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Computer network
Computer networks allow two or more computers to connect and communicate electronically for sharing resources and data. The key goals of networking include resource sharing, high performance, reliability, inter-process communication, security, and flexible access to files from any computer on the network. Computer networks have hardware components like network interface cards, servers, clients, and transmission media, as well as software including network operating systems and protocols. Cables that connect the hardware include twisted pair, coaxial, and fiber-optic cables.
INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY SARASWATHI RAMALINGAM
Data Communication ,Computer Network ,The Uses of a Network ,Types of Networks ,Network Topologies,Transmission Media,Guided Transmission Media ,Wireless Transmission,,INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY,COMPUTER BASICS,NME
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This document classifies and describes different types of computer networks and network topologies. It discusses the four main types of computer networks: personal area networks (PAN), local area networks (LAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN), and wide area networks (WAN). It also outlines the most common network topologies: bus, ring, star, mesh, tree, and hybrid topologies. For each topology, it provides a brief definition and lists some advantages and disadvantages.
Note: Introduction to Computer Networks
Basic concept of Computer networks
Goals of networking, Application of Computer Network, Network Hardware & Software
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The document provides an introduction to computer networks including:
1. The origins and early development of the Internet from ARPANET in the 1960s-1980s.
2. The basic components, goals, and applications of computer networks including resource sharing, reliability, and performance.
3. The key hardware, software, and transmission media that enable computer networking including hubs, switches, routers, network interface cards, transmission control protocol, and fiber optic cables.
Computer Network its application & network types
This document is a homework submission for the Computer Networks course. It contains answers to questions about computer networks, their goals, applications, components, and types. The main types discussed are personal area networks (PANs), local area networks (LANs), metropolitan area networks (MANs), and wide area networks (WANs). PANs connect devices within 10 meters, LANs within 1 kilometer, MANs cover towns and cities within 50 km, and WANs are used for business, government, and education across large distances.
Classification computer network
This document provides an overview of computer network classification. It discusses four main types of computer networks:
1) Local Area Network (LAN) which connects devices within a small physical area like a home, office, or school.
2) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) which connects devices within a larger area like a city or campus.
3) Personal Area Network (PAN) which connects devices centered around an individual person's workspace.
4) Wide Area Network (WAN) which connects multiple LANs over a broad geographic distance using technologies like telephone lines or satellites.
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Computer networks allow two or more computers to connect and communicate electronically for sharing resources and data. The key goals of networking include resource sharing, high performance, reliability, inter-process communication, security, and flexible access to files from any computer on the network. Computer networks have hardware components like network interface cards, servers, clients, and transmission media, as well as software including network operating systems and protocols. Cables that connect the hardware include twisted pair, coaxial, and fiber-optic cables.
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The document provides an introduction to computer networks including:
1. The origins and early development of the Internet from ARPANET in the 1960s-1980s.
2. The basic components, goals, and applications of computer networks including resource sharing, reliability, and performance.
3. The key hardware, software, and transmission media that enable computer networking including hubs, switches, routers, network interface cards, transmission control protocol, and fiber optic cables.
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This document is a homework submission for the Computer Networks course. It contains answers to questions about computer networks, their goals, applications, components, and types. The main types discussed are personal area networks (PANs), local area networks (LANs), metropolitan area networks (MANs), and wide area networks (WANs). PANs connect devices within 10 meters, LANs within 1 kilometer, MANs cover towns and cities within 50 km, and WANs are used for business, government, and education across large distances.
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This document provides an overview of computer network classification. It discusses four main types of computer networks:
1) Local Area Network (LAN) which connects devices within a small physical area like a home, office, or school.
2) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) which connects devices within a larger area like a city or campus.
3) Personal Area Network (PAN) which connects devices centered around an individual person's workspace.
4) Wide Area Network (WAN) which connects multiple LANs over a broad geographic distance using technologies like telephone lines or satellites.
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The document discusses different types of computer networks:
1. LAN (Local Area Network) connects devices within 1 km and consists of less than 5000 devices across several buildings.
2. PAN (Personal Area Network) connects devices within 10 meters of a user.
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) connects computers within a metropolitan area using protocols like RS-232 and fiber optic cables.
