Introduction:
Necessity of irrigation- scope of irrigation engineering- benefits and ill effects of irrigation- irrigation development in India- types of irrigation systems, Soil-water plant relationship: Classification of soil water- soil
moisture contents- depth of soil water available to plants-permanent
and ultimate wilting point
Water requirements of crops:
Depth of water applied during irrigation- Duty of water and deltaimprovement
of duty- command area and intensity of irrigation consumptive use of water and evapotranspiration- irrigation efficiencies- assessment of irrigation water
Introduction:
Necessity of irrigation- scope of irrigation engineering- benefits and ill effects of irrigation- irrigation development in India- types of irrigation systems, Soil-water plant relationship: Classification of soil water- soil
moisture contents- depth of soil water available to plants-permanent
and ultimate wilting point
Water requirements of crops:
Depth of water applied during irrigation- Duty of water and deltaimprovement
of duty- command area and intensity of irrigation consumptive use of water and evapotranspiration- irrigation efficiencies- assessment of irrigation water
this slide show is about the various technologies that are used in irrigation today. it has some brief data on various such techniques and also has a few listed advantages and disadvantages.
Spatial Analysis of Soil and Water Quality in Tsunami AffectedAreas of Nagapa...IJERA Editor
In India, the natural disasters, especially the Tsunami in 2004 having exposed our unpreparedness, variability, diverse scientific, engineering, financial and also social processes. Vedaranyamtalukof Nagapattinam coastal region of Tamilnadu, India,was severely affected by Tsunami-2004. Due to its unique geological nature and climate conditions, the quality of soil and water resources was subjected to natural and synthetic changes. The recent efforts of prawn culture and saltpan in these areas also affect the natural resources. This study has revealed the present scenario of soil and water resources by analyzing their chemical parameters in the Tsunami affected areas after ten years of Tsunami-2004. For this study, soil samples (less than 30cm depth from land surface) and groundwater samples (from existing hand/bore pumps) were collected in the study area. It was observed from the analysis that the pH of soil was improved well and EC was lowered significantly except few places. Regarding the available N, P, K of soil, N was low, P and Kwere low to medium range. Further thepH,DO, Turbidity, Hardness,Cl and Mgof groundwater were within the permissible limit;EC and TDS were slight to moderate range for irrigation and drinking.The SAR is within the maximum allowable limit which inferred that groundwater can be used for irrigation without any risk.Thisspatial-temporal variability of soil and water parameters were mapped in GIS environment (Surfer ver. 9) and compared with pretsunami-2004 as well as ground truth scenario. Keeping these results, the soil is suitable for agriculture production. The natural flash flood has helped to reduce contamination of soil and water due to Tsunami-2004. However,due to alkaline in nature the quality of groundwater is not fit for drinking in some places but suitable for irrigation. Among the affected villages, Vedaranyam village has worst quality. This study also recommends suitable management strategies for sustainable development.
This study shows the relationship between soil physicochemical properties and water use of Capsicum annuum L. (Bell pepper) grown in a hydraulic weighing lysimeter. A hydraulic weighing lysimeter made from PVC drum was designed, constructed and installed to study the crop water use of Bell pepper. Analyses were carried out to determine the physico-chemical properties of soil and crop water use of Bell pepper in humid savanna zone of Omu-Aran, Nigeria. The soil in the study area is a slightly alkaline and the soil micro and macro porosity at depth 0-15cm to be 0.194, 0.536, and 0.73 respectively with that of depth 15-30 cm to be 0.115, 0.425, and 0.54 respectively. Also, bulk density for the 0-15 cm depth was 0.714 g/cm3 while that of 15-30cm was 1.261g/cm3 indicating that sample for 15-30cm is more compacted. The results also revealed that the ETc of the bell pepper crop increases during the development and mid stages hence the crop water use is highest during the crop growth mid stage.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Climate-related Changes in Tropical-fruit Flowering Phases in Songkhla Provin...Orca Whale
Abstract: Changes in the timing of plant phenological phases in response to anomalous climate variability and the ongoing anthropogenic climate change have recently been studied in southern Thailand. In this study, we showed the evidence of climate-related changes in flowering phases of 2 tropical-fruit species: mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) and longkong (Lansium domesticum Corr.) during 2003-2012. The flowering dates of these tropical fruits recorded at Hat Yai district, Songkhla province and daily climate data were used to assess phenophase response to variations in rainfall and evaporation. With the observed changes in local climate conditions which are defining factors for phenological development of tropical fruits particularly in southern Thailand, the flowering dates of both tropical fruits during 2003-2012 have significantly delayed comparing with the regular pattern in the past. Paradoxically, below-than-normal rainfall was also found in the El Niño years, while La Niña years were found in opposite. In summary, rainfall variations in Hat Yai district, Songkhla province are associated with ENSO. It was evident that the flowering period of tropical fruits tended to shift to the second-half of the year instead of the first-half of the year as usual. The results revealed that, during 33 years (1980-2012), annual rainfall totals, the annual number of rainy days, relative humidity, maximum and minimum temperatures from the Thai Meteorological Department significantly increased by 29.5 mm/year, 0.83 day/year, 0.116 %/year, 0.033 and 0.035°C/year, respectively. These findings suggest that anthropogenically warm climate and its associated inter-annual variations in local weather patterns may to the great extent influence on tropical-fruit phenology and their responses to recent climate change seem to be complex and nonlinear. Therefore, further study is needed to shed more light on such causal-effect linkages and plausible underlying mechanisms.
