and frames, and provides details on the transport layer. It explains that the transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery and uses port numbers for addressing. Connection-oriented protocols like TCP use three-way handshaking for connection establishment and termination, and implement flow and error control using mechanisms like sliding windows. Connectionless protocols like UDP are simpler but unreliable, treating each packet independently.
The document provides an overview of Huffman coding, a lossless data compression algorithm. It begins with a simple example to illustrate the basic idea of assigning shorter codes to more frequent symbols. It then defines key terms like entropy and describes the Huffman coding algorithm, which constructs an optimal prefix code from the frequency of symbols in the data. The document discusses how Huffman coding can be applied to image compression by first predicting pixel values and then encoding the residuals. It notes some disadvantages of Huffman coding and describes variations like adaptive Huffman coding.
This document discusses protocol layering in communication networks. It introduces the need for protocol layering when communication becomes complex. Protocol layering involves dividing communication tasks across different layers, with each layer having its own protocol. The document then discusses two principles of protocol layering: 1) each layer must support bidirectional communication and 2) the objects under each layer must be identical at both sites. It provides an overview of the OSI 7-layer model and describes the basic functions of each layer.
This document provides an overview of digital logic circuits and sequential circuits. It discusses various logic gates like OR, AND, NOT, NAND, NOR and XOR gates. It explains their truth tables and symbols. It also covers Boolean algebra, map simplification using K-maps, combinational circuits like multiplexers, demultiplexers, encoders and decoders. Finally, it describes different types of flip-flops like SR, D, JK and T flip-flops which are used to build sequential circuits that have memory and can store past states.
S/MIME (Secure Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) allows users to securely send emails through encryption and digital signatures. It uses public key cryptography, with algorithms like RSA and ElGamal for encryption and DSS and RSA for digital signatures. S/MIME supports encrypting the message contents, digitally signing the message, or both. It defines new MIME types to implement these security features for email. Other technologies like PGP provide similar email security functionality to S/MIME.
The document describes several digital and analog layout projects completed using Cadence tools including Virtuoso Layout Editor and Assura Verification. For digital projects, standard cells like inverters and logic gates were designed using a 130nm TSMC process. Analog projects included a level shifter, operational amplifier, band gap reference, DAC, and PLL. Challenges involved routing with tight metal pitches, transistor matching, reducing parasitics, and separating analog and digital blocks to prevent noise transfer.
Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation technique that encodes data by manipulating the phase of a carrier wave. In PSK, the phase of the carrier is shifted by 0 or 180 degrees for binary digits 0 and 1. The two most common PSK types are BPSK, which uses two phases separated by 180 degrees, and QPSK, which uses four phases separated by 90 degrees to encode two bits per symbol. PSK has advantages like power efficiency and bandwidth efficiency compared to other modulation techniques. It is used in wireless networks and RFID standards. MATLAB can be used to simulate and demodulate PSK signals.
This document provides a summary of serial and parallel connections, as well as protocols used for wide area networks (WANs) such as HDLC, PPP, and others. It discusses how serial connections transmit data one bit at a time over one wire, while parallel connections transmit multiple bits simultaneously over multiple wires. It also covers concepts such as clock skew, interference, and WAN encapsulation protocols including HDLC, PPP, Frame Relay, and ATM.
A complete ppt for network connectors and interface standards. Modems with types and version are also added in it. utility of cable modem alongwith null modem are described in it. a useful presentation for persons looking for networking devices at physical layer.
IRJET- Power Line Carrier CommunicationIRJET Journal
This document describes power line carrier communication (PLCC), which uses power lines as a communication medium. It discusses using PLCC to transmit electricity billing data from individual homes to the electricity company without site visits. Key components of the system include a real-time clock, energy meter, microcontroller, LCD display, and FSK transmitter and receiver. Data transmission is done by modulating a signal onto the power line using FSK modulation. The system is intended to reduce the burden on electricity companies by allowing remote transmission of billing data without the need for site visits.
This document describes a student project to implement frequency shift keying (FSK) modulation using two 555 timer circuits. The first 555 timer generates a digital signal at a defined frequency. The second 555 timer circuit modulates this signal to shift between two mark-space frequencies, controlled by a BC-547 transistor switching between logic 1 and 0 levels. The project analyzes the circuit operation and resulting modulated signal. Applications of FSK modulation discussed include early modems, radio transmission, and local area networks.