4. WAN (Wide Area Network) connects LANs across locations using telephone lines and radio waves. It is used widely in business and government.
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The document discusses data communication systems and networks. It introduces key concepts like data communication, components of a data communication system, different types of networks including LANs, WANs and MANs, the organization and structure of the Internet, and the basic elements of communication protocols. Diagrams and figures are included to illustrate different network topologies, types of connections, and the hierarchical organization of the Internet.
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Network communications involve three main elements - a message source, destination, and channel between them. Messages are segmented into smaller pieces for transmission over the network to allow for multiple conversations and increased reliability. Network devices include end devices that interface with users and intermediary devices that direct traffic flow. Protocols govern network communications and are organized into protocol stacks, with lower layers focusing on transport and higher layers on applications. Standardized protocols enable different systems to communicate.
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Mountain High School has around 800 students and 45 staff members. It aims to utilize technology to improve engagement. Its computer network includes a local area network connecting all classrooms and facilities on campus through Ethernet cables. This LAN is connected to the district's wide area network and the Internet through the school's router and connection to an Internet service provider. Key hardware includes network interface cards, Ethernet jacks, cables, switches, and a router. The network allows students and staff to access the Internet, library resources, and printers. Some rooms also have wireless connectivity for certain devices.
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This document discusses data communications and computer networks. It covers the components of a data communication system including transmission media and data flow modes. It then discusses computer networks, defining them as connected devices that exchange data. It covers network criteria like performance, reliability and security. It also covers physical network structures like topology and the categories of local, wide and metropolitan area networks. Finally, it provides an overview of the Internet, its organization and Internet service providers.
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1) A computer network connects computers together to share resources like printers, files, and internet connections. Networks can be local-area networks within a building or wide-area networks spanning cities.
2) Common network topologies include star, bus, ring, tree and mesh. Star networks connect devices to a central hub while bus networks use a common backbone cable. Ring networks transmit messages in one direction around a closed loop.
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There are four main types of computer networks:
1) Personal area networks (PANs) connect devices within 10 meters and include laptops and mobile devices.
2) Local area networks (LANs) connect computers within 1 km, such as within offices, schools, and small areas.
3) Metropolitan area networks (MANs) connect devices within a large city or multiple cities using high-speed fiber optic cables.
4) Wide area networks (WANs) connect local networks over large geographic areas and are used widely in business, education, and government.
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The document discusses different network topologies including bus, ring, star, tree, mesh, and hybrid topologies. It describes the key characteristics of each topology such as their advantages and disadvantages. It also defines common networking devices like hubs, switches, routers, repeaters, and brouters explaining their basic functions.
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This document provides an overview of key concepts in data communication and networking including:
1. It defines analog and digital signaling methods, with analog varying continuously in voltage and digital jumping between discrete voltage levels.
2. It describes how modems modulate digital signals to analog for transmission and demodulate analog signals back to digital.
3. It outlines simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex transmission directions and defines common network types like LAN, MAN, and WAN.
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Note 2: Classification of Computer Networks
What is Network Topology?
A computer network is a collection of two or more computers which are connected
together to share information and resources.
Network Technology:
The network technology is:
• Intranet
• Extranet
• Internet.
Data communication
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and receiver. It can be local, occurring within the same building, or remote, occurring over data transmission circuits. A data communication system collects data from remote locations and outputs processed results remotely. It consists of a message, sender, receiver, medium like wired or wireless networks, and protocols that govern communication between devices by sequencing data, routing, formatting, controlling flow, and detecting and correcting errors. Protocols also determine precedence, connection establishment, and termination.
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This document discusses computer networks and communication. It begins by defining what a network is - a group of connected computers that can share resources and exchange information. It then discusses the evolution and need for networking. There are three main types of networks described: local area networks (LANs) which connect computers in a small area like a building, metropolitan area networks (MANs) which connect computers over a city, and wide area networks (WANs) which connect computers across large geographic areas or continents using technologies like phone lines or satellites. The document also covers network topologies like bus, star, and ring configurations and their advantages and disadvantages.
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Computer networks allow computers to be connected and share information. They are used for communication, sharing devices and files, and accessing information remotely. The goals of computer networks are to share resources between computers, ensure performance and reliability, increase scalability, and provide security. Computer networks use hardware like network interface cards, servers, routers, and cables to transmit data and software like network operating systems and protocols to facilitate communication. Early computer networks included ARPANET, which served as the basis for the modern Internet.