performance evaluation and characterization of wetted soil parameters of impr...IJEAB
Field study was conducted to evaluate the emission uniformity (EU), global coefficient of variation (CGv), emitter flow variation (Qvar) and distribution uniformity (DU), and determine the wetted radius (rw) on soil surface of improvised medi-emitters installed in a tomato field. Soil water content (SWC) at four layers was determined after different periods of irrigation. Radius of wetted soil surface was determined and predicted. Irrigation frequency had no significant effect on the average discharge rate of the medi-emitters throughout the growing cycle. Average Qvar and CGv were significantly (P=0.05) influenced by the frequency of application while the EU and DU did not significantly (P=0.05) differ among the treatments. There were significant differences in the average values of SWC in different soil layers under the different periods of irrigation. Both the observed and calculated rw on the soil surface were fitted with fourth order polynomial. The model performance parameters of MAE and RMSE between the calculated and observed radii were low, indicating good prediction. Medical infusion set can successfully replace the more expensive conventional emitters for drip irrigation system.
Effects of drip irrigation frequency and depth on soil hydro-physical propert...inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Sea level rise impact modelling on small islands: case study gili raja island...Luhur Moekti Prayogo
Coastal regions and small islands are areas that will be adversely affected by the phenomenon of sea level rise globally. In general, Sea Level Rise (SLR) will result in coastal impacts as follows: increased frequency and intensity of floods, changes in ocean currents and widespread intrusion of sea water. This research was conducted in Gili Raja Island of Sumenep Madura. Objectives of this research were to demonstrate the ability of combining remote sensing and GIS method to determine the impact of SLR on a small island and to model its scale using different scenario. GIS based run-up model were performed to estimate and predict the impact of SLR to the island’s area. Three water level scenario (0.5 m, 1.0 m and 1.5 m) were applied. The results showed that in the first scenario 8.73% of the island was flooded by sea water, furthermore in two other scenario the flooded area was increase significantly (15.88% and 22.38%).
this slide show is about the various technologies that are used in irrigation today. it has some brief data on various such techniques and also has a few listed advantages and disadvantages.
Spatial Analysis of Soil and Water Quality in Tsunami AffectedAreas of Nagapa...IJERA Editor
In India, the natural disasters, especially the Tsunami in 2004 having exposed our unpreparedness, variability, diverse scientific, engineering, financial and also social processes. Vedaranyamtalukof Nagapattinam coastal region of Tamilnadu, India,was severely affected by Tsunami-2004. Due to its unique geological nature and climate conditions, the quality of soil and water resources was subjected to natural and synthetic changes. The recent efforts of prawn culture and saltpan in these areas also affect the natural resources. This study has revealed the present scenario of soil and water resources by analyzing their chemical parameters in the Tsunami affected areas after ten years of Tsunami-2004. For this study, soil samples (less than 30cm depth from land surface) and groundwater samples (from existing hand/bore pumps) were collected in the study area. It was observed from the analysis that the pH of soil was improved well and EC was lowered significantly except few places. Regarding the available N, P, K of soil, N was low, P and Kwere low to medium range. Further thepH,DO, Turbidity, Hardness,Cl and Mgof groundwater were within the permissible limit;EC and TDS were slight to moderate range for irrigation and drinking.The SAR is within the maximum allowable limit which inferred that groundwater can be used for irrigation without any risk.Thisspatial-temporal variability of soil and water parameters were mapped in GIS environment (Surfer ver. 9) and compared with pretsunami-2004 as well as ground truth scenario. Keeping these results, the soil is suitable for agriculture production. The natural flash flood has helped to reduce contamination of soil and water due to Tsunami-2004. However,due to alkaline in nature the quality of groundwater is not fit for drinking in some places but suitable for irrigation. Among the affected villages, Vedaranyam village has worst quality. This study also recommends suitable management strategies for sustainable development.