High-efficiency 2.45 and 5.8 GHz dual-band rectifier design with modulated in...IJECEIAES
This document presents the design of a dual-band rectifier for radio frequency energy harvesting. The rectifier is designed to operate with both continuous wave and modulated input signals over a wide input power range without using active components. It achieves this through a Wilkinson power divider that distributes power to two branches, each with an impedance matching network and voltage doubler rectifier using different diodes suited to different power levels. Simulation results show the rectifier achieves peak efficiencies of 67.0% and 49.1% for 2.45 GHz and 5.8 GHz continuous wave signals respectively. With modulated 16QAM and 8PSK input signals, efficiencies within 3-5% of continuous wave signals are obtained, demonstrating modulated
This document discusses various concepts related to data communication, including UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter), USRT (Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter), serial interfaces, and modems. It describes the functions of UARTs and USRTs, as well as serial interface standards like RS-232, RS-422, RS-423, and RS-530. Finally, it covers modem fundamentals, synchronization techniques, equalization, and ITU-T recommendations for v-series standards including V.29, V.32, V.32bis, V.32terbo, V.34+, V.42, V.90, and V.92.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
A low complexity distributed differential scheme based on orthogonal space t...IJECEIAES
The document presents a new low complexity distributed differential scheme for decode-and-forward wireless relay networks. The proposed scheme uses orthogonal space time block coding and does not require channel state information or differential encoding. It achieves high data rates with low decoding complexity at the source, relay, and destination nodes. Computer simulations show the proposed differential technique outperforms reference strategies and enjoys low encoding and decoding complexity while providing full transmission rate.
IRJET - Modeling of Swipt System using QPSK ModulationIRJET Journal
This document presents a LabVIEW-based modeling of a simultaneous wireless information and power transfer (SWIPT) system using quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK) modulation. The SWIPT transmitter modulates a binary data stream using QPSK and upconverts it to a 1 GHz carrier frequency. At the receiver, the RF signal is split for both energy harvesting and information decoding paths. In the energy harvesting path, an RF rectifier converts the RF signal to DC voltage for powering devices. In the information decoding path, QPSK demodulation recovers the binary data stream. The LabVIEW model provides a comprehensive system-level simulation of the SWIPT transmitter and receiver that can evaluate performance under different parameters and assist with
Optical Fibres by using Digital Communication without Direct Current to Detec...IRJET Journal
This document describes a cable fault detection system (CFD) that uses digital communication over optical fibers to detect faults in cables without requiring a direct current power supply. It consists of a master device with a power supply and slave devices located at cable heads without power. Slave devices generate their own power from fault currents or normal cable power flows. They digitize electrical measurements, transmit the data optically to the master, which identifies faults by comparing slave and master measurements. The system was tested on a 66kV substation cable system, detecting 11 external faults correctly without operating elements for internal faults. It confirms the slave devices can self-power and the master can synchronize sampling to accurately locate faults.
This document summarizes techniques for locating faults in underground power cables. It discusses using a microcontroller to determine the distance of a fault from the base station in kilometers by applying a low DC voltage through resistors representing the cable and detecting voltage drops. Tracer and terminal methods for fault location are described. Using fiber optic distributed temperature sensors and neural networks for fault identification are also summarized. The document provides block diagrams of the proposed underground cable fault distance system conveyed over GSM and its components including the power supply, microcontroller, rectifier, voltage regulator, and relay.
8th Sem Subject Ofc 8th chapter notes by Lohith kumar 11GUEE6018UVCE
This document discusses fiber optic communication links and components. It covers regenerative repeaters for digital links, including signal processing to amplify, reshape, retime and retransmit signals. It also discusses link power and rise time budget analysis for digital links, and C/N ratio analysis for analog links. Additionally, it covers wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) and dense WDM (DWDM), explaining their operational principles and how they expand network capacity. Coherent detection schemes like homodyne and heterodyne are also summarized.
Implementation and analysis of power reduction in 2 to 4 decoder design using...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
The document describes a system to identify the location of faults in underground electrical cables using an Internet of Things (IoT) platform. The system uses resistors to represent the underground cable and detects changes in voltage across the resistors to determine the location of short circuits. When a short circuit occurs, the voltage data is sent to a microcontroller and IoT module to display the fault location. The system allows utilities to locate cable faults without disconnecting the cable from the grid.