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This document provides an overview of computer networks and distributed systems. It defines a computer network as a set of devices connected by communication links that allow the exchange of information. A distributed system is a collection of independent computers that appear as a single system to users. The goals of networking are discussed as performance, reliability, security, resource sharing, cost reduction, and enabling communication. Peer-to-peer and client-server are presented as the main approaches for communication within a network. Finally, common network hardware such as nodes, network interface cards, hubs, switches, repeaters, and routers are defined.
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A document discusses various aspects of computer networks, including:
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- Goals of computer networks such as resource sharing and reliability
- Common network topologies including star, ring, and hybrid configurations
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Note2
The document discusses different types of computer networks:
1. LAN (Local Area Network) connects devices within 1 km and consists of less than 5000 devices across several buildings.
2. PAN (Personal Area Network) connects devices within 10 meters of a user.
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) connects computers within a metropolitan area using protocols like RS-232 and fiber optic cables.
4. WAN (Wide Area Network) connects LANs across locations using telephone lines and radio waves. It is used widely in business and government.
Ch1 v1
The document discusses data communication systems and networks. It introduces key concepts like data communication, components of a data communication system, different types of networks including LANs, WANs and MANs, the organization and structure of the Internet, and the basic elements of communication protocols. Diagrams and figures are included to illustrate different network topologies, types of connections, and the hierarchical organization of the Internet.
Ex 1 chapter02-communicating-network-tony_chen
Network communications involve three main elements - a message source, destination, and channel between them. Messages are segmented into smaller pieces for transmission over the network to allow for multiple conversations and increased reliability. Network devices include end devices that interface with users and intermediary devices that direct traffic flow. Protocols govern network communications and are organized into protocol stacks, with lower layers focusing on transport and higher layers on applications. Standardized protocols enable different systems to communicate.
Network Hardware Project
Mountain High School has around 800 students and 45 staff members. It aims to utilize technology to improve engagement. Its computer network includes a local area network connecting all classrooms and facilities on campus through Ethernet cables. This LAN is connected to the district's wide area network and the Internet through the school's router and connection to an Internet service provider. Key hardware includes network interface cards, Ethernet jacks, cables, switches, and a router. The network allows students and staff to access the Internet, library resources, and printers. Some rooms also have wireless connectivity for certain devices.
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A computer network is a group of computers that use a set of common communication protocols over digital interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources located on or provided by the network nodes.
Dcn concepts
The document provides an introduction to data communication and networking concepts. It defines data communication as the exchange of data between devices via transmission media. It also defines a network as a collection of interconnected devices that exchange data using common protocols. The document then discusses the OSI reference model and TCP/IP model, which define the layers involved in data communication. It also describes the components, transmission modes, transmission media, and types of networks involved in data communication systems.
CBSE XII Communication And Network Concepts
This presentation is prepared for CBSE XII COMPUTER SCIENCE students. Download complete presentation from http://cbsecsnip.in
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This document discusses data communications and computer networks. It covers the components of a data communication system including transmission media and data flow modes. It then discusses computer networks, defining them as connected devices that exchange data. It covers network criteria like performance, reliability and security. It also covers physical network structures like topology and the categories of local, wide and metropolitan area networks. Finally, it provides an overview of the Internet, its organization and Internet service providers.
GRE & Computer Network.
This document discusses computer networks and their components. It begins by defining a computer network as a set of devices connected through communication channels or links. It notes that networks allow devices like computers and printers to interact. The document then lists some common network components like NICs, switches, cables, hubs, and routers. It provides more detail on NICs, explaining that they have a MAC address and support transfer rates up to 1000 Mbps. The document concludes by thanking the reader.
Computer Networking.
1) A computer network connects computers together to share resources like printers, files, and internet connections. Networks can be local-area networks within a building or wide-area networks spanning cities.
2) Common network topologies include star, bus, ring, tree and mesh. Star networks connect devices to a central hub while bus networks use a common backbone cable. Ring networks transmit messages in one direction around a closed loop.