This study shows the relationship between soil physicochemical properties and water use of Capsicum annuum L. (Bell pepper) grown in a hydraulic weighing lysimeter. A hydraulic weighing lysimeter made from PVC drum was designed, constructed and installed to study the crop water use of Bell pepper. Analyses were carried out to determine the physico-chemical properties of soil and crop water use of Bell pepper in humid savanna zone of Omu-Aran, Nigeria. The soil in the study area is a slightly alkaline and the soil micro and macro porosity at depth 0-15cm to be 0.194, 0.536, and 0.73 respectively with that of depth 15-30 cm to be 0.115, 0.425, and 0.54 respectively. Also, bulk density for the 0-15 cm depth was 0.714 g/cm3 while that of 15-30cm was 1.261g/cm3 indicating that sample for 15-30cm is more compacted. The results also revealed that the ETc of the bell pepper crop increases during the development and mid stages hence the crop water use is highest during the crop growth mid stage.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Climate-related Changes in Tropical-fruit Flowering Phases in Songkhla Provin...Orca Whale
Abstract: Changes in the timing of plant phenological phases in response to anomalous climate variability and the ongoing anthropogenic climate change have recently been studied in southern Thailand. In this study, we showed the evidence of climate-related changes in flowering phases of 2 tropical-fruit species: mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) and longkong (Lansium domesticum Corr.) during 2003-2012. The flowering dates of these tropical fruits recorded at Hat Yai district, Songkhla province and daily climate data were used to assess phenophase response to variations in rainfall and evaporation. With the observed changes in local climate conditions which are defining factors for phenological development of tropical fruits particularly in southern Thailand, the flowering dates of both tropical fruits during 2003-2012 have significantly delayed comparing with the regular pattern in the past. Paradoxically, below-than-normal rainfall was also found in the El Niño years, while La Niña years were found in opposite. In summary, rainfall variations in Hat Yai district, Songkhla province are associated with ENSO. It was evident that the flowering period of tropical fruits tended to shift to the second-half of the year instead of the first-half of the year as usual. The results revealed that, during 33 years (1980-2012), annual rainfall totals, the annual number of rainy days, relative humidity, maximum and minimum temperatures from the Thai Meteorological Department significantly increased by 29.5 mm/year, 0.83 day/year, 0.116 %/year, 0.033 and 0.035°C/year, respectively. These findings suggest that anthropogenically warm climate and its associated inter-annual variations in local weather patterns may to the great extent influence on tropical-fruit phenology and their responses to recent climate change seem to be complex and nonlinear. Therefore, further study is needed to shed more light on such causal-effect linkages and plausible underlying mechanisms.
performance evaluation and characterization of wetted soil parameters of impr...IJEAB
Field study was conducted to evaluate the emission uniformity (EU), global coefficient of variation (CGv), emitter flow variation (Qvar) and distribution uniformity (DU), and determine the wetted radius (rw) on soil surface of improvised medi-emitters installed in a tomato field. Soil water content (SWC) at four layers was determined after different periods of irrigation. Radius of wetted soil surface was determined and predicted. Irrigation frequency had no significant effect on the average discharge rate of the medi-emitters throughout the growing cycle. Average Qvar and CGv were significantly (P=0.05) influenced by the frequency of application while the EU and DU did not significantly (P=0.05) differ among the treatments. There were significant differences in the average values of SWC in different soil layers under the different periods of irrigation. Both the observed and calculated rw on the soil surface were fitted with fourth order polynomial. The model performance parameters of MAE and RMSE between the calculated and observed radii were low, indicating good prediction. Medical infusion set can successfully replace the more expensive conventional emitters for drip irrigation system.