DQDB uses two unidirectional buses labeled Bus A and Bus B that operate in opposite directions. Each station stores two queues, one for each bus, to make and track reservations for transmitting data in 53 byte slots. Stations insert tokens in their queues to reserve slots on the opposing bus and remove tokens when empty slots pass on their bus, transmitting data if their token is removed.
ISDN provides digital services over integrated digital networks through basic rate or primary rate interfaces. The basic rate interface consists of 2 B channels and 1 D channel, while the primary rate interface has 23 B channels and 1 D channel. Channels are used for bearer, data, or hybrid services. Functional groupings and reference points define connections between
Application of NarrowBand Power Line Communication in Medium Voltage Smart Di...IRJET Journal
The document discusses applying narrowband power line communication technology in medium voltage smart distribution grids. It describes using existing power lines to transmit data using modulation techniques. A system is proposed using KQ330 modules consisting of a transmitter and receiver to communicate over power lines. The technology can be used for applications like monitoring equipment, automation, and internet access because power lines provide a widespread communication medium at low cost compared to other options. Challenges include impedance matching the communication modules to the power lines.
This document provides an overview of serial communication buses. It defines serial buses as using a single wire or fiber to transmit data one bit at a time. Common serial buses include RS-232, RS-422, RS-485, and USB. RS-232 defines standards for serial binary communication but has limitations like short maximum cable length. RS-422 and RS-485 use differential signaling to allow longer distances and higher speeds. RS-485 also enables multipoint connections. USB serves as a serial bus to connect devices and transfer data and power using a host controller.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
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This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
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Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
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Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
2. DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS LAB
In this lab students are exposed to various techniques like amplitude modulation /
demodulation, frequency modulation / demodulation, phase shift keying etc. being
used in communication engineering. Through well designed experiments, students
are able to appreciate the theoretical aspects of communication systems.
3. LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. TO STUDY DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA
2. TO STUDY QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING MODULATION.
3. TO STUDY SERIAL INTERFACE RS - 232.
4. TO STUDY PARALLEL INTERFACE IEEE - 488.
5. TO STUDY LAN USING USING STAR TOPOLOGY .
6. TO STUDY LAN USING BUS TOPOLOGY.
7. TO STUDY LAN USING TREE TOPOLOGY.
8. TO STUDY CONFIGURE MODEM OF COMPUTER.
9. TO CONFIGURE HUB/SWITCH.
10. TO MAKE INTERCONNECTIONS IN CABLES FOR DATA COMMUNICATION.
4. EXPERIMENT NO. 1
AIM: - To study different types of transmission media
APPRATUS REQUIRED: -
THEORY: -
Transmission Media - Guided
There are 2 basic categories of Transmission Media:
Guided and Unguided.
Guided Transmission Media uses a "cabling" system that guides the data
signals along a specific path. The data signals are bound by the "cabling"
system. Guided Media is also known as Bound Media. Cabling is meant in a
generic sense in the previous sentences and is not meant to be interpreted
as copper wire cabling only.
Unguided Transmission Media consists of a means for the data signals to
travel but nothing to guide them along a specific path. The data signals are
not bound to a cabling media and as such are often called Unbound Media.
There 4 basic types of Guided Media:
• Open Wire
• Twisted Pair
• Coaxial Cable
• Optical Fibre
Coaxial cables have a copper wire running through the middle encased in
plastic insulation.
The plastic insulation is itself encased in a metal braid which is covered by
an outer layer of plastic insulator.
The electrical signals run through the central wire and the metal braid acts
as both an earth and as a shield against electromagnetic interference.
5. Diagram
A BNC connector on a network card
Coaxial cables are connected to devices by means of a special plug with a
bayonet connection. This is called a BNC plug.
Fibre optic cables have a thin strand of glass in the centre that carries the
light pulses.
Cable Type Bandwidth
Open Cable 0 - 5 MHz
Twisted Pair 0 - 100 MHz
Coaxial Cable 0 - 600 MHz
Optical Fibre 0 - 1 GHz
6. Transmission Media - Unguided
Unguided Transmission Media is data signals that flow through the air. They
are not guided or bound to a channel to follow. They are classified by the
type of wave propagation.