3) Computer networks allow for resource sharing, improved communication and availability of information, though they also present security risks and require maintenance of hardware and software.
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This document provides information about the course "Computer Networks" including its code and topic. It then discusses the key components of a computer network, including hardware components like network interface cards, servers, clients, and transmission media. It also discusses software components like operating systems and protocol suites. Finally, it provides an overview of ARPANET, one of the earliest examples of a large-scale distributed application and the precursor to the modern Internet.
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There are four main types of computer networks:
1) Personal area networks (PANs) connect devices within 10 meters and include laptops and mobile devices.
2) Local area networks (LANs) connect computers within 1 km, such as within offices, schools, and small areas.
3) Metropolitan area networks (MANs) connect devices within a large city or multiple cities using high-speed fiber optic cables.
4) Wide area networks (WANs) connect local networks over large geographic areas and are used widely in business, education, and government.
Network Topology
The document discusses different network topologies including bus, ring, star, tree, mesh, and hybrid topologies. It describes the key characteristics of each topology such as their advantages and disadvantages. It also defines common networking devices like hubs, switches, routers, repeaters, and brouters explaining their basic functions.
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This document provides an overview of key concepts in data communication and networking including:
1. It defines analog and digital signaling methods, with analog varying continuously in voltage and digital jumping between discrete voltage levels.
2. It describes how modems modulate digital signals to analog for transmission and demodulate analog signals back to digital.
3. It outlines simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex transmission directions and defines common network types like LAN, MAN, and WAN.
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Computer Network PDF - Course Material 2013
This is the course material for the diploma students. it covers the basic topics of computer netwroking
Note 2: Classification of Computer Networks
What is Network Topology?
A computer network is a collection of two or more computers which are connected
together to share information and resources.
Network Technology:
The network technology is:
• Intranet
• Extranet
• Internet.
Data communication
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and receiver. It can be local, occurring within the same building, or remote, occurring over data transmission circuits. A data communication system collects data from remote locations and outputs processed results remotely. It consists of a message, sender, receiver, medium like wired or wireless networks, and protocols that govern communication between devices by sequencing data, routing, formatting, controlling flow, and detecting and correcting errors. Protocols also determine precedence, connection establishment, and termination.
Network and Communication
This document discusses computer networks and communication. It begins by defining what a network is - a group of connected computers that can share resources and exchange information. It then discusses the evolution and need for networking. There are three main types of networks described: local area networks (LANs) which connect computers in a small area like a building, metropolitan area networks (MANs) which connect computers over a city, and wide area networks (WANs) which connect computers across large geographic areas or continents using technologies like phone lines or satellites. The document also covers network topologies like bus, star, and ring configurations and their advantages and disadvantages.
Note 01
Computer networks allow computers to be connected and share information. They are used for communication, sharing devices and files, and accessing information remotely. The goals of computer networks are to share resources between computers, ensure performance and reliability, increase scalability, and provide security. Computer networks use hardware like network interface cards, servers, routers, and cables to transmit data and software like network operating systems and protocols to facilitate communication. Early computer networks included ARPANET, which served as the basis for the modern Internet.
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This document provides an overview of computer networks and distributed systems. It defines a computer network as a set of devices connected by communication links that allow the exchange of information. A distributed system is a collection of independent computers that appear as a single system to users. The goals of networking are discussed as performance, reliability, security, resource sharing, cost reduction, and enabling communication. Peer-to-peer and client-server are presented as the main approaches for communication within a network. Finally, common network hardware such as nodes, network interface cards, hubs, switches, repeaters, and routers are defined.
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Computer networks allow computers to communicate and share resources. A network connects individual computers called nodes through various topologies like bus, star, ring, and mesh. It provides advantages like data sharing, resource sharing, backup capabilities, and flexible remote access. Common network services include file sharing, printer sharing, email, directories, and databases. The way nodes connect forms the network topology. Popular topologies are bus, star, ring, and mesh. A network operating system manages overall network operations and provides services like file sharing, printing, messaging, and applications. Computer networks can be peer-to-peer or client-server based. The Internet is a worldwide network that connects networks globally and allows communication, information sharing, and entertainment.