Effects of drip irrigation frequency and depth on soil hydro-physical propert...inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Sea level rise impact modelling on small islands: case study gili raja island...Luhur Moekti Prayogo
Coastal regions and small islands are areas that will be adversely affected by the phenomenon of sea level rise globally. In general, Sea Level Rise (SLR) will result in coastal impacts as follows: increased frequency and intensity of floods, changes in ocean currents and widespread intrusion of sea water. This research was conducted in Gili Raja Island of Sumenep Madura. Objectives of this research were to demonstrate the ability of combining remote sensing and GIS method to determine the impact of SLR on a small island and to model its scale using different scenario. GIS based run-up model were performed to estimate and predict the impact of SLR to the island’s area. Three water level scenario (0.5 m, 1.0 m and 1.5 m) were applied. The results showed that in the first scenario 8.73% of the island was flooded by sea water, furthermore in two other scenario the flooded area was increase significantly (15.88% and 22.38%).
Climate Change is the most sought after a topic discussed very prominently in the media during this millennium as the Earth and the Environment is the worst affected due to it. Factors like global warming is leading to rise in Global Temperature, resulting melting polar ice, rising sea levels, high level of air pollution are affecting the quality of living for both men and animals.
The Journal of The Earth Science and Climate Change is peer reviewed academic journal that cater to the needs of Earth Scientists, farmers, extensive agents, researchers and students. This Open access journal publishes high quality articles following rigorous and standard review procedure.
The study is aimed at in finding the fluoride concentration in the drinking water that may
exist in the groundwater quality in Mathadi vagu basin, Adilabad district, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Based on the observed quality data of post monsoon December, 2011 and pre monsoon June, 2012
and analyzed for all the major constituents. The study area lies between North latitudes 19°50'48" &
20°13'30" and East longitudes 78°28'25" & 78°58'00" with an aerial extent of 525 sq. kms. Samples
were collected from 37 wells used for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes. The samples
were collected from the wells located in both phreatic and deeper fractured zones. The analytical
results revealed that the groundwater in the major part of the area is highly mineralized with high
concentration Fluoride. Out of 37 ground water samples analyzed, 31 samples were found to have
concentration of fluoride also exceeded the permissible limit of 1.50 mg/l in 7 percent of the total
samples analyzed. Fluoride concentration in excess of 1.5 mg/l in drinking water causes dental and
skeletal fluorosis. The highest value of fluoride concentrated in the area is 4.5 mg/l. These two
constituents, at very high concentrations, constitute a potential risk for the inhabitants that consume
these waters. The occurrence of fluoride in the study area, their genesis, and role in metabolism,
health effects and the factors controlling the chemistry of these constituents in groundwater are
discussed in this paper
Quantifying the relative impact of physical and human factors on the viticult...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
— This work assesses the relative importance of the terroirs factors: climate, soil and the relation source-sink, on the vegetative development, yield, berry composition and plant sanitary status. The study was carried out between 2011 and 2014 in nine vineyards from six viticultural regions over the coast of Río de la Plata (Uruguay). The cultivar studied was Tannat, vertically trellised and north-south oriented. The year effect refers to climate, which was characterized using solar irradiation and three indices. The soil was characterized using pits and physico-chemical analyses, to determine three textural categories and to define soil depth and water availability. The source-sink relationship referred to four categories of relations between leaf surface and yield per vine. Statistical analyses included a Mixed Model with random effects to determine the relative importance of each factor to the total variability within the dataset. Total yield per vine was explained by the source-sink relationship, the year and their interaction, both linked to the rainfall amount occurred during the maturation period. The synthesis of primary compounds in the berries was more dependent on the year and the interaction of soil and year with the source-sink relationship. Secondary compound concentrations in the berry depended mainly on the source-sink relationship and climate. This study represents a significant advance to the knowledge of grapevine adaptation to the Río de la Plata terroirs, assigning a fundamental role to the vine grower actions. The growers can modulate grapevine balance as a function of the environment.