RF Propagation
There are 3 types of RF (Radio Frequency) Propagation:
• Ground Wave,
• Ionospheric and
• Line of Sight (LOS) Propagation.
Ground Wave Propagation follows the curvature of the Earth. Ground
Waves have carrier frequencies up to 2 MHz. AM radio is an example of
Ground Wave Propagation.
RESULT: - Thus different types of transmission media are studied.
7. EXPERIMENT NO – 2
Aim: - to study quadrature phase shift keying modulation.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:- CRO, experimental kit, power supply, connecting
leads.
BRIEF THEORY:-
PSK:- PSK involves the phase change at the carrier sine wave between 0 to
180 in accordance with the data stream to be transmitted .
PSK modulator is similar to ASK modulator both used balanced modulator to
multiply the carrier with balanced modulator signal. The digital signal with
applied to modulation input for PSK generation is bipolar i.e. equal positive
and negative voltage level.
When the modulating input is positive the out put at modulator is a line
wave in phase with the carrier input whereas for positive voltage level, the
output of modulator is a sine wave which is switched out of phase by 180
from the carrier input.
Quadrature Phase-shift Keying (QPSK)
QPSK:- in QPSK each pair at consecutive data bit is treated as a two bit code
which is switch the phase of the carrier sine wave between one at four phase
90º apart. The four possible combinations at bib it code are 0º, 01, 10, and
11 each code represents either a phase of 45º, 185º, 225º, and 315º
lagging, relative to the phase at the original un modulated carrier QPSK
offers an advantage over PSK is a no carrier that how each phase represents
a two bit code rather than a single bit. This means that either we can charge
phase per sec. or the same amount of data can be transmitted with .
8. Constellation diagram for QPSK with Gray coding. Each adjacent symbol only
differs by one bit.
Sometimes known as quaternary or quadriphase PSK or 4-PSK, QPSK uses
four points on the constellation diagram, equispaced around a circle. With
four phases, QPSK can encode two bits per symbol, shown in the diagram
with Gray coding to minimize the BER — twice the rate of BPSK. Analysis
shows that this may be used either to double the data rate compared to a
BPSK system while maintaining the bandwidth of the signal or to maintain
the data-rate of BPSK but halve the bandwidth needed.
Although QPSK can be viewed as a quaternary modulation, it is easier to see
it as two independently modulated quadrature carriers. With this
interpretation, the even (or odd) bits are used to modulate the in-phase
component of the carrier, while the odd (or even) bits are used to modulate
the quadrature-phase component of the carrier. BPSK is used on both
carriers and they can be independently demodulated
BLOCK DIAGRAM:-
Carrier
Generator
Carrier
Modulation
CRO
Circuit
Data Unipolar to
Generator Bipolar
Converter
( Block diagram of PSK)
9. Carrier
Generator
Carrier
Modulation
Circuit
Data Unipolar to
Generator Bipolar
Converter Summing
amplifier
CRO
Qudrature
Carrier
Generator Carrier
Modulation
Circuit
Data Unipolar to
Generator Bipolar
Converter
PROCEDURE:-
1. Make the connection according to the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the modulator output to CRO.
3. Observe output on CRO.
11. EXPERIMENT NO – 3
Aim: - TO STUDY SERIAL INTERFACE RS - 232.
Appratus Required: - Data Communication Kit
THEORY: -
Introduction to Serial Communications
All IBM PC and compatible computers are typically equipped with two serial
ports and one parallel port. Although these two types of ports are used for
communicating with external devices, they work in different ways.
A parallel port sends and receives data eight bits at a time over 8 separate
wires. This allows data to be transferred very quickly; however, the cable
required is more bulky because of the number of individual wires it must
contain. Parallel ports are typically used to connect a PC to a printer and are
rarely used for much else. A serial port sends and receives data one bit at a
time over one wire. While it takes eight times as long to transfer each byte
of data this way, only a few wires are required. In fact, two-way (full duplex)
communications is possible with only three separate wires - one to send, one
to receive, and a common signal ground wire.