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Logic gates are basic building blocks of digital circuits and systems. Common logic gates include AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR gates. AND gates output 1 only if all inputs are 1, while OR gates output 1 if any input is 1. NOT gates output the inverse of the single input. NAND and NOR gates are combinations of AND/OR with NOT gates. XOR and XNOR gates output 1 only if inputs are both the same or different respectively.
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The document discusses Karnaugh maps, which are a graphical technique for simplifying boolean functions. A K-map is a diagram with squares that each represent minterms or maxterms. Variables are represented along rows and columns. Groups of 1s can be combined according to grouping rules to simplify boolean expressions. The example shows a 2-variable K-map used to minimize the boolean expression XY' + X'Y + X'Y' to X' + Y'. K-maps allow boolean functions to be reduced more easily than boolean algebra.
Karnaugh Map Simplification Rules.pptx
The document discusses rules for minimizing Boolean functions using K-maps. It explains that K-maps are used to graphically represent Boolean functions according to the number of variables. Values are filled in the K-map and grouped based on several rules: groups must contain only 0s or 1s but not both; groups can overlap; groups must contain a power of 2 cells and be horizontal or vertical only; groups should be as large as possible with fewest groups overall. Examples are provided to illustrate opposite and corner grouping.
Half Subtractor.pptx
The half subtractor is a digital circuit that subtracts two single bit binary numbers and outputs the difference and borrow. It contains two inputs, A and B, and two outputs, Diff and Borrow. The Diff output is the difference of A and B, calculated as A XOR B. The Borrow output is 1 only when A is 1 and B is 0, calculated as A'B. The full subtractor expands on this to subtract three 1-bit numbers by adding a third input, Borrowin, and producing Diff and Borrow outputs based on all input combinations.
Gray Code.pptx
The document discusses Gray code, which is a binary numbering system where two successive numbers differ in only one bit. This reduces switching errors during transitions between numbers. Gray code is used in digital communications and applications where normal binary could produce errors. The document provides examples to show how decimal numbers convert to binary and Gray code. In binary, more bits may change between numbers, while Gray code ensures only one bit changes.
Flip Flop.pptx
The document provides information about Prof. Neeraj Bhargava and Mrs. Pooja Dixit who work in the Department of Computer Science in the School of Engineering & System Sciences at MDS University in Ajmer, Rajasthan.
Encoder.pptx
This document discusses encoders and provides examples of 4-to-2 and 8-to-3 line encoders. It defines an encoder as a combinational circuit that performs the reverse operation of a decoder, with a maximum of 2n input lines and n output lines. Truth tables and logic circuits are given for 4-to-2 and 8-to-3 line encoders. Uses of encoders include converting decimal to binary numbers to perform binary operations like addition and subtraction in digital systems.
De-multiplexer.pptx
This document discusses demultiplexers, which are combinational circuits with one input and multiple outputs. It describes 1x2 and 1x4 demultiplexers specifically. For a 1x2 demultiplexer, there are two outputs, one selection line, and a single input. The input is directed to one of the two outputs based on the selection line value. A 1x4 demultiplexer has four outputs, two selection lines, and one input. The input is directed to one of the four outputs based on the combination of values on the two selection lines. Block diagrams and truth tables are provided to illustrate the functionality of 1x2 and 1x4 demultiplexers.
DeMorgan’s Theory.pptx
The document discusses DeMorgan's theorems, which state that a NOR gate is logically equivalent to an AND gate with inverted inputs, and a NAND gate is equivalent to an OR gate with inverted inputs. DeMorgan's theorems are important in digital logic, as they allow basic gates like NAND and NOR to be used to implement more complex logic functions. The theorems are verified through truth tables.
Combinational circuit.pptx
This document discusses combinational circuits and provides examples of half adders and full adders. It defines combinational circuits as those whose outputs only depend on the current inputs. A half adder is described as having two inputs (A and B) and two outputs (sum and carry), which can add two single bits. Its truth table and logic diagram using an XOR gate and AND gate are shown. A full adder handles three inputs (A, B, Cin) to add two bits along with a carry bit, with outputs of sum and carry out. Its block diagram and truth table are presented.
Boolean Algebra.pptx
The document discusses Boolean algebra, which uses binary numbers (0 and 1) to analyze and simplify digital logic circuits. It was invented by George Boole in 1854. The document outlines several important rules of Boolean algebra, including commutative, associative, distributive, identity, idempotent, complement, and double negation laws. It also discusses de Morgan's theorem and finding the dual of Boolean expressions.