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Crop evapotranspiration and crop water requirement for oil palm in peninsular malaysia
1. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.4, No.16, 2014
23
Crop Evapotranspiration and Crop Water Requirement for Oil
Palm in Peninsular Malaysia
Adzemi Mat Arshad
Soil Science Laboratory, Food Crop Science Unit, School of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
*adzemi@umt.edu.my
Abstract
The estimation of potential evapotranspiration constitutes an important part in the estimation of crop water
requirement. Many methods exist and all of these are indirect methods using equations that relate climatic data
with evapotranspiration. A comparison of the three methods to estimate crop evapotranspiration being the
method of Department Irrigation and Drainage, Doorenbos and Pruitt and Penman-Monteith. Results showed
that the method of Doorenbos and Pruitt provides a fairer estimation of potential evapotranspiration, crop
evapotranspiration and crop water requirement for oil palm cultivation in Peninsular Malaysia
Keywords: Potential evapotranspiration, oil palm, Peninsular Malaysia
1. Introduction
Prediction methods for crop-water requirements are used due to the difficulty of obtaining accurate field
measurements. The methods need to be applied under climatic and agronomic conditions different from those
under which they were originally developed. Testing the accuracy of the methods under a new set of conditions
is laborious, time consuming and costly and yet crop water requirement data are frequently needed for project
planning. Calculation of crop evapotranspiration (ETcrop) includes the effect of climate on crop water
requirement and is given by the reference crop evapotranspiration or known as potential evapotranspiration. The
objective of this paper is to compare the methods of estimating crop evapotranspiration and to determine crop
water requirement be used for land evaluation for oil palm cultivation.
2. Materials and Methods
Peninsular Malaysia is located within the equatorial zone between latitudes 10
5’ and 60
45’N and longitudes 990
and 1040
20’E with South China Sea lies to the east while Straits of Malacca to the west of the peninsula.
Peninsular Malaysia has an area of 13.2 million hectares. Its greatest length is about 735 km and the maximum
width is about 320 km. Eight meteorological stations in Peninsular Malaysia were selected for the study (Figure
1). They are Alor Star (Kedah), Ipoh (Perak), Subang (Selangor), Malacca (Malacca), Kluang (Johore), Senai
(Johore), Kuantan (Pahang) and Kuala Krai (Kelantan). These towns are also focal points which large
hectareages of oil palm are cultivated. The climatic data from Malaysian Meteorological Services Department
between 2004 to 2013 of the above stations were used in this study. Only one example of the climatic data of
these stations is presented as shown in Table 1 as it involved the same calculation.
The crop evapotranspiration for oil palm was estimated according to the method of Doorenbos and Pruitt(1977).
Water availability was estimated according to the relationship between crop evapotranspiration and water
availability (Sys et. al., 1991)
WA = (ETc – D) 100
ETc
Where,
WA = water availability in %
ETc = crop evapotranspiration
D = water deficit comparing ETc and effective rainfall, taking into account to
storage capacity of the soil. The effective rainfall is considered as the
rainfall useful for meeting crop-water requirement
The methods of Drainage and Irrigation Department (1977), Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) and Penman and
Monteith (Smith,1991) were used to calculate potential evaporation (reference crop evapotranspiration) from the
climatic data.
2. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.4, No.16, 2014
24
Figure 1: The location of Meteorological stations chosen for the study
3. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.4, No.16, 2014
25
Table 1: Climatic Data for Alor Star ( Average over 10 years)
Table 2: Potential Evapotranspiration Values (mm month-1
) Estimated by the Method of Drainage and Irrigation
Department, Doorenbos and Pruitt and Penman-Monteith
DID – Drainage and Irrigation Department (1977), D - Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977); day/night wind ratio =1,D1
- Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977);day/night wind ratio = 3, PM=Penman-Monteith (Smith,1991)
Criteria
Months
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Annual
mean
Total
Mean temp.(0
C) 26.8 27.5 27.7 27.3 27.8 27.6 27.0 26.8 26.7 26.5 26.3 26.3 27.0
Mean daily
max.temp (0
C)
33.0 34.2 34.4 33.6 32.3 32.0 31.7 31.4 31.2 31.3 31.3 31.3 32.3
Mean daily min.