RS-232 stands for Recommend Standard number 232 and C is the latest
revision of the standard. The serial ports on most computers use a subset of
the RS-232C standard. The full RS-232C standard specifies a 25-pin "D"
connector of which 22 pins are used. Most of these pins are not needed for
normal PC communications, and indeed, most new PCs are equipped with
male D type connectors having only 9 pins.
The RS-232 standard states that DTE devices use a 25-pin male connector,
and DCE devices use a 25-pin female connector. You can therefore connect a
DTE device to a DCE using a straight pin-for-pin connection. However, to
connect two like devices, you must instead use a null modem cable. Null
modem cables cross the transmit and receive lines in the cable, and are
discussed later in this chapter. The listing below shows the connections and
signal directions for both 25 and 9-pin connectors.
The TD (transmit data) wire is the one through which data from a DTE
device is transmitted to a DCE device. This name can be deceiving, because
12. this wire is used by a DCE device to receive its data. The TD line is kept in a
mark condition by the DTE device when it is idle. The RD (receive data) wire
is the one on which data is received by a DTE device, and the DCE device
keeps this line in a mark condition when idle.
RTS stands for Request To Send. This line and the CTS line are used when
"hardware flow control" is enabled in both the DTE and DCE devices. The
DTE device puts this line in a mark condition to tell the remote device that it
is ready and able to receive data. If the DTE device is not able to receive
data (typically because its receive buffer is almost full), it will put this line in
the space condition as a signal to the DCE to stop sending data. When the
DTE device is ready to receive more data (i.e. after data has been removed
from its receive buffer), it will place this line back in the mark condition. The
complement of the RTS wire is CTS, which stands for Clear To Send. The
DCE device puts this line in a mark condition to tell the DTE device that it is
ready to receive the data.
DTR stands for Data Terminal Ready. Its intended function is very similar
to the RTS line. DSR (Data Set Ready) is the companion to DTR in the same
way that CTS is to RTS. Some serial devices use DTR and DSR as signals to
simply confirm that a device is connected and is turned on.
The RS-232C standard imposes a cable length limit of 50 feet. You can
usually ignore this "standard", since a cable can be as long as 10000 feet at
baud rates up to 19200 if you use a high quality, well shielded cable. The
external environment has a large effect on lengths for unshielded cables. In
electrically noisy environments, even very short cables can pick up stray
signals
Diagram :
25 Pin Connector on a DTE device (PC connection)
Male RS232 DB25
Pin Number
13. 9 Pin Connector on a DTE device (PC connection)
Male RS232 DB9
Advantages : It is applicable for long distance.
Disadvantage :- Comparatively low speed.
Result : Thus studied RS – 232 standard.
14. EXPERIMENT NO – 4
Aim: - TO STUDY PARALLEL INTERFACE IEEE - 488.
Appratus Required: - Data communication kit
THEORY:
IEEE-488 / HP-IB / GPIB
IEEE-488 stacking connectors
Data signal Parallel data bus with handshaking
Width 8 bits
Bandwidth 8 Mbps
(later extended to 64 Mbps)
Max devices 15
Protocol Parallel
Cable 20 meters max
Pins 24 (8 data, 5 bus management, 3 handshake, 8 ground)
15. Connector 24-pin Amphenol-designed micro ribbon
Pin out
A female IEEE-488 connector
Pin 1 DIO1 Data input/output bit.
Pin 2 DIO2 Data input/output bit.
Pin 3 DIO3 Data input/output bit.
Pin 4 DIO4 Data input/output bit.
Pin 5 EOI End-or-identify.
Pin 6 DAV Data valid.
Pin 7 NRFD Not ready for data.
Pin 8 NDAC Not data accepted.
Pin 9 IFC Interface clear.
Pin 10 SRQ Service request.
Pin 11 ATN Attention.
Pin 12 SHIELD
Pin 13 DIO5 Data input/output bit.
Pin 14 DIO6 Data input/output bit.
Pin 15 DIO7 Data input/output bit.
Pin 16 DIO8 Data input/output bit.
Pin 17 REN Remote enable.
Pin 18 GND (wire twisted with DAV)
Pin 19 GND (wire twisted with NRFD)
Pin 20 GND (wire twisted with NDAC)
Pin 21 GND (wire twisted with IFC)
Pin 22 GND (wire twisted with SRQ)
Pin 23 GND (wire twisted with ATN)
IEEE-488 is a short-range, digital communications bus specification. It was originally created for use with
automated test equipment, and is still in wide use for that purpose. IEEE-488 is also commonly known as HP-IB
(Hewlett-Packard Instrument Bus) and GPIB (General Purpose Interface Bus).