Binary Multiplication & Division.pptx
Binary multiplication and division work similarly to decimal operations but use only 0s and 1s. For binary multiplication, there are four basic rules and the process involves multiplying each bit of one number by the other number and summing the results. Examples show multiplying 1010 x 101 to get 10100 and comparing the binary result to its decimal equivalent. Binary division uses long division to divide strings of binary digits. Examples demonstrate dividing several binary numbers by powers of two.
Binary addition.pptx
Binary arithmetic is essential for digital computers and systems. It includes four rules for binary addition and subtraction. Binary addition examples show that adding two 1s results in a 1 in the next column with a carry of 1. Binary subtraction uses borrowing to subtract binary numbers, as shown through several examples.
Basics of Computer Organization.pptx
This document provides an overview of computer organization. It defines computer organization as how the various parts of a computer are organized and work together. It describes the main components of a computer like the CPU, memory (RAM and cache), and buses. It also discusses number systems like binary, decimal, octal, and hexadecimal. Additional topics covered include Gray codes, Boolean algebra, logic gates, and flip flops.
Decoders
A decoder is a logic circuit that takes binary input and provides an output based on the input. It performs the reverse operation of an encoder. There are different types of decoders including a 2 to 4 line decoder and a 3 to 8 line decoder. A 2 to 4 line decoder has 3 inputs (A0, A1, E) and 4 outputs (Y0, Y1, Y2, Y3). It uses AND gates to activate one output based on the input. A 3 to 8 line decoder has 3 inputs (A0, A1, A2), 8 outputs (Y0-Y7), and an enable input. It uses AND gates and logic expressions to activate one of the 8 outputs based on the
Three Address code
The document discusses three address code, which is an intermediate code used by optimizing compilers. Three address code breaks expressions down into separate instructions that use at most three operands. Each instruction performs an assignment or binary operation on the operands. The code is implemented using quadruple, triple, or indirect triple representations. Quadruple representation stores each instruction in four fields for the operator, two operands, and result. Triple avoids temporaries by making two instructions. Indirect triple uses pointers to freely reorder subexpressions.
Cyrus beck line clipping algorithm
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- 1. Prof. Neeraj Bhargava Pooja Dixit Department of Computer Science School of Engineering & System Science MDS, University Ajmer, Rajasthan, India 1
- 2. Data communication Components of data communication system Distributed database Features of distributed database Advantages of Distributed Databases Adversities of Distributed Databases 2
- 3. Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver via form of transmission media such as a wire cable. The meanings of source and receiver are very simple. The meanings of source and receiver are very simple. The device that transmits the data is known as source and the device that receives the transmitted data is known as receiver. 3
- 4. Message : It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers, pictures, sound or video or any combination of these. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. 4
- 5. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from sender to the receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable or wireless like laser, radio waves, and microwaves. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices. Both sender and receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other. 5
- 6. 6
- 7. A distributed database is a collection of multiple interconnected databases, which are spread physically across various locations that communicate via a computer network. Computer workstations or remote devices (sites or nodes) that form the network system. The distributed database system must be independent of the computer system hardware. 7
- 8. Databases in the collection are logically interrelated with each other. Often they represent a single logical database. A distributed database is not a loosely connected file system. The processors in the sites are connected via a network. They do not have any multiprocessor configuration. 8
- 9. Modular Development − If the system needs to be expanded to new locations or new units, in centralized database systems,. More Reliable − In case of database failures, the total system of centralized databases comes to a halt. Better Response − If data is distributed in an efficient manner, then user requests can be met from local data itself, thus providing faster response. 9
- 10. Need for complex and expensive software − DDBMS demands complex and often expensive software to provide data transparency and co- ordination across the several sites. Processing overhead − Even simple operations may require a large number of communications and additional calculations to provide uniformity in data across the sites. 10
- 11. Data integrity − The need for updating data in multiple sites pose problems of data integrity. Overheads for improper data distribution − Responsiveness of queries is largely dependent upon proper data distribution. Improper data distribution often leads to very slow response to user requests. 11