temp (0
C)
22.2 22.5 23.1 24.1 24.5 24.2 23.8 23.5 23.6 23.5 24.0 22.7 23.5
Mean rainfall
(mm)
10.5 45.0 123.5 171.3 225.3 126.6 195.7 181.5 248.2 257.1 163.0 111.6 1859.0
Rain days 3.0 4.0 10.0 15.0 19.0 12.0 17.0 19.0 20.0 22.0 22.0 17.0
Rainfall intensity 3.5 11.2 12.3 11.4 11.8 10.5 11.5 9.5 12.4 11.7 9.6 16.0
Sunshine (hrs
month-1
)
273.0 257.6 263.5 255.0 232.5 213.0 210.8 193.5 171.0 168.0 183.0 217.0 2640.0
Mean relative
humidity (%)
73.4 72.6 78.0 82.4 85.1 86.0 86.0 87.1 85.6 87.0 85.5 81.8 82.5
Length of dry
season (month
year-1
)
1.0
Stations/PET Alor Star Ipoh Subang Malacca
Months DID D PM DID D PM DID D PM DID D D1
PM
J 141.7 212.6 156.0 121.8 150.3 116.6 199.0 150.0 111.3 125.2 168.0 193.7 118.1
F 139.4 197.4 151.2 117.0 123.5 122.1 120.1 164.0 114.0 121.5 170.5 196.8 123.2
M 117.8 200.8 163.1 138.6 181.0 132.1 139.0 171.4 126.5 138.0 177.6 200.3 130.5
A 149.0 184.0 152.4 104.4 167.7 126.3 133.5 160.0 118.5 136.2 163.5 176.4 123.3
M 119.6 169.6 141.0 125.5 155.0 117.8 126.6 151.0 117.0 124.1 151.6 161.8 116.0
J 138.6 150.0 131.0 127.0 148.0 113.4 123.6 144.5 110.0 120.0 143.5 147.0 107.7
J 112.8 161.8 130.8 126.2 157.0 120.0 126.2 140.4 117.0 120.1 144.8 153.0 108.0
A 166.2 157.2 128.6 124.3 149.0 117.0 123.7 134.0 113.5 119.7 141.7 153.1 106.0
S 127.5 144.3 120.6 121.5 139.2 109.2 124.2 138.0 110.0 110.1 139.5 147.6 105.3
O 119.0 136.4 120.7 116.9 138.3 104.5 122.4 136.7 112.8 124.6 149.4 158.1 116.6
N 100.0 138.3 117.3 110.7 125.0 100.0 114.3 128.1 101.0 111.0 132.0 142.5 94.5
D 124.0 150.7 134.8 111.6 134.0 105.4 108.2 130.0 99.2 113.5 151.6 168.5 101.4
Total 1555.5 2003.1 1647.5 1445.2 1705.0 1383.4 1480.8 1748.1 1352.5 1462.9 1835.5 1998.0 1350.6
4. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.4, No.16, 2014
26
Table 2: (cont'd)
Stations/PET
Keluang Senai Kuantan Kuala Krai
Months DID D DPM DID D DPM DID D D1
PM DID D DPM
J 117.5 157.5 113.8 118.7 156.0 110.6 122.8 137.0 157.2 104.5 99.5 124.0 93.0
F 110.9 151.5 121.0 118.2 143.0 112.2 117.3 150.0 166.6 109.5 110.6 143.0 96.6
M 129.6 156.0 125.5 134.0 148.0 105.1 133.6 163.7 183.8 123.1 143.5 161.5 120.6
A 127.8 150.3 119.7 122.4 138.6 104.4 120.6 161.7 177.0 124.5 124.0 166.2 123.3
M 113.8 139.0 119.8 114.1 125.0 92.4 128.3 149.4 167.1 121.0 127.7 154.4 119.3
J 115.2 133.6 107.4 119.3 120.6 87.3 125.0 150.3 158.7 115.0 126.5 145.0 110.0
J 113.8 131.0 126.0 112.8 131.0 91.8 123.4 150.0 164.6 118.1 116.0 143.0 111.1
A 113.7 132.7 112.2 113.1 127.4 90.0 126.0 130.5 143.0 119.7 118.7 148.2 114.0
S 115.8 128.4 107.7 73.2 128.0 93.0 123.3 140.7 153.0 169.0 116.4 136.5 107.0
O 116.6 137.0 112.2 113.1 121.0 97.3 115.6 135.2 145.7 110.4 110.7 116.2 101.7
N 106.2 114.6 98.1 108.0 121.5 90.0 97.0 106.5 113.0 84.0 91.0 92.4 81.0
D 104.8 131.7 103.0 107.0 123.1 90.0 97.1 108.0 118.4 88.3 88.0 100.1 66.0
Total 1385.8 1663.3 1336.3 1353.9 1583.2 1164.1 1430.0 1683.0 1848.1 1387.1 1370.7 1630.5 1244.5
DID – Drainage and Irrigation Department (1977), D - Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977); day/night wind ratio
=1,D1 - Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977);day/night wind ratio=3,PM=Penman-Monteith(Smith,199 3. Results
and Discussion
Crop Evapotranspiration for Oil Palm
The crop evapotranspiration for oil palm was estimated according to the method of Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977).
The effect of the crop characteristics on crop water requirements is given by the crop coefficient (Kc) which
represents the relationship between potential evapotranspiration (PET) and crop evapotranspiration (ETcrop).
Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) reported that the crop coefficient (Kc) relates to the evapotranspiration of a disease-
free crop grown in large fields under optimal soil, water and fertility conditions and achieving full production
potential under the given growing environment. Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) further reported that the Kc value
of tomato and sunflower both very sensitive to moisture stress is 1.05 when the mean minimum relative humidity
of the air is more than 70% and the mean wind speed is 0 to 5 ms-1
. The Kc value of more hardy crops like millet
and sorghum is 1.0. The Kc of cocoa, a sensitive crop to drought is 0.9 to 1.0 for close tree spacing without
cover crop and shade trees while with shade trees and undergrowth, the Kc value is 1.1 to 1.15.
Water availability was calculated according to the water holding capacities of the soil to be 75 and 200 mm 150-1
cm soil. Soong (1979) reported the moisture characteristics of the soils in Peninsular Malaysia where most of
the soils have available water between 100 and 200 mm m-1
. In general, the average water-holding capacity of
most soils in Peninsular Malaysia is 150 mm m-1
or 225 mm 150-1
cm. Soong (1979) further reported that the
lowest water-holding capacity of the soil is Holyrood series soil, a sandy loam with available water content of 52
mm m-1
or 78 mm 150-1
cm.
Table 4 shows the crop evapotranspiration and water availability for oil palm in the different regions in
Peninsular Malaysia.
Table 3: Rainfall, Crop Evapotranspiration, Effective Rainfall, Water Deficit and Water Availability at Alor Star
Variable
Months J F M A M J J A S O N D Total
Water
avail (%)
Rainfall (mm) 10.5 45.0 123.5 171.3 25.3 126.6 195.7 181.5 248.2 257.1 163.0 111.6 1859.3
ETc (mm) 212.6 197.4 200.8 184.0 169.6 150.0 161.8 157.2 144.3 136.4 138.3 150.7 2003.1
Effective rainfall (mm)
at storage 75 mm
10.0 40.0 100.0 136.0 157.0 91.0 138.0 122.0 165.0 170.0 110.0 81.0
Effective rainfall (mm)
at storage 200 mm
10.8 43.2 108.0 147.0 169.0 97.0 149.0 132.0 178.0 183.0 119.0 87.0
Water deficit / surplus
(mm) at storage 75
mm
-202.0 -157.0 -101.0 -48.0 -13.0 -60.0 -24.0 -35.0 21.0 34.0 -28.0 -70.0 -683.0 66.0
Water deficit / surplus
(mm) at storage 200
mm
-202.0 -154.0 -93.0 -37.0 -1.0 -53.0 -13.0 -25.0 34.0 47.0 -19.0 -64.0 -580.0 71.0
Rainfall/ETc 0.05 0.23 0.61 0.93 1.33 0.84 1.21 1.15 1.72 1.88 1.18 0.74
5. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.4, No.16, 2014
27
Table 4: Crop Evapotranspiration and Water Availability for Oil Palm in theDifferent Regions in Peninsular
Malaysia
Stations Crop Evapotranspiration Water Availability (%)
(mm year -1
) at Soil Water Storage
75 mm 200 mm
Alor Star 2003 66 71
Ipoh 1765 93 100
Subang 1748 100 100
Malacca (coastal) 1998 72 77
Malacca (non-coastal) 1835 76 82
Kluang 1663 89 96
Senai 1583 98 100
Kuantan (coastal) 1848 85 92
Kuantan (non-coastal) 1683 91 99
Kuala Krai 1630 75 83
The crop evapotranspiration of mature oil palm has a range from 1, 583 to 2, 003 mm year -1
. The highest crop
evapotranspiration is observed for areas around Alor Star and the lowest is for areas around Senai. The water
availability for oil palm in the different regions follows similar trends as the crop evapotranspiration rates. The
results showed that the water availability is less on soils with lower water storage when compared to soils with
higher water storage capacity (Table 4).