IEEE-488 allows up to 15 devices to share a single 8-bit parallel electrical bus by daisy chaining connections. The
slowest device participates in control and data transfer handshakes to determine the speed of the transaction. The
maximum data rate is about one Mbyte/sec in the original standard, and about 8 Mbyte/sec with IEEE-488.
The IEEE-488 bus employs 16 signal lines — eight bi-directional used for data transfer, three for handshake. and
five for bus management-plus eight ground return lines.
16. Signals
bus line description
DIO1– Data input/output bits. These 8 lines are used to read and write the 8 bits of a data or command byte that
DIO8 is being sent over the bus.
Not ready for data. NRFD is a handshaking line asserted by listeners to indicate they are not ready to
NRFD
receive a new data byte.
Data valid. This is a handshaking line, used to signal that the value being sent with DIO1-DIO8 is valid.
DAV During transfers the DIO1-DIO8 lines are set, then the DAV line is asserted after a delay called the 'T1
delay'. The T1 delay lets the data lines settle to stable values before they are read.
Not data accepted. NDAC is a handshaking line asserted by listeners to indicate they have not yet read
NDAC
the byte contained on the DIO lines.
Attention. ATN is asserted to indicate that the DIO lines contain a command byte (as opposed to a data
ATN
byte). Also, it is asserted with EOI when conducting parallel polls.
End-or-identify. This line is asserted with the last byte of data during a write, to indicate the end of the
EOI
message. It can also be asserted along with the ATN line to conduct a parallel poll.
Interface clear. The system controller can assert this line (it should be asserted for at least 100
IFC
microseconds) to reset the bus and make itself controller-in-charge.
Remote enable. Asserted by the system controller, it enables devices to enter remote mode. When REN is
REN asserted, a device will enter remote mode when it is addressed by the controller. When REN is false, all
devices will immediately return to local mode.
Service request. Devices on the bus can assert this line to request service from the controller-in-charge.
SRQ The controller can then poll the devices until it finds the device requesting service, and perform whatever
action is necessary.
Advantage : Fast speed.
Disadvantage : Apllied for short disdtance.
17. EXPERIMENT NO – 5
Aim: - TO STUDY LAN USING USING STAR TOPOLOGY .
Rppratus Required: - 4 to 5 computers, cables
Theory: -What is Network Topology?
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. Physical
topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method used to pass information between
workstations.
Main Types of Network Topologies
In networking, the term "topology" refers to the layout of connected devices on a network.
Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:
• Star Topology
• Ring Topology
• Bus Topology
• Tree Topology
• Mesh Topology
• Hybrid Topology
More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies.
Star Topology
Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point called a "hub" that
may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.
Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network
cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the
entire network also fails.)
18. DIAGRAM: -
Advantages of a Star Topology
• Easy to install and wire.
• No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
• Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
• If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
• More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.
The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or LocalTalk. Token Ring uses a similar topology,
called the star-wired ring.
RESULT: - Star Topology is studied.
19. EXPERIMENT NO – 6
Aim: - TO STUDY LAN USING BUS TOPOLOGY.
Appratus Required: - 4 to 5 computers , cables
Theory: --What is Network Topology?
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. Physical
topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method used to pass information between
workstations.
Main Types of Network Topologies
In networking, the term "topology" refers to the layout of connected devices on a network.
Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:
• Star Topology
• Ring Topology
• Bus Topology
• Tree Topology
• Mesh Topology
• Hybrid Topology
Bus Topology
l
Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared to the alternatives.
10Base-2 ("ThinNet") and 10Base-5 ("ThickNet") both were popular Ethernet cabling options many years ago for
bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen
computers are added to a network.l
20. DIAGRAM: -
Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology
• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
• Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
• Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
• Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building
Result: - Thus Bus Topology is studied.
21. EXPERIMENT NO – 7
Aim: - TO STUDY LAN USING TREE TOPOLOGY.
Appratus Required: - 4 – 5 Computers , cables.
Theory: --What is Network Topology?
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. Physical
topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method used to pass information between
workstations.
Main Types of Network Topologies
In networking, the term "topology" refers to the layout of connected devices on a network.
Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:
• Star Topology
• Ring Topology
• Bus Topology
• Tree Topology
• Mesh Topology
• Hybrid Topology
Tree Topology
Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub devices
connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the "root" of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid
approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited in the number of devices
due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.
22. DIAGRAM: -
Advantages of a Tree Topology
• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
• Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
• Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
Result: - Thus Tree Topology is studied.
23. EXPERIMENT NO – 8
Aim: - TO STUDY CONFIGURE MODEM OF COMPUTER.
Appratus Required: - MODEM and Data communication kit
THEORY: -
The word "modem" is a contraction of the words modulator-demodulator. A modem is typically used to send
digital data over a phone line.
The sending modem modulates the data into a signal that is compatible with the phone line, and the receiving
modem demodulates the signal back into digital data. Wireless modems convert digital data into radio signals
and back.
Modems came into existence in the 1960s as a way to allow terminals to connect to computers over the phone
lines. A typical arrangement is shown below:
Types of Modem
Internal
Internal modems are Compact, Inexpensive but difficult to set-up (if not pre-installed with computer package).
External
External modems are - Simple to set up, allow flexible usage but are more expensive than internal modems.
In a configuration like this, a dumb terminal at an off-site office or store could "dial in" to a large, central
computer. The 1960s were the age of time-shared computers, so a business would often buy computer time from
a time-share facility and connect to it via a 300-bit-per-second (bps) modem.
A dumb terminal is simply a keyboard and a screen. A very common dumb terminal at the time was called the DEC
VT-100, and it became a standard of the day (now memorialized in terminal emulators worldwide). The VT-100
could display 25 lines of 80 characters each. When the user typed a character on the terminal, the modem sent the
ASCII code for the character to the computer. The computer then sent the character back to the computer so it
would appear on the screen.
People got along at 300 bps for quite a while. The reason this speed was tolerable was because 300 bps represents
about 30 characters per second, which is a lot more characters per second than a person can type or read. Once
people started transferring large programs and images to and from bulletin board systems, however, 300 bps
became intolerable.
Modem speeds went through a series of steps at approximately two-year intervals:
• 300 bps - 1960s through 1983 or so
24. • 1200 bps - Gained popularity in 1984 and 1985
• 2400 bps
• 9600 bps - First appeared in late 1990 and early 1991
• 19.2 kilobits per second (Kbps)
• 28.8 Kbps
• 33.6 Kbps
• 56 Kbps - Became the standard in 1998
• ADSL, with theoretical maximum of up to 8 megabits per second (Mbps) - Gained popularity in 1999
DIAGRAM: -
-
RESULT: - Different types of modems are studied.
25. EXPERIMENT NO – 9
Aim: - TO CONFIGURE HUB/SWITCH.
Appratus Required: - HUB, Switch and Cables
THEORY: -
The Hubs are the physical hardware devices placed in a central locations. The Hubs can be either multi-port
repeaters or concentration. The Hubs can be of two types:-
a) The Hubs with minimum intelligent (i.e. no microprocessors).
b) Intelligent Hubs which can perform the basic diagnostics and task the nodes to see if they are operating
correctly or not.
The third category can be smart Hubs which can be polled and managed remotely
Purpose of Hub
Hubs are used to provide star topology. At the center of a star is the Hub or the switch with the n/w nodes located
on the tips of the star. The hub is installed in a central wiring clost with all the cables extending out to the n/w
nodes. The advantage of having a central wiring location i.e. it is easier to maintain to troubleshoot large n/w. All
n/w cables come to the central hub. So it is especially easy to detect and fix the cable problems. The user can
easily move a workstation in a star topology by changing the connection to the Hub at the central wiring closet.
BLOCK DIAGRAM: -
RESULT: - Thus Hub is Studied
26. EXPERIMENT NO – 10
AIM: - TO MAKE INTERCONNECTIONS IN CABLES FOR DATA
COMMUNICATION.
APPRATUS REQUIRED: - Different types of cables
THEORY: -
Ethernet Cables
Comparison between CAT5, CAT5e, CAT6, CAT7 Cables
In the context of the 100-ohm UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) type of cable used for Ethernet wiring the only
categories of interest are Cat3, Cat4, Cat5, Cat5e, Cat6, and Cat7. CATx is an abbreviation for the category
number that defines the performance of building telecommunications cabling as outlined by the Electronic
Industries Association (EIA) standards. Some specifications for these categories are shown further down.
Up until the late 1980s thick or thin coaxial cable was typically used for 10-Mbps Ethernet networks, but around
that time, UTP cabling became more commonly used because it was easier to install and less expensive. UTP CAT3
and CAT4 were used for a quite limited time since the emergence of 100Base-TX networks meant a quick shift to
CAT5. By the year 2000, moves to gigabit (1000Base-TX) Ethernet LANs created a need for another specification,
CAT5e. CAT5e is now being superseded by CAT6 cable and there is a developing standard for CAT7.
Specifications for Cat3, Cat4, Cat5, Cat5e, Cat6, and Cat7 Cables
Category Type Spectral B/W Length LAN Applications Notes
Cat3 UTP 16 MHz 100m 10Base-T, 4Mbps Now mainly for telephone cables
Cat4 UTP 20 MHz 100m 16Mbps Rarely seen
Cat5 UTP 100MHz 100m 100Base-Tx,ATM, CDDI Common for current LANs
Cat5e UTP 100MHz 100m 1000Base-T Common for current LANs
Cat6 UTP 250MHz 100m Emerging
Cat7 ScTP 600MHz 100m
It might seem that CAT5 and CAT5e are the same. Pretty much they are, the CAT5e specification simply included
some additional limits over the CAT5 specification. The reality is that most CAT5 cable is in fact CAT5e cable just
not certified as such. Here is a comparison of those extra specifications.
27. CAT5, CAT5e, and CAT6 UTP Solid Cable Specifications Comparison
Category 5 Category 5e Category 6
Frequency 100 MHz 100 MHz 250 MHz
Attenuation (Min. at 100 MHz) 22 dB 22 dB 19.8 dB
Characteristic Impedance 100 ohms ± 15% 100 ohms ± 15% 100 ohms ± 15%
NEXT (Min. at 100 MHz) 32.3 dB 35.3 dB 44.3 dB
PS-NEXT (Min. at 100 MHz) no specification 32.3 dB 42.3 dB
ELFEXT (Min. at 100 MHz) no specification 23.8 dB 27.8 dB
PS-ELFEXT (Min. at 100 MHz) no specification 20.8 dB 24.8 dB
Return Loss (Min. at 100 MHz) 16.0 dB 20.1 dB 20.1 dB
Delay Skew (Max. per 100 m) no specification 45 ns 45 ns
Some modern hubs don't care if you use crossover cables or straight through cables, they work out what you're
using and configure themselves accordingly.
As stated at the outset, the actual difference is in the wiring. Inside the UTP patch cable there are 8 physical wires
although the network only uses 4 of them (the other 4 are simply wasted). The 8 wires are arranged in what's
known as pairs and one pair is used to send information whilst the other pair is used to receive information.
On a PC, the pair on pins 1 and 2 of the connector send information, whilst the pair on pins 3 and 6 receive the
information. To make PCs talk to each we therefore need to connect the send pair of one PC to the receive pair of
the other PC (and vice-a-versa). That means we need a crossover cable. If we used a straight through cable the
both be listening on the one pair - and hearing nothing, and sending on the one pair - achieving nothing.
The most common cable is the straight through cable. In a home or small office network you might only have one
crossover cable used - perhaps from the cable or DSL modem to the distribution hub.
28. Color Codes
If a cable has 568A color wiring on both ends then it's a straight through cable.
If a cable has 568B color wiring on both ends then it's also a straight through cable.
If a cable has 568A color wiring on one end and 568B color coded wiring on the other end, then it's a
crossover cable.
In fact, while the colors are standardized and usually followed, that's not the important part. What's more
important is that one "pair" (wires that are twisted together inside the cable sheath) is used for the transmit side
and another pair for the receive side. If pairs aren't used then it's likely your cable will not work. Pairs are
identified by the colors. The orange wire and the orange with white stripe (or sometimes white with orange stripe)
wire are a pair. The brown wire and the brown with white stripe wire are a pair. Etc.
DIAGRAM: -
RESULT: - CAT types of cables are studied.