Crop-Water Requirement of Oil Palm
The crop coefficient (Kc) of mature oil palm is estimated to be 1.0 and PETD is also equivalent to the crop
evapotranspiration for oil palm. The consumptive use of water by mature oil palm calculated by different
methods of determining potential evapotranspiration and crop evapotranspiration are as shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Consumptive Use of Water by Oil Palm in Different Regions in Peninsular Malaysia
Crop Evapotranspiration (mm year -1
)
Stations DID D PM
Alor Star 1555 2003 1647
Ipoh 1445 1765 1383
Subang 1481 1748 1352
Malacca (coastal) 1463 1998 1351
Malacca (non-coastal) 1463 1835 1351
Kluang 1386 1663 1336
Senai 1354 1583 1164
Kuantan (coastal) 1430 1848 1387
Kuantan (non-coastal) 1430 1683 1387
Kuala Krai 1373 1630 1244
DID – Drainage and Irrigation Department (1977), D - Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977), PM - Penman-Monteith
(Smith, 1991)
The consumptive use of water by mature oil palm is 1430 mm at Kuantan and 1463 at Malacca when estimated
by method of Drainage and Irrigation Department (1977) while that estimated by the method of Doorembos and
Pruitt (1977) is 1683 mm at Kuantan and 1835mm at Malacca considering the non-coastal areas.
Brunig (1970) reported that the mean annual evapotranspiration from tall mixed dipterocarp of 45 m calculated
by the Thornthwaite method was 1, 728 mm. Brunig (1970) considered that the evapotranspiration for tall trees
with irregular surface was at least 1, 700 mm and could be near 2, 000 mm year -1
.
Scarf (1976) in the study of forest evapotranspiration in several places in Peninsular Malaysia reported that the
actual evapotranspiration at Charok Padang (Perak) was 1, 773mm, Lenggong (Perak) 1, 715 mm, Tanjung
Rambutan (Perak) 1, 794 mm and Air Hitam, Bahau (Negeri Sembilan) was 1, 682 mm.
Lemon (1963) reported that there is an increase of roughness with the height of the plants. At higher elevations,
the retardation of wind by surface friction is lower. Decon (1969) reported that wind speeds are reduced by 50%
at a height of 0.5 m and by 25% at a height of 5 m. Larger volumes of roughness and wind speeds result in a
larger evaporation of tall trees like oil palm. The larger values of the crop evapotranspiration for mature oil palm
as calculated by the method of Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) provided a good estimation of the actual
evapotranspiration for oil palm.
It is concluded, therefore that the crop evapotranspiration values estimated by the method of Doorenbos and
Pruitt (1977) gives a fair estimation of the actual evapotranspiration of mature oil palm while the method of
Drainage and Irrigation Department (1977) and Penman-Monteith (Smith, 1991) probably underestimated the
6. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.4, No.16, 2014
28
values. The method of Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) has therefore been adopted to estimate the crop
evapotranspiration for mature oil palm.
Conclusion
Potential evapotranspiration constitutes an important part in the estimation of crop water requirement. Three
methods were used to calculate potential evapotranspiration and climatic data from eight meteorological stations
in Peninsular Malaysia were used in the study. It is therefore recommended the method of Doorenbos and Pruitt
(1977) to be used for estimating potential evapotranspiration and crop evapotranspiration and the method of Sys
et al. (1991) is recommended to determine water availability for oil palm.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Universiti Malaysia Terengganu for giving permission to publish this paper.
References
Brunig, C. 1970. Evaporation from tall mixed dipterocarp forest. Pages 67-78 in J. G. Lockwood ed., World
Climatology. Edward Arnold, London, United Kingdom.
Doorenbos, J. and Pruitt, W. O. (1977). Crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 24. (FAO,
Rome, Italy).
Drainage and Irrigation Department. (1977). Estimating potential evapotranspiration using the Penman
procedures. Report No.17. (Ministry of Agric. Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia).
Lemon, E. R. (1963). Energy and water balance of plant communities. Pages 124-132, ed., Environmental
control of plant growth. Acad. Press, New York, United States of America.
Penman, H. L. (1948). Natural evaporation from open water, bare soil and grass. Roy. Soc. London A193: 120-
146.
Scarf, F. (1976). Evaporation in Peninsular Malaysia. Water Resources Publication No.5. (Drainage and
Irrigation Department, Ministry of Agriculture Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia).
Smith, M. (1991). Report on the expert consultation on procedures for revision of FAO guidelines for prediction
of crop water requirements. (FAO Land and Water Dev. Div., Rome, Italy).
Soong, N. K. (1979). Moisture characteristics of soils in Peninsular Malaysia. Paper presented at Symposium
Water in Agric., April 1979, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Sys, C., Van Ranst, E. and Debaveye, J. (1991). Land evaluation part 1. Inter. Train. Centre for Post-Grad. Soil
Scientist. State Univ. Ghent, Ghent, Belgium. 274 pp.